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17 - Ju4715 - SPP - Review of Series Compensation - Final - 2.1 PDF
17 - Ju4715 - SPP - Review of Series Compensation - Final - 2.1 PDF
FINAL
Prepared by
John Miller
Marc Brunet-Watson
Jed Leighfield
PSC North America
For
PSC reference
JU4715
Date
Revision Table
Revision
1
2
2.1
Issue Date
Description
3/21/2014
4/16/2014
5/09/2014
Reviewers
Name
Andrew Robbie
Brad Railing
Interest
Principal Engineer
Principal Engineer
Date
3/17/2014
4/14/2014
Approval
Name
Marc Brunet-Watson
Position
Power Networks Manager
Date
5/09/2014
Page 2 of 65
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.2
2.3
3.2
Sub-synchronous Interaction.............................................................. 16
3.2.1 Fundamentals of Series Compensation and SSI ........................... 17
3.2.2 Classic SSR-TI and SSR-TA......................................................... 18
3.2.3 Induction Generator Effect (IGE)................................................... 19
3.2.4 SSCI Considerations for Wind Generation .................................... 20
3.3
3.4
4.2
4.3
4.4
Page 3 of 65
4.6
5.2
General ................................................................................................. 35
5.3
5.4
5.5
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Page 4 of 65
7.2
Steady state data for analyzing the active and reactive power flows and
voltage profiles in the system ............................................................. 60
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
Page 5 of 65
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 - Power transfer equation
Figure 2-2 - Pmax with all lines in service
Figure 2-3 - Equal Area Criterion for a simple system
Figure 2-4 - Self-regulation of series compensation 500 kV line, 300 miles long
Figure 2-5 Effect of increasing compensation levels 500 kV line, 300 miles long
Figure 2-6 - FSC main circuit components
Figure 2-7 - TCSC primary circuit components
Figure 3-1 - Generator turbine lumped mass model
Figure 3-2 - System electrical damping vs. torsional frequency (w/torsional modes) Source
[4]
Figure 4-1 - Passive filter in parallel with series capacitor
Figure 4-2 - Primary components of a TCSC
Figure 4-3 - TCSC impedance characteristic with SVR. Source: [2]
Figure 4-4 - DFIG Basic One-Line (Type-3)
Figure 5-1 - MOV protected series capacitor
Figure 5-2 - Voltage profile for a line side fault near a series capacitor (Forward Fault)
Figure 5-3 - Voltage profile for an adjacent line side fault near a series capacitor (Reverse
Fault)
Figure 5-4 - Example of current reversal condition in a SC line
Figure 5-5 - Impedance protection on a mid-point SC line
Figure 5-6 - Transmission line with remote line end SC
Figure 5-7 - Distance relay overreach due to sub-synchronous transient signals
Figure 5-8 - Zone 1 distance relay on SC line (solid) and adjacent line (dotted)
Figure 5-9 Main and back-up proctection schemes for line end and mid-line SC Source:
[33]
Figure 6-1 - Midline compensation at 33% and 66% of line length
Figure 6-2 - Mid-line compensation at 50% of line length
Figure 6-3 Line voltage profile for mid-line series compensation
Figure 6-4 - Line end compensation, bus side shunt reactors
Figure 6-5 - Line end compensation, line side shunt reactors
Figure 6-6 Line voltage profile for line-end series compensation
Page 6 of 65
1 Introduction
The High Priority Incremental Load Study (HPILS) was initiated in 2013 to develop a
long range plan that identified system reinforcements required in the Southwest Power
Pool (SPP) footprint in order to accommodate the unprecedented load growth that had
not been identified by previous planning studies. This rapid expansion of load was
brought about by an increase in the development of oil and gas fields, the firming of
previously interruptible loads and an increase in the forecast expansion of major
industrial loads.
As part of the HPILS process, initial screening of options by SPP staff suggested that
50% series compensation (SC) should be considered on the existing Tolk - Eddy
Country 345kV line as part of a potential EHV solution set to address the reliability needs
associated with large load additions in southeast New Mexico and west Texas. Due to
the fact that the proposed solution would introduce the first series compensated line in
the SPP footprint, significant concerns and uncertainties were expressed about the
merits and implications of adding SC to existing or planned EHV lines in SPP.
Series compensation has been in use in electrical networks worldwide since the 1950s.
It is a tried and true technology that continues to grow in popularity as an effective
means of resolving a number of network issues such as:
The first two points are further discussed in Sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 whereas the
remainder are beyond the scope of this paper.
By addressing the above issues with less capital intensive solutions such as series
compensation, the capacity of existing transmission lines can be increased thereby
allowing for the deferral of major transmission line investments and the optimization of
total build out. This permits better management of risk through the preservation of right
of ways and corridors for future needs using an option that requires minimal permitting
and siting requirements. Overall asset utilization increases and losses are lowered.
Series compensation improves system reliability while minimizing the impact on rate
payers.
The various sub synchronous interactions between the network and the series capacitor
are well known phenomena and there are a variety of ways available to counter-act
them. The literature on the topic is extensive and the techniques are well documented
and their relative merits are discussed at length.
Page 7 of 65
Page 8 of 65
XL
VR
XC
sin =
sin
(1 )
From this, we see that when there are no changes to system impedance, the maximum
power that can be transferred occurs when the phase angle between the two ends
reaches 90o as demonstrated in Figure 2-2.
P=
PMAX
INCREASING COMPENSATION
(K = 50%)
VR VS
sin()
XL (1-K)
PMAX
(K = 0%)
MAX = 90
=
=
(1 )
Page 9 of 65
The effect of adding series compensation is shown in Figure 2-2 where for a same angle
MAX, the theoretical maximum power transfer, PMAX, doubles when compensation level,
K, reaches 50%. Analogously, for a given power flow (say PMAX when K=0%), rotor
angle separation goes from 90o with no compensation to a much smaller value when
compensation is increased.
As faults occur and branch elements are switched out of service, the resulting changes
in network impedance cause imbalances between the electrical and mechanical torques
at play in the generator and an oscillatory behavior, best characterized by the swing
equation:
2
=
Pmec
Pelec
VR
FAULT
Pelec
Pmec
A1
CL
MAX
Page 10 of 65
turbine remains constant1 and the sudden drop in electrical power results in an
imbalance causing the rotor to speed up. The angle between rotor field and network
field increases and the generators operating point moves along P for the duration of the
fault until the angle reaches CL at which time the lines protective relays clear the fault
by disconnecting the line. Once the fault has been cleared, the generator changes its
operating point by moving up to the graph of P after the fault is cleared. Since the
impedance of the single line is double the impedance of the two lines in parallel, this
curve has a smaller amplitude than the initial but greater than during the fault. Electrical
power is now greater than mechanical power produced by the turbine and the rotor
begins to decelerate until eventually coming to rest where the electrical power is equal to
the mechanical power of the turbine.
The area identified as A1 in Figure 2-3 corresponds to the acceleration energy absorbed
by the rotor during the fault. The area A2 corresponds to the decelerating energy that
the rotor can return to the network to return to a stable operating point.
The Equal Area Criterion states that the generator will return to a stable operating point
if A2 A1. This is equivalent to saying that the decelerating energy available to the rotor
is at least equal to the accelerating energy absorbed during the fault.
The relative sizes of A1 and A2 are determined by:
The before and after impedances that determine the amplitude of the power
relationship.
In the time frames where protective devices operate (~ 50 200 ms), governor action is
negligible and the turbine output can be said to remain constant.
2 Voltage regulation of a line generally refers to the tendency of the voltage at the receiving end to
vary for given changes in flow.
PSC North America Power Networks
Page 11 of 65
Figure 2-4 - Self-regulation of series compensation 500 kV line, 300 miles long
As compensation levels, K, increase the reactive output of the series capacitor increases
and the voltage regulation across the line is improved as shown in Figure 2-5.
VR / VS
1.1
1.0
NOMINAL
VOLTAGE
RANGE
0.9
Figure 2-5 Effect of increasing compensation levels 500 kV line, 300 miles long
The range of power transfer for which the voltage stays within the normal range
increases as the level of compensation increases. It must be noted that the Critical
Voltage, the point at which voltage will collapse for any increase in transfer, also
increases considerably as compensation levels increases. Post contingent voltages in
compensated systems must be verified to ensure that a voltage collapse scenario has
not been introduced along with the series compensation. This is particularly true for
PSC North America Power Networks
Page 12 of 65
situations where unplanned outages result in unusually high flows across compensated
lines.
A zinc oxide varistor (MOV) with highly non-linear characteristics that conducts
negligible current during normal operation and conducts freely once the voltage
across it reaches the protection level thereby bypassing the capacitor bank. The
MOV is built up of individual MOV blocks placed in series to obtain the desired
voltage protection level and in parallel to be to absorb the desired energy during
faults. If the fault is cleared without the ratings of the MOV being exceeded, the
MOV will stop conducting once the voltage across it drops below the protection level
and the capacitor will return to normal operating conditions.
A fast protective device (FPD) that can be triggered for certain fault conditions such
as faults on compensated line segments or for extreme faults when the energy
absorbed by the MOV exceeds rated values. Fast protective devices have typically
consisted of triggered air gaps although new technologies are being introduced that
use arc-plasma injectors in parallel with a fast contact to avoid the difficulty of
correctly distancing and maintaining the electrodes in the air gap.
The bypass breaker is normally in the open position and can be used to switch the series
capacitor in or out during planned operations. It also serves to bypass the series
capacitor, MOV and FPD if the fault is not cleared within a pre-determined time. It must
be able to carry the rated MOV voltage as well as the maximum capacitor discharge
current. Bypass breakers are specially designed and rated to withstand the higher
transient frequency and interrupting currents when bypassing a series capacitor. Bypass
breakers are normally SF6 puffer type with controls at ground level.
A damping circuit - usually an air core reactor - is placed in series with the FPD and the
by-pass breaker to limit and dampen capacitor discharge currents when the FPD triggers
or the bypass breaker is closed.
Page 13 of 65
Series Capacitor
MOV
Damping
Reactor
FPD
Bypass Swit ch
Page 14 of 65
Series Capacitor
Series Capacitor
MOV
Reactor
Damping
Reactor
Thyristors
MOV
FPD
Damping
Reactor
Bypass Swit ch
FPD
Bypass Swit ch
Page 15 of 65
Page 16 of 65
f =
Page 17 of 65
fn = fo
where fo is the fundamental frequency of the system (60 Hz in the United States).
Consequently, since XC will always be less than XL for a series compensated network,
the natural frequencies will be less than the 60 Hz fundamental frequency. As the
amount of series compensation is increased, the natural system frequency approaches
the fundamental frequency.
Mode 0 is typically 1-2 Hz, all masses move together, typically used in generator
models for transient simulation programs such as PSS/E using a single, lumped
inertia (H).
Page 18 of 65
Modes 1-3 involve oscillations between the masses; the more masses that
participate in a mode, the lower the frequency. Typically, these modes will all be
below the fundamental 60 Hz frequency.[23]
Only the torsional modes of oscillation that involve a participation with the generator are
of concern with regard to SSI.
3.2.2.2 Generator Electro-Mechanical Energy Exchange
In a sub-synchronous resonance condition, exchange of energy takes place in an
oscillatory form. In the case of SSR-TI, this exchange of energy and torsional interaction
occurs between the turbine-generator electro-mechanical system and the electric power
network. As discussed in Section 4.4.1, the natural frequency (f n) of stator side currents
is transformed into the rotor windings at a fundamental complement frequency (60 f n).
Energy can readily transfer between the electrical system and the mechanical system at
this sub-synchronous frequency (60 - fn). If (60 - fn) is at or near one of the generator
mechanical torsional modes (fm), this condition can potentially destabilize the mechanical
torsional mode if there is insufficient mechanical dampening to overcome the developed
electro-magnetic torque. As the rotor oscillates at the sub-synchronous torsional mode,
voltage is induced into the stator, which sustains the sub-synchronous torque. This
combined electro-magnetic-mechanical system is then said to be self-excited.
This is the classic SSR-TI phenomenon that has historically been a concern for highpower steam generators. A generator that is connected electrically-close to a highly
series-compensated transmission network can be at considerable risk for un-damped
sub-synchronous oscillations. The risk is highest when a generator is radially connected
compensated transmission line, however, risk also exists for generators in a more
interconnected and meshed network that contains series compensation, although to a
lesser degree.
The fundamentals behind SSR-TA are the same as described above for SSR-TI; they
both involve the oscillatory exchange in energy between the electrical network and the
electro-mechanical characteristics of a generator. SSR-TA occurs when subsynchronous transients following major network disturbances have a frequency near the
fundamental complement of a generator mechanical mode. SSR-TA conditions can lead
to generator shaft oscillations with high amplitude and prolonged duration. Even though
these oscillations may be positively damped, generator shaft segments can be subject to
increased stress, and accelerated loss of life due to SSR-TA. As with SSR-TI,
generators that are connected radially, or near radially to a series compensation
transmission line are more at risk for adverse impacts from SSR-TA.
Page 19 of 65
Page 20 of 65
Because of the non-linear nature of the converter and controls of Type-3 and Type-4
wind generators, special care must be taken in their modeling for SSI assessment. This
is further emphasized in Sections 3.3 and 7.
Page 21 of 65
Outage of any near-by HVDC, SVC or other power electronic based devices that
may influence system damping.
Low and high generation output levels. This can be influential in the SSI
evaluation associated with large scale turbo-generators and wind generation.
Depending on the nature of the system under study, the above variable system
conditions can escalate to hundreds if not thousands of combinations to be evaluated.
However, SSI issues typically manifest only when generation plant (e.g. wind generators
or conventional generators), are part of a network that becomes radial or nearly radial
with a series capacitor installation. These situations are generally the most critical ones.
The sections below provide screening techniques that can be employed to make the
evaluation process more manageable and practical.
Page 22 of 65
Figure 3-2 - System electrical damping vs. torsional frequency (w/torsional modes)
Source [4]
For SSI screening associated with wind generation (i.e., Type 3 and Type 4), [12]
suggests the frequency scans should be performed separately for the electrical network
and the generator. The scans should be performed from the point of interconnection
(POI) looking out into the network, and looking back into the generator independently.
Since the wind generators with active power electronic devices are highly non-linear, the
frequency scan method used on the generator must take this factor into account. The
use of a white noise excitation technique is suggested in [12] for the turbine side
frequency scan. System resonance points and negative damping indicators can be
deduced from the pair of frequency scans to assess the possibility of SSR and SSCI.
Page 23 of 65
For classic SSR TI, the generator mechanical system must be modeled along with the
generator electrical representation. [34] For the study of SSCI, the wind turbine converter
and control system must also be represented in detail.
This method is more complex and computationally intensive as it requires more detailed
system models and a separate linear model must be established for each network
configuration to be analyzed.
Page 24 of 65
The effectiveness of any mitigation measures (see Section 4) designed with regard to
SSI can also be evaluated through detailed time-domain analysis.
The combination of network topology that provides the most risk of SSI is determined
from the frequency scans. Interpretation of the frequency scans will show worst case
conditions through the identification of significant apparent dips in the apparent
reactance, negative values of resistance, and negative values of resistance coincident
with zero crossings of reactance. From the screening analysis, the system conditions
and range of sub-synchronous frequencies of concern can be identified for detailed SSI
studies. [12][35]
For the detailed SSI studies, ERCOT will provide the appropriate base PSCAD model
and list of contingencies that should be studied. ERCOT has set the proximity criteria
limit to N-5 from the POI for the detailed SSI studies [35]. The developer is required to
introduce a detailed representation of the generator in the PSCAD model. For a wind
farm, this can be an appropriately aggregated representation. The developer is
responsible for performing the detailed SSI analysis using PSCAD or equivalent, and for
providing results to ERCOT for review and approval.
PSC North America Power Networks
Page 25 of 65
There are several measures that can be applied to mitigate the potential for SSI and
protect equipment from exposure or damage from SSI. The measures can be classified
as follows:
Mitigation Measures (or Countermeasure) Preventative measures implemented if
the risk of SSI is probable for credible system configurations.
Protection Measures Measures implemented to protect equipment due to the
detection of an SSO conditions. These can be applied as a back-up to mitigation
Page 26 of 65
measures. Protection may be the only measure implemented if SSI is only likely as a
result of contingencies beyond the credible set.
Furthermore, the mitigation and/or protective measures may be sub-classified as:
Network-based measures applied in the network. For example, an SSI
damping scheme installed at the series capacitor would be a Network-based
Mitigation Measure. This can also be designated as an outside-the-fence
measure as it would be applied on the network beyond the generator
developer/owners asset boundary.
Generator-based measures applied at the generator or at the generator POI.
For example, a torsional relay installed on a generator would be a Generatorbased Protection Measure. This can also be considered an inside the fence
measure.
The subsequent sections present various forms of SSI mitigation and protection
measures, and based on our findings, summarize some of the basic pros and cons of
each. Focus is on those measures that have been applied in the industry, however,
some others that appear more commonly in literature are described, even though we
were not always able to confirm an actual application.
Page 27 of 65
The addition of a 60-Hz blocking filter in parallel with series capacitor is one means of
series passive filtering. The primary components of such a passive blocking filter is
shown in Figure 4-1 below. The filter would block 60-Hz currents while effectively bypassing the capacitor for lower frequency currents.
This would be a fairly expensive option as the ratings of the elements would have to be
high due to short circuit exposure, and protections (MOV) would likely be required to
control the voltage across the capacitive elements of the blocking filter.
Series Capacitor
I line
XC
Ic
I filter
XCF
XLF
Passive Filter
Page 28 of 65
Iline
Iloop
XL
THYRISTOR
CONTROL
Page 29 of 65
As illustrated in Figure 4-3, a TCSC can include control methods which make the
apparent impedance of the TCSC reactive in the sub-synchronous frequency range.
Consequently, the TCSC can be very effective in mitigating the potential for SSI. At the
same time, the scheme presents a capacitive reactance that can be controlled around
the fundamental frequency.
A TCSC includes several additional components as compared to a fixed series
capacitor, including a control system, water cooled thyristors, and an appropriately rated
series reactor. Consequently, the initial capital cost and ongoing maintenance costs
must be factored into the decision to use a TCSC solution. A fixed series capacitor can
be designed and constructed such that conversion to a TCSC can more efficiently
accomplished in the future.
TCSC have been installed in many locations around the world, and studies and
performance show the risk of SSI can be mitigated through a specially designed control
scheme. [2]
Harmonic currents will be generated by a TCSC, however, the harmonics substantially
remain within the loop formed by the capacitor and reactor and only low levels flow out to
the transmission network.
While the application of a TCSC provides effective and proven SSI mitigation, this
approach would present a relatively high capital investment and O&M requirement that
must be considered.
4.3.4.2 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
A UPFC is another type of FACTS device that can be applied to actively mitigate the risk
of SSI. As an UPFC provides a combination of shunt and series dynamically controlled
compensation to a transmission system, studies have shown that a UPFC with
supplemental control logic can introduce positive electrical damping at sub-synchronous
frequencies. [32]
Reference [21b] provides a comparison of SSR damping performance between a TCSC
and a UPFC on an IEEE SSR Benchmark Case. The presented results show the UPFC
can be supplemented with control to provide positive electrical damping for SSR
mitigation with wind turbines, and performance is somewhat better than the TCSC that
was simulated.
More research is required to determine if a UPFC has been specifically designed and
applied in the field to mitigate SSI. In general, the application of a UPFC would present a
relatively high capital investment and O&M requirement as compared to other mitigation
solutions.
Page 30 of 65
entering the generator stator to effectively mitigate the potential for SSR-TI and SSR-TA.
The design is independent of the current and future network conditions. Reference [13]
states that this form of passive filter protection was installed at the Navajo Generation
Station in Arizona in 1976.
Component ratings, de-tuning impacts, and maintenance considerations would need to
be considered to optimize the appropriate design.
Page 31 of 65
condition. [47] Consequently, care must be taken to properly include the representation
of existing PSS in any SSI evaluation.
Our research findings indicate that SEDC has been successfully applied together with
TSR protection on the Shangdu steam turbine-generation plant in China [15], however,
more research is recommended to determine if this SSI countermeasure has been
successfully applied in the US. In general, it appears that SEDC may be practical to
increase positive electrical damping of SSI when applied in conjunction with other
mitigation measures such a specifically designed FACT device or when the risk of SSI is
marginal.
A TO
R
IS
AC
NETWORK
ROTOR
XTG
IG
IR
RSC
GSC
Page 32 of 65
Signal Input
Comments
Torsional
Motion (Stress)
Relay
Shaft Speed
S. California
Edison patent
Terminal
voltage
ABB Research
Ltd. patent
Generator
terminal
voltage
ERLPhase
Power
Technologies
Generator
terminal
voltage and
currents
Page 33 of 65
Relay
Application
Innovation
Armature
current
The torsional stress relay (TSR) appears to be the most widely applied measure to
protect generators from the potential of SSI due to the proximity of HVDC converters or
series compensated lines.
The input to a TSR is shaft speed measured by magnetic pickups at toothed wheels
installed on the turbine and generator end of the shaft. The shaft speed measurements
are evaluated for indications of torsional oscillations at the critical mechanical
frequencies of interest. A TSR relay can have programmable settings for the critical
frequencies and magnitude/duration of oscillations to issue actions such as a warning,
alarm or trip. Some TSR relays have a built in event and signal recorder to aid in fault
tracing. In addition to shaft speed, a TSR would need electrical inputs to be effective for
protection of IGE or SSCI since these forms of SSI do not involve the mechanical
aspects of the generator and cant be detected from shaft speed.
A generator outage would be required to install and commission a TSR and there is
always risk of mis-operation of a TSR that could result in an undesired generator outage.
Information of generator stress versus cycles to failure is required to properly set the
relays.
Our research indicates that TSR relays have been applied on several generating units,
primarily to protect against the possible occurrence of SSTI since the late 1970s.
However, detailed performance information and operations and maintenance experience
with TSR relays was not found to be readily available.
In response to the recent SSCI phenomenon, relay manufactures have proposed and
developed new SSI protection based on high speed signal measuring, advanced
filtering, and fast processing with micro-processor based relays using electrical quantity
inputs. Oscillations in an SSCI event can develop very rapidly which imposes the
requirement for a very fast detection scheme. [20] The filtering and signal processing for
the older generation of SSI relays introduce a long time delay which makes these relays
less reliable or even ineffective for SSCI protection.
Page 34 of 65
[10]
[11]
[22]
[26]
[43]
Additional subject references are indicated in square brackets throughout the section
with the complete paper reference list presented in Section 8
5.2 General
Series compensation may be installed in the middle of a transmission line or at one or
both ends. In general, there are more protective relay complexities when the series
capacitor is installed at the line end(s). Of course, if series compensation is initially
installed in the middle of a transmission line the addition of a new substation within the
line may increase the protection complexities - therefore it is important to understand the
line end issues as will be highlighted in this section.
The addition of series compensation within a transmission line presents complexities
with regards to the relay protection of the line itself, and in many cases the relay
protection of adjacent and parallel lines. These complexities will be a function of:
system configuration,
other factors.
The application of series compensation first occurred in the 1950s in the US, and the
use of series compensation is becoming more prevalent, so fortunately there is sufficient
industry experience and knowledge available with regard to associated protection issues
and solutions. If the complexities are well understood, relay protection systems can be
reliably designed, tested and applied, especially through the use of modern relay
technologies. [43]
Page 35 of 65
This section begins by describing the unique system protection issues associated with
the introduction of transmission line series compensation. It then describes the
advanced relays and schemes that can be applied to address the issues described.
Lastly, case examples which present philosophies and experience with the protection of
series compensated transmission lines from three utilities are summarized.
Series Capacitor
MOV
Bypass Switch
Page 36 of 65
Bus B and Bus REMOTE, where voltage inversion will occur across the series capacitor;
VB is 180 degrees out of phase from VC. For this particular voltage inversion condition
to occur the Xc impedance conditions listed must hold true. If the line has impedance (or
distance) protection, then if the relay uses Bus B for the voltage input, the relay would
sense the fault as a reverse fault rather than an actual forward fault, and may fail to
operate. However if point C was used as the voltage input then the forward fault would
be correctly detected. As shown, the voltage at Bus B is reversed and remains reversed
as you move toward the source until you reach Point A. If a new bus were to be added in
this segment in the future, voltage reversal would be a concern at this bus as well as at
Bus B.
kXL2
SO URCE
XS
XL1
B
A
VS
XC
REMOTE
XR
XL2
VC
XC > kXL2
VR
VA
VF
VB
Figure 5-2 - Voltage profile for a line side fault near a series capacitor (Forward
Fault)
Figure 5-3 shows a voltage profile for a fault on a line behind a series compensated
transmission line. For the impedance conditions listed, the voltages on either side of the
capacitor will again be 180 degrees out of phase. If an impedance relay protecting the
series compensated line at Bus B uses the line side voltage (Point C), under this
condition the voltage will reverse and the apparent impedance will indicate a forward
fault rather than an actual reverse fault, and mis-operation may result. Conversely, if the
Bus B voltage was used then the relay would correctly register the fault in the reverse
direction.
gXL2
SO URCE
XS
REMOTE
B
XL1
XC
XR
XL2
VB
VS
VR
VF
XC > gXL1
XC < XR + XL2 + gXL1
VC
Figure 5-3 - Voltage profile for an adjacent line side fault near a series capacitor
(Reverse Fault)
Page 37 of 65
The simple voltage inversion examples presented above are based on three phase
faults and positive sequence impedance. Similar voltage reversal conditions can affect
the directional discrimination of both negative and zero sequence relays. Refer to
Reference [10] for supporting explanation and examples.
When the impedance on one side of the line fault is inductive and the other side of a line
fault is capacitive a current inversion can occur. This condition is illustrated in Figure 5-4.
As shown the current from one end of the line is 180 degrees out of phase from the
current of the other side of the series compensated line. This current inversion condition
is opposite of the condition that defines an internal fault on an uncompensated line as
one appears as an in-feed and the other as an out-feed.
There are also system conditions that may result in the current being indeterminate at
one end during an internal fault. The same current reversal issues can occur with the
negative and zero sequence currents if Xc is larger than the negative sequence source
impedance or zero sequence source impedance, respectively. [10]
SOURCE
XS
REMOTE
XC
XR
XL
IS
IR
VR
XC > XS
IS
IR
VS
Page 38 of 65
-jXC
Page 39 of 65
XL
XC
FAULT
Page 40 of 65
compensated line itself. This is particularly true for line end applications of series
compensation. Distance relays on adjacent lines can be influenced by the negative
reactance characteristic of the series capacitor. [10]
The dotted circle in Figure 5-8 below depicts a Zone 1 relay on an adjacent line to a local
end series compensated transmission line. As shown as standard distance relay would
incorrectly operate for line faults on the series compensated line that are close-in to the
capacitor.
X
B
B
A
-jXC
Figure 5-8 - Zone 1 distance relay on SC line (solid) and adjacent line (dotted)
If the adjacent lines are short and the line reactance is less than the capacitor reactance,
the concern gets extended to the remote bus as well as the local bus of the adjacent
line; two or more line sections away. [3]
Page 41 of 65
line; rather the series capacitor is switched separately but in coordination with the
transmission line switching sequence. [33]
Definitions used in this Section 5.3.6 include:
SPT/SPR Single-pole tripping and single-pole reclosing
3PT/3PR Three-pole tripping and three-pole reclosing
5.3.6.1 Series Capacitor Switching
When designing the automatic reclosing philosophy and practice for a series
compensated transmission line, consideration should be made for whether the capacitor
is to be switched as part of the transmission line, or if the capacitor will be separately
switched. In the latter case, the capacitor switching must be carefully coordinated with
the transmission line protections and switching. Benefits associated with separately
switching the series capacitor include:
1. Minimizing transmission line circuit breaker transient recovery voltage (TRV) duty
requirements,
2. Reducing the series capacitor MOV capacity requirements,
3. Mitigating dc current component in transmission line shunt reactors,
4. Mitigating low-frequency transients and the possibility of SSR-TA with nearby
generators during reclosing,
5. Reducing the secondary short circuit arc by increasing the network impedance
during reclose dead time (for SPT/SPR schemes only). [22]
If by-passing the series capacitor is required to keep the TRV duty within the rating of the
transmission line circuit breakers, the by-pass operation would need to occur prior to the
line breakers opening.
The series capacitor switching logic and coordination can be accomplished by using
local current and voltage signals. Zero sequence mutual coupling from unbalanced
faults on parallel lines should be analyzed to prevent undesired operation of the series
capacitor switching logic. Alternatively, signals can be communicated from the
transmission line terminals to properly operate and time the series capacitor by-pass and
re-insertion. The speed and reliability of the communication channels needs to be
factored into the design. [22]
The benefits listed in this Section apply to the switching of series capacitors during line
energization as well as to automatic reclosing.
5.3.6.2 Three-phase Automatic Reclosing (3PT/3PR)
Coordination of 3PT/3PR is more straightforward than using single-pole reclosing on a
series compensated transmission line. If it is decided to implement only 3PT/3PR on a
series compensated line, both the line protection switching, and capacitor protection and
switching should be done on the three-phase basis. The reclosing scheme should be
carefully tested using an EMT-type simulation program to assess breaker duties,
transient effects, dependability and security of local and adjacent line relaying, and
coordination with any series capacitor protections and enabled switching schemes.
Page 42 of 65
Page 43 of 65
In series compensated networks, the duration of the polarization memory should be set
for proper relay pickup with consideration of the series capacitor MOV protection
response, and the slowest fault clearing time. [10]
5.4.1.2 Special Series Compensation Logic
Over the many years of developing and testing protection systems for series
compensated lines, special logic has been incorporated to improve overreach in Zone 1
of distance relays. Through the proper setting of the special logic, the relay can detect
when a fault is beyond the series capacitor and block the operation to prevent
overreach. If the fault is between the relay and the series capacitor, the relay will
correctly operate. This is accomplished through the comparison of a measured voltage
with a calculated voltage by the relay. The special logic requires the capacitive
reactance to be specified as part of the setting, with the appropriate sign based on the
value measured by the relay. With the relay logic and careful setting, correct directional
sensing will be accomplished regardless of the location of the voltage transformer in
relation to the series capacitor. The zone 1 reach is set based on the uncompensated
transmission line impedance. [10]
5.4.1.3 Sequence Component Impedance for Directional Discrimination
Relays that use negative or zero sequence component inputs provide superior
directional discrimination for single-phase faults. When analyzing the apparent
impedance with negative sequence quantities for example, there is generally sufficient
margin in the calculated apparent impedance between forward and reverse fault
conditions and the sign of the apparent impedance is opposite depending on the faults
direction. Proper settings in these relays provide correct directional discrimination even
with the possibility of voltage reversal. [10][26]
Page 44 of 65
Page 45 of 65
recommended to ensure a secure and dependable relay protection design. A steadystate short circuit program will not reflect transients due to series compensation.
Detailed electromagnetic transient simulation is required to produce the subsynchronous transients that will be associated with series compensation in the network
and determine impacts to the relay system performance. Other important modeling
requirements include detailed representation of:
The non-linear MOV characteristics for the series capacitor protection and
reinsertion control
Relay performance
Various system conditions should be analyzed with a combination of fault location and
fault types. It is important to apply ground faults with low and high resistance as this
may influence the operation the series capacitor protection, which in turn, can impact the
relay system response. Variation of the fault inception angle is also recommended to
produce different dc transients and different levels of sub-synchronous frequency
transients. [10][18]
The use of an RTDS program will go one step further in the performance verification as
actual relays can be connected directly to the simulator.
Zone 1 overreach
Voltage inversion
Current inversion
Page 46 of 65
The paper focuses on capacitor switching issues during line faults and routine line
energization.
Issues magnified by the addition of series compensation in the BC Hydro system
include:
Protection Scheme
BC Hydro uses identical primary and standby systems with minor setting differences
(dual primary systems). They claim this arrangement provides the benefit of increased
security and lower costs.
Permissive overreaching transfer trip (POTT) with echo logic is used on all 500 kV
transmission lines. Residual and negative-sequence directional overcurrent elements
are used as part of the POTT. Phase-segregated direct transfer trip (DTT) is also
applied to improve selectivity and lower operating time for certain single-phase faults.
Time-overcurrent ground relays are used for backup ground fault protection.
The paper presents their approach for setting the negative-sequence directional
overcurrent element to minimize the chance for mis-operation based on lessons learned
from actual studies and application. The suggested approach is to:
Set considering the minimum Z2 source for forward and reverse faults, as well as
the line Z2 and setting the elements to half of this total impedance. This method
is recommended when the system impedances are dissimilar at each line
terminal. An appendix in the reference paper discusses the pros and cons to this
approach over the method recommended by the rely manufacturer for BC
Hydros applications.
Page 47 of 65
signals from the series capacitor back to the terminal relays to block sensitive elements
during switching.
Series Capacitor Switching
BC Hydro uses what they claim is a unique switching practice for their series
compensated transmission lines. Rather than switching the transmission line and
associated series capacitor as a single element, BC Hydro uses the practice of
separately switching the capacitor when the line is tripped, and then reinserting the
series capacitor after the line is successfully reclosed. For SPT/SPR operations, only
the effected phase of the series capacitor is switched out/in to maximize the power
transfer through the healthy series compensated phases. The capacitor switching takes
place 6 cycles after the line (or phase) is tripped and is reinserted 10 cycles after the line
(or phase) is successfully re-closed.
Protection Scheme Testing and Verification
The BC Hydro paper emphasizes the importance of detailed transient testing for
protective relaying applications through the use of real-time digital simulation that
incorporates the actual micro-processor based relay algorithms. BC Hydro recommends
that the following be included in the simulation model:
Page 48 of 65
Figure 5-9 Main and back-up proctection schemes for line end and mid-line SC
Source: [33]
Relay Protection Challenges
Voltage reversal issues were addressed primarily through the use of polarized or
memorized voltage based directional elements. Current reversal was not observed due
to the level and location of series compensation together with series capacitor MOV
protections.
Protection Schemes
Relay selection and main protection philosophies were developed and implemented
based on extensive real-time simulation testing on HQTs Transients Network Analyzer
(TNA).
Figure 5-9 above shows the Main 1, Main 2 and backup protection arrangements used
to protect HQTs series compensated lines. As shown, different schemes are used
based on the location of the series capacitor on the line (i.e., middle or end).
Page 49 of 65
The Main 1 and Main 2 schemes are communications dependent whereas the backup
scheme does not rely on communications between the line terminals. The integrity of
the communications channel(s) is very important for the Mains schemes and as such
digital fiber-optic based communications are rapidly replacing analog communications in
the HQT system for high-capacity performance and speed.
The backup protection uses an impedance based measurement relay. The modified
impedance relay incorporates a lens characteristic to avoid sensitivity to load and power
swings. Based on careful selection and testing, the backup impedance relays proved
reliable and secure for transient and dynamic effects associated with series
compensation.
Automatic Reclosing
HQT utilizes three-phase automatic reclosing for single phase fault detection/clearing on
their EHV series compensated transmission lines. The paper did not note any specific
issues related to automatic reclosing of series compensated line.
Testing and Verification
HQT indicates that transient simulator testing using a real-time TNA was the most
effective method to test and verify various relay protection devices and schemes. This
method provides for the following complex issues to be effectively analyzed:
Weak in-feed.
Harmonic and sub-harmonic transient effects.
Low frequency current oscillations.
Zero sequence mutual coupling between parallel lines.
Voltage and current reversal conditions.
Shunt reactor and line reclosing switching operations/logic.
Series capacitor control and protection systems.
Varying fault incidence angles.
CT and CVT characteristics.
High resistive faults, evolving faults, and reclosing on a permanent fault.
Page 50 of 65
PG&E uses the following main and backup schemes. Sets A, B and C rely on
communication channels. The backup Set D does not use communications between the
terminals.
Relaying Challenges
The series capacitors introduce the possibility of overreach and undesired operation of
Zone 1 distance relays. The options that PG&E considered to mitigate this issue
included:
Introduce a Zone 1 time delay this was not recommended
Further reduce Zone 1 reach and verify though RTDS testing
Enable SC logic in to block Zone 1 for fault beyond a series capacitor located in
front of the relay
The presentation demonstrates that Zone 1 overreach can occur for faults on adjacent
series compensated lines as well as on a directly protected series compensated line.
The use of advanced relays with series compensation logic and memory polarization
mitigates the possibility of mis-operation due to voltage inversion and overreach.
Automatic Reclosing
The PG&E presentation indicates that both single phase and three phase automatic
reclosing is utilized on the series compensated transmission lines.
Testing and Verification
The presentation strongly advises the use of a RTDS platform with direct connection of
the relays to test and verify relay protection performance. See Section 5.4.3 of this
paper.
Page 51 of 65
The location of series compensation affects the voltage profile along the
transmission line;
Page 52 of 65
Voltage varies smoothly along the transmission line and undergoes a step
change at the capacitor;
The amplitude of the voltage variation across series capacitors increases with the
level of compensation of the line (the size of the capacitor) and the current
flowing through the capacitor;
For highly loaded lines (above impedance loading), the voltage profile is concave
upwards3;
Lightly loaded lines (below surge impedance loading) are concave downwards4;
Lines loaded to surge impedance loading will generally show a linear voltage
profile along the length of the transmission line;
The voltage variation across a series capacitor is always in the direction that
improves the voltage profile whatever the loading level;
6.2.1 Mid-Line
This can either consist of a single capacitor bank located halfway along the transmission
line or two installations each located one-third of the length between the two line ends.
Multiple installations may be required when the insulation coordination plan for existing
lines do not allow for the relatively high voltages just prior to the series capacitor. Midline stations are unattended.
XL
XC
XL
2
XC
XL
2
XL
XL
XC
3
4
Concave upwards refers to situations where the tangent to the curve lies below it.
Concave downwards refers to situations where the tangent to the curve lies above it.
PSC North America Power Networks
Page 53 of 65
1.10
1.00
0.90
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
1.00
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
1.10
1.00
0.90
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.00
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.20
Heavy Loading
(2 x SIL)
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
1.10
0.90
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.20
300
1.20
1.10
0.90
1.00
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.20
Surge Impedance
Loading (SIL)
1.10
0.90
300
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.20
1.20
Light Loading
( x SIL)
Mid-Line, 50%
1.10
1.00
0.90
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
Figure 6-3 Line voltage profile for mid-line series compensation. Source [11]
PSC North America Power Networks
Page 54 of 65
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Future expansion:
XC
XL
2
XC
XC
XL
2
XC
Page 55 of 65
1.10
1.00
0.90
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
1.10
1.00
0.90
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
1.10
1.00
0.90
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.00
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.20
Heavy Loading
(2 x SIL)
300
1.10
0.90
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.20
1.00
1.20
Surge Impedance
Loading (SIL)
1.10
0.90
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.20
K=30%
K=50%
K=70%
1.20
1.20
Light Loading
( x SIL)
1.10
1.00
0.90
300
150
Distance from Receiving End (miles)
Figure 6-6 Line voltage profile for line-end series compensation. Source [11]
PSC North America Power Networks
Page 56 of 65
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Further expansion:
Further compensation can be added at cut in points if flows are greatly increased.
The addition of a bus between modules increases flexibility for future connections
allowing for the future connection of a circuit to a generator, load or substation in
a tee-off arrangement;
Additional modules could consist of TCSC units allowing for control of dynamic
stability issues that could arise in the future; and
Allows for conditions where high levels of compensation and high currents result
in voltage variations across the banks that exceed standard equipment
specifications.
At a minimum, one platform is required per phase and generally each module will be
built on its own platforms. However, in instances where it is virtually certain that the
ultimate compensation levels will be achieved it may be economically viable to build a
larger platform from the outset and add additional modules to the same platform.
Provision would need to be made for allowing switching and control equipment to be
accessible at ground level.
The modules can be connected directly or to a common bus. Connecting directly will
reduce capital costs but limit flexibility for future expansion and reconfiguration.
Page 57 of 65
The principal disadvantage to modularity is the increased capital cost per ohm of
compensation.
Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) requires power electronics which will
have additional maintenance requirements. These power electronics are the same that
have operated reliably in HVDC converters, SVCs, and medium voltage motor drives for
Page 58 of 65
Split of the series capacitor blocks onto separate energized platforms, per phase.
50% series compensation could be split into two 25% blocks to increase overall
availability and power transfer capability with consideration of scheduled and
forced outage rates for each block.
Page 59 of 65
7.2 Steady state data for analyzing the active and reactive power
flows and voltage profiles in the system
The series capacitor can be modelled simply as a negative reactance connected in
series with the transmission line. Note that when conducting the study either Newton or
Modified Gauss-Seidel solution techniques must be used as the traditional GaussSeidel solution technique cannot handle series capacitors.
Short circuit data for analyzing the fault currents flowing in the system as well as the
series capacitor for various system configurations during internal and external faults. The
through fault current is needed to identify the required ratings for the series capacitor.
The model representation of the series capacitor during the short circuit will change
depending on whether the bypass spark gap has triggered or the bypass varistors are
conducting a significant amount of current. This depends on how the fault type and
location affects the voltage across the bypass devices. For faults external to the series
capacitor several iterations of short circuit calculations may be required to determine the
bypass path representation for any given fault location and type, so a range of values for
positive, negative, and zero sequence information may be appropriate for an accurate
representation in a short circuit study. An EMT analysis can be used to determine an
equivalent impedance for the bypass path, to be used in the PSS/E short circuit analysis
but would only be valid for a particular fault location and system configuration. If only the
worst case extremes of fault current magnitude (ignoring fault current phase, which is
important for relay settings) are required then for external faults:
The highest fault currents (at the point of fault) would be obtained with the bypass
circuit open, so the positive and zero sequence impedance of the series
capacitor itself is sufficient information for sequence components of the model,
and;
The lowest fault currents (at the point of fault) would be obtained with the series
capacitor bypassed completely. In this case no information is required the
series capacitor can be modelled as a zero impedance branch.
Page 60 of 65
ii) 2-phase
iii) 2-phase-ground
Page 61 of 65
iv) 3-phase
b) Different fault locations
i)
Within capacitor
Page 62 of 65
8 References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
Page 63 of 65
[21] Gusmn, Mooney, Benmouyal and Fischer. (2001). Transmission Line Protection
System for Increasing Power System Requirements. 20020401: Schweitzer
Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
[21b] Hosseini and Tousi. (2012). Mitigating of Sub-synchronous Resonance in a Series
Compensated Hybrid System with Steam and Wind Turbine Using FACTS
Controllers. Majlesi Journal of Electrical Engineering. Vol. 6. No. 3
[22] IEEE. (2007). IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Application to Transmission-Line
Series Capacitor Banks, IEEE Power Engineer Society Power Systems Relaying
Committee, Std C37:116-2007
[22b] IEEE. (1992). Readers Guide to Subsynchronous Resonance. Transactions on
Power Systems, Vol. 7, No. 1, 0885-8950/92: IEEE
[23] Irwin. (2010). Sub-Synchronous Interactions with Wind Turbines, CREZ
Presentation 2010
[24] Jianbo, Gesong, Jiming, Baiquing and Weizhou. (2005). Chengxian 220kV
Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation: Parameters Design, Control &
Overvoltage Protection, IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference,
Asia and Pacific, Dalian China, 0-7803-9114-4: IEEE
[25] Karawita. (2012). Analysis of Sub-synchronous Frequency Interactions in Power
Systems Using TGSSR. IEEE PES Winnipeg Section Luncheon Meeting. TGS
Presentation.
[26] Kasztenny. (2001). Distance Protection of Series-compensated Lines: Problems
and Solutions. GER-3998: GE Power Management
[27] Larsen. (2012). Wind Power On Series-Compensated Lines. IEEE PES General
Meeting, San Diego, CA. Presentation by GE Energy Consulting
[28] Leonidaki, Hatziargyiou, Papadias and Geoargantzis. (1998). Investigation of
Power System Harmonics and SSR Phenomena related to Thyristor Controlled
Series Capacitors. 8th International Conference on Harmonic and Quality of
Power (ICHQP), Athens Greece, 0-7803-5105-3: IEEE
[29] Nekoubin. (2011). Simulation of Series Compensated Transmission Lines
Protected with MOV. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology,
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[30] NERC. (2011). Lessons Learned SSI between Series Compensated
Transmission Lines and Generation. LL_45_SSSI: NERC
[31] Ma, Brogan, Jensen and Nelson. (2012) Sub-Synchronous Control Interaction
Studies between Full-Converter Wind Turbines and Series-Compensated AC
Transmission Lines. IEEE PES General Meeting, San Diego, CA. Presentation by
Siemens Wind Turbines
[32] Padiyar and Prabhu. Investigation of SSR characteristics of UPFC. Department of
Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
[33] Plumptree, Nagpal, Chen and Thompson. (2009). Protection of EHV Transmisison
Lines With Series Compensation: BC Hydros Lessons Learned. 978-1-42444183: IEEE
[34] Rajaraman and Dobson. (1996). Damping estimates of subsynchronous and
power swing oscillations in power systems with thyristor switching devices. Vol.
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[35] Sahni, Badrzadeh, Muthumuni, Cheng, Yin, Huang and Zhou. (2012). Subsynchronous Interaction in Wind Power Plants Part II: An ERCOT Case Study.
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