Soil and Foundations PDF

CHAPTER3
SOILSANDFOUNDATIONS
3.1
INTRODUCTION
TheSoilsandFoundationschapterofthecodeisdividedintothefollowingthreemajorparts:
PartA:
GeneralRequirements,MaterialsandFoundationTypes
PartB:
ServiceLoadDesignMethodofFoundations
PartC:
AdditionalConsiderationsinPlanning,DesignandConstructionofBuildingFoundations.
PartA(GeneralRequirements,MaterialsandFoundationTypes)consistsofthefollowingsections:
Scope
Terminology
SiteInvestigations
Identification,ClassificationandDescriptionofSoils
GeotechnicalInvestigationreport
Materials
TypesofFoundation
PartB(ServiceLoadDesignMethodofFoundations)hasthesectionsasunder:
ShallowFoundations
GeotechnicalDesignofshallowFoundations
GeotechnicalDesignofshallowFoundations
FieldTestsforDrivenPilesandDrilledShafts
Part C (Additional Considerations in Planning, Design and Construction of Building Foundations) deals with the
followingsections:
Excavation
Dewatering
SlopeStabilityofAdjoiningBuildings
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Fills
RetainingWallsforFoundations
WaterproofingandDampproofing
FoundationonSlopes
FoundationsonFillandProblematicSoils
FoundationDesignforDynamicForces
GeohazardsforBuildings
PARTA:GENERALREQUIREMENTS,MATERIALSANDFOUNDATIONTYPES(Sections3.2
to3.8)
3.2
SCOPE
The provisions of this chapter shall be applicable to the design and construction of foundations of buildings and
structures for the safe support of dead and superimposed loads without exceeding the allowable bearing stresses,
permissiblesettlementsanddesigncapability.
3.3
TERMINOLOGY
Forthetermsusedinthischapter,thefollowingdefinitionsshallapply.
ALLOWABLE LOAD: The maximum load that may be safely applied to a foundation unit, considering both the
strengthandsettlementofthesoil,underexpectedloadingandsoilconditions.
DESIGNLOAD:Theexpectedunfactoredloadtoafoundationunit.
GROSSPRESSURE:Thetotalpressureatthebaseofafootingduetotheweightofthesuperstructureand
theoriginaloverburdenpressure.
NETPRESSURE:Thegrosspressureminusthesurchargepressurei.e.theoverburdenpressureofthesoilat
thefoundationlevel.
SERVICELOAD:Theexpectedunfactoredloadtoafoundationunit.
BEARING CAPACITY: The general term used to describe the load carrying capacity of foundation soil or rock in
termsofaveragepressurethatenablesittobearandtransmitloadsfromastructure.
BEARING SURFACE: The contact surface between a foundation unit and the soil or rock upon which the
foundationrests.
DESIGNBEARINGCAPACITY:Themaximumnetaveragepressureappliedtoasoilorrockbyafoundation
unitthatthefoundationsoilorrockwillsafelycarrywithouttheriskofbothshearfailureandpermissible
settlement. Itis equal to the least of the two values of net allowable bearing capacity and safe bearing
pressure.ThismayalsobecalledALLOWABLEBEARINGPRESSURE.
GROSSALLOWABLEBEARINGPRESSURE:Themaximumgrossaveragepressureofloadingthatthesoilcan
safely carry with a factor of safety considering risk of shear failure. This may be calculated by dividing
grossultimatebearingcapacitywithafactorofsafety.
GROSS ULTIMATE BEARINGCAPACITY: The maximum average gross pressure of loading at the base of a
foundationwhichinitiatesshearfailureofthesupportingsoil
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ALLOWABLEBEARINGCAPACITY:Themaximumnetaveragepressureofloadingthatthesoilwillsafelycarry
withafactorofsafetyconsideringriskofshearfailureandthesettlementoffoundation.Thisistheminimum
ofsafebearingcapacityandsafebearingpressure.
NETULTIMATEBEARINGCAPACITY:Theaveragenetincreaseofpressureatthebaseofafoundationdueto
loadingwhichinitiatesshearfailureofthesupportingsoil.Itisequaltothegrossultimatebearingcapacity
minustheoverburdenpressure.
PRESUMPTIVE BEARING CAPACITY: The net approximate pressure prescribed as appropriate for the
particulartypeofgroundtobeusedinpreliminarydesignsoffoundations
SAFEBEARINGCAPACITY:Themaximumaveragepressureofloadingthatthesoilwillsafelycarrywithoutthe
riskofshearfailure.Thismaybecalculatedbydividingnetultimatebearingcapacitywithafactorofsafety.
SAFEBEARINGPRESSURE:Themaximumaveragepressureofloadingthatthesoilwillsafelycarrywithout
theriskofpermissiblesettlement.
CAISSON: A deep foundation unit, relatively large section, sunk down (not driven) to the ground. This is also
calledWELLFOUNDATION.
CLAYMINERAL:Asmallgroupofminerals,commonlyknownasclayminerals,essentiallycomposedofhydrous
aluminiumsilicateswithmagnesiumorironreplacingwhollyorinpartsomeofthealuminium.
CLAYSOIL:Anaturalaggregateofmicroscopicandsubmicroscopicmineralgrainsthatareproduct ofchemical
decompositionanddisintegrationofrockconstituents.Itisplasticinmoderatetowiderangeofwatercontents.
DOWNDRAG: The transfer of load (drag load) to a deep foundation, when soil settles in relation to the
foundation.ThisisalsoknownasNEGATIVESKINFRICTION.
DRILLED PIER/DRILLED SHAFT:Adeep foundationgenerally of largediameter shaft usually morethan 600mm
andconstructedbydrillingandexcavatingintothesoil.
EFFECTIVESTRESS/ EFFECTIVE PRESSURE: The pressure transmittedthrough grainto grain at the contact point
throughasoilmassistermedaseffectivestressoreffectivepressure.
ENDBEARING:Theloadbeingtransmittedtothetoeofadeepfoundationandresistedbythebearingcapacityof
thesoilbeneaththetoe.
EXCAVATION:Thespacecreatedbytheremovalofsoilorrockforthepurposeofconstruction.
FACTOROFSAFETY:Theratiooftheultimatecapacitytothedesign(working)capacityofthefoundationunit.
FILL:Manmadedepositsofnaturalearthmaterials(soil,rock)and/orwastematerials.
FOOTING:Afoundationconstructedofmasonry,concreteorothermaterialunderthebaseofawalloroneor
morecolumnsforthepurposeofspreadingtheloadoveralargerareaatshallowerdepthofgroundsurface.
FOUNDATION: Lower part of the structure which is in direct contact with the soil and transmits loads to the
ground.
DEEPFOUNDATION:Afoundationunitthatprovidessupportforastructuretransferringloadsbyendbearing
and/orbyshaftresistanceatconsiderabledepthbelowtheground.Generally,thedepthisatleastfivetimes
theleastdimensionofthefoundation.
SHALLOWFOUNDATION:Afoundationunitthatprovidessupportforastructuretransferringloadsatasmall
depthbelowtheground.Generally,thedepthislessthantwotimestheleastdimensionofthefoundation.
FOUNDATION ENGINEER: A graduate Engineer with at least five years of experience in civil engineering
particularlyinfoundationdesignorconstruction.
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GEOTECHNICALENGINEER:EngineerwithMastersdegreeingeotechnicalengineeringhavingatleastthreeyears
ofexperienceingeotechnicaldesignorconstruction.
GROUND WATER LEVEL/ GROUND WATER TABLE: The level of water at which porewater pressure is equal to
atmosphericpressure.Itisthetopsurfaceofafreebodyofwater(peizometricwaterlevel)intheground.
MATFOUNDATION:SeeRAFT.
NEGATIVESKINFRICTION:SeeDOWNDRAG.
OVERCONSOLIDATIONRATIO(OCR):Theratioofthepreconsolidationpressure(maximumpastpressure)tothe
existingeffectiveoverburdenpressureofthesoil.
PILE:A slenderdeep foundationunit made of materialssuch as steel, concrete, wood, or combination thereof
thattransmitstheloadtothegroundbyskinfriction,endbearingandlateralsoilresistance.
BATTERPILE:Thepilewhichisinstalledatanangletotheverticalinordertocarrylateralloadsalongwith
theverticalloads.ThisisalsoknownasRAKERPILE.
BOREDPILE/CASTINSITUPILE/REPLACEMENTPILE:Apileformedintoapreformedholeofground,usuallyof
reinforcedconcretehavingadiametersmallerthan600mm.
DRIVEN PILE/DISPLACEMENT PILE: A plie foundation premanufactured and placed in ground by driving,
jacking,jettingorscrewing.
LATERALLYLOADEDPILE:Apilethatisinstalledverticallytocarrymainlythelateralloads.
PILECAP:Apilecapisaspecialfootingneededtotransmitthecolumnloadtoagrouporclusterofpiles.
PILEHEAD/PILETOP:Theuppersmalllengthofapile.
PILESHOE:Aseparatereinforcementorsteelformattachedtothebottomend(piletoe)ofapiletofacilitate
driving,toprotectthepiletoe,and/ortoimprovethetoeresistanceofthepile.
PILETOE/PILETIP:Thebottomendofapile.
SCREWPILE/AUGURPILE:Apremanufacturedpileconsistingofsteelhelicalbladesandashaftplacedinto
groundbyscrewing.
POREWATERPRESSURE:Thepressureinducedinthewaterorvapourandwaterfillingtheporesofsoil.Thisis
alsoknownasneutralstress.
RAFT:Arelativelylargespreadfoundationsupportinganarrangementofcolumnsorwallsinaregularorirregular
layout transmitting the loads to the soil by means of a continuous slab and/or beams, with or without
depressionsoropenings.ThisisalsoknownasMATFOUNDATION.
RAKERPILE:SeeBATTERPILE.
ROCK: A natural aggregate of one or more minerals that are connected by strong and permanent cohesive
forces.
ROTATION:Itistheanglebetweenthehorizontalandanytwofoundationsortwopointsinasinglefoundation.
RELATIVEROTATION/ANGULARDISTORTION:Anglebetweenthehorizontalandanytwofoundationsortwo
pointsinasinglefoundation.
TILT:Rotationoftheentiresuperstructureoratleastawelldefinedpartofit.
SETTLEMENT:Thedownwardverticalmovementoffoundationunderload.Whensettlementoccursoveralarge
area,itissometimescalledsubsidence.
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CONSOLIDATIONSETTLEMENT:Atimedependentsettlementresultingfromgradualreductionofvolumeof
saturated soils because of squeezing out of water from the pores due to increase in effective stress and
hence pore water pressure. It is also known as primary consolidation settlement. It is thus a time related
processinvolvingcompression,stresstransferandwaterdrainage.
DIFFERENTIALSETTEMENT:Thedifferenceinthetotalsettlementsbetweentwofoundationsortwopoints
inthesamefoundation.
ELASTIC/DISTORTION SETTLEMENT: It is attributed due to lateral spreading or elastic deformation of dry,
moistorsaturatedsoilwithoutachangeinthewatercontentandvolume.
IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT: This vertical compression occurs immediately after the application of loading
either on account of elastic behaviour that produces distortion at constant volume and on account of
compressionofairvoid.Forsands,eventheconsolidationcomponentisimmediate.
SECONDARY CONSOLDATION SETTLEMENT: This is the settlement speculated to be due to the plastic
deformation of the soil as a result of some complex colloidalchemical processes or creep under imposed
longtermloading.
TOTALSETTLEMENT:Thetotaldownwardverticaldisplacementofafoundationbaseunderloadfromitsas
constructedposition.Itisthesummationofimmediatesettlement,consolidationsettlementandsecondary
consolidationsettlementofthesoil.
SHAFTRESISTANCE:Theresistancemobilizedontheshaft(side)ofadeepfoundation.Upwardresistanceiscalled
positiveshaftresistance.Downwardforceontheshaftiscallednegativeshaftresistance.
SOIL:Alooseorsoftdepositofparticlesofmineraland/ororganicoriginthatcanbeseparatedbysuchgentle
mechanicalmeansasagitationinwater.
COLLAPSIBLE SOIL: Consists predominant of sand and silt size particles arranged in a loose honeycomb
structure. These soils are dry and strong in their natural state and consolidate or collapse quickly if they
becomewet.
DISPERSIVESOIL:Soilsthatarestructurallyunstableanddisperseinwaterintobasicparticlesi.e.sand,silt
and clay. Dispersible soils tend to be highly erodible. Dispersive soils usually have a high Exchangeable
SodiumPercentage(ESP).
EXPANSIVESOIL:Theseareclaysoilsexpandwhentheybecomewettedandcontractwhendried.Theseare
formedofclaymineralslikemontmorilloniteandillite.
INORGANIC SOIL: Soil of mineral origin having small amount usually less than 5 percent of organic matter
content.
ORGANIC SOIL: Soil having appreciable/significant amount of organic matter content to influence the soil
properties.
PEATSOIL:Anorganicsoilwithhighorganiccontent,usuallymorethan75%byweight,composedprimarily
ofvegetabletissueinvariousstagesofdecompositionusuallywithanorganicodor,adarkbrowntoblack
color, a spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous. Fully decomposed organic
soilsareknownasMUCK.
SOILPARTICLESIZE:Thesizesofparticlesthatmakeupsoilvaryingoverawiderange.Soilparticlesaregenerally
gravel,sand,siltandclay,thoughthetermsboulderandcobblecanbeusedtodescribelargersizesofgravel.
BOULDER:Particlesofrockthatwillnotpassa12in.(300mm)squareopening.
Cobbles:Particlesofrockthatwillpassa12in.(300mm)squareopeningandberetainedona3in.(75mm)
sieve.
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Clay:Anaturalaggregateofmicroscopicandsubmicroscopicmineralgrainslessthan0.002mminsizeand
plasticinmoderatetowiderangeofwatercontents.
GRAVEL:Particlesofrockthatwillpassa3in.(75mm)sieveandberetainedonaNo.4(4.75mm)sieve.
SAND:Aggregatesofrounded,subrounded,angular,subangularorflatfragmentsofmoreorlessunaltered
rockormineralswhichislargerthan75mandsmallerthan4.75mminsize.
Silt:SoilpassingaNo.200(75m)sievethatisnonplasticorveryslightlyplasticandthatexhibitslittleorno
strengthwhenairdry.
3.4
SITEINVESTIGATIONS
3.4.1 SubSurfaceSurvey
Dependingonthetypeofprojectthoroughinvestigationshastobecarriedoutforidentification,location,alignment
anddepthofvariousutilities,e.g.,pipelines,cables,seweragelines,watermainsetc.belowthesurfaceoftheexisting
groundlevel.Detailedsurveymayalsobeconductedtoascertainthetopographyoftheexistingground.
3.4.2 SubSoilInvestigations
Subsoilinvestigationshallbedonedescribingthecharacter,nature,loadbearingcapacityandsettlementcapacityof
thesoilbeforeconstructinganewbuildingandstructureorforalterationofthefoundationofanexistingstructure.
Theaimsofageotechnicalinvestigationaretoestablishthesoil,rockandgroundwaterconditions,todeterminethe
properties of the soil and rock, and to gather additional relevant knowledge about the site. Careful collection,
recording and interpretation of geotechnical information shall be made. This information shall include ground
conditions,geology,geomorphology,seismicityandhydrology,asrelevant.Indicationsofthevariabilityoftheground
shallbetakenintoaccount.
An engineering geological study may be an important consideration to establish the physiographic setting and
stratigraphicsequencesofsoilstrataofthearea.Geologicalandagriculturalsoilmapsoftheareamaygivevaluable
informationofsiteconditions.
During the various phases of subsoil investigations, e.g. drilling of boreholes, field tests, sampling, groundwater
measurements,etc.acompetentgraduateengineerhavingexperiencesinsupervisingsubsoilexplorationworksshall
beemployedbythedrillingcontractor.
3.4.2.1 MethodsofExploration
Subsoil exploration process may be grouped into three types of activities such as: reconnaissance, exploration and
detailedinvestigations.Thereconnaissancemethodincludesgeophysicalmeasurements,soundingorprobing,while
exploratorymethodsinvolvevariousdrillingtechniques.Fieldinvestigationsshouldcomprise
(i) drillingand/orexcavations(testpitsincludingexploratoryboreholes)forsampling;
(ii) groundwatermeasurements;
(iii) fieldtests.
Examplesofthevarioustypesoffieldinvestigationsare:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
fieldtesting(e.g.CPT,SPT,dynamicprobing,WST, pressuremetertests,dilatometertests,plateload
tests,fieldvanetestsandpermeabilitytests);
soilsamplingfordescriptionofthesoilandlaboratorytests;
groundwatermeasurementstodeterminethegroundwatertableortheporepressureprofileandtheir
fluctuations
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(iv)
geophysical investigations(e.g. seismic profiling, ground penetratingradar, resistivity measurements
(v)
anddownholelogging);
largescaletests,forexampletodeterminethebearingcapacityorthebehaviourdirectlyonprototype
elements,suchasanchors.
Where groundcontaminationorsoilgasisexpected,informationshallbegatheredfromtherelevantsources. This

informationshallbetakenintoaccountwhenplanningthe groundinvestigation.Someofthe commonmethods of
exploration,methodsofsamplingandgroundwatermeasurementsinsoilsaredescribedinAppendix6.3.A.
3.4.2.2 NumberandLocationofInvestigationPoints
The locations of investigation points, eg., pits and boreholes shall be selected on the basis of the preliminary
investigations as a function of the geological conditions, the dimensions of the structure and the engineering
problemsinvolved.Whenselectingthelocationsofinvestigationpoints,thefollowingshouldbeobserved:
(i)
the investigation points should be arranged in such a pattern that the stratification can be
assessedacrossthesite;
(ii)
theinvestigationpointsforabuildingorstructureshouldbeplacedatcriticalpointsrelativetothe
shape, structural behaviour and expected load distribution (e.g. at the corners of the foundation
area);
(iii)
forlinearstructures,investigationpointsshouldbearrangedatadequateoffsetstothecentreline,
dependingontheoverallwidthofthestructure,suchasanembankmentfootprintoracutting;
(iv)
forstructuresonornearslopesandstepsintheterrain(includingexcavations),investigationpoints
should also be arranged outside the project area, these being located so that the stabilityof the
slopeorcutcanbeassessed.Whereanchoragesareinstalled,dueconsiderationshouldbegivento
thelikelystressesintheirloadtransferzone;
(v)
theinvestigationpointsshouldbearrangedsothattheydonotpresentahazardtothestructure,the
constructionwork,orthesurroundings(e.g.asaresultofthechangestheymaycausetotheground
andgroundwaterconditions);
(vi)
the area considered in the design investigations should extend into the neighbouring area to a
distancewherenoharmfulinfluenceontheneighbouringareaisexpected.
Where ground conditions are relatively uniform or the ground is known to have sufficient strength and stiffness
properties,widerspacingorfewerinvestigationpointsmaybeapplied.Ineithercase,thischoiceshouldbejustified
bylocalexperience.
Thelocationsandspacingofsounding,pitsandboreholesshallbesuchthatthesoilprofilesobtainedwillpermita
reasonably accurate estimate of the extent and character of the intervening soil or rock masses and will disclose
importantirregularitiesinsubsurfaceconditions.Forbuildingstructures,thefollowingguidelinesshallbefollowed:
(i)
For large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geological nature of the terrain will
helpindecidingthenumberofboreholesortrialpits.Thewholeareamaybedividedintogridpattern
withConePenetrationTests(seeAppendix6.3.B)performedatevery100mgridpoints.Thenumber
ofboreholes or trial pits shall be decided by examining the variation inpenetration curves. At least
67%oftherequirednumberofboringsortrialpitsshallbelocatedwithintheareaunderthebuilding.
(ii)
Incompactbuildingsitescoveringanareaof0.4hectare(43,000squarefeet),oneboreholeortrialpit
ineachcornerandoneincentreshallbeadequate.
(iii)
Forwidelyspacedbuildingscoveringanareaoflessthan90m2 (1000squarefeet)andaheightless
thanfourstoreys,atleastoneboreholeortrialpitinthecentreshallbedone.
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3.4.2.3
DepthofExploration
The depth of investigations shall be extended to all strata that will affect the project or are affected by the
construction.Thedepthofexplorationshalldependtosomeextentonthesiteandtypeoftheproposedstructure,
and on certain design considerations such as safety against foundation failure, excessive settlement, seepage and
earth pressure. Cognizance shall be taken of the character and sequence of the subsurface strata. The site
investigationshouldbecarriedtosuchadepththattheentirezoneofsoilorrockaffectedbythechangescausedby
thebuildingortheconstructionwillbeadequatelyexplored.Aruleofthumbusedforthispurposeistoextendthe
boringstoadepthwheretheadditionalloadresultingfromtheproposedbuildingislessthan10%oftheaverageload
of the structure, or less than 5% of the effective stress in the soil at that depth. Where the depth of investigation
cannot be related to background information, the following guide lines are suggested to determine the depth of
exploration:
(a) Wheresubstructure units will be supported onspread footings, the minimum depth boring should extend
belowtheanticipatedbearinglevelaminimumoftwofootingwidthsforisolated,individualfootingswhere
length two times width, and four footing widths for footings where length > five times width. For
intermediate footing lengths, the minimum depth of boring may be estimated by linear interpolation as a
functionoflengthbetweendepthsoftwotimeswidthandfivetimeswidthbelowthebearinglevel.Greater
depthmayberequiredwherewarrantedbylocalconditions.
(b) Formoreheavilyloadedstructures,suchasmultistoriedstructuresandforframedstructures,atleast50%of
theboringsshouldbeextendedtoadepthequalto1.5timesthewidthofthebuildingbelowthelowestpart
ofthefoundation.
(c) Normallythedepthofexplorationshallbeoneandahalftimestheestimatedwidthortheleastdimension
ofthefootingbelowthefoundationlevel.Ifthepressurebulbsforanumberofloadedareasoverlap,the
wholeareamaybeconsideredasloadedandexplorationshallbecarrieddowntooneandahalftimesthe
least dimension. In weak soils, the exploration shall be continued to a depth at which the loads can be
carriedbythestratuminquestionwithoutundesirablesettlementorshearfailure.
(d) Where substructure units will be supported on deep foundations, the depth boring should extend a
minimumof6mbelowtheanticipatedpileofshafttipelevation.Wherepileorshaftgroupswillbeused,
the boring should extend at least two times the maximum pile or shaft group dimension below the
anticipatedtipelevation,unlessthefoundationwillbeendbearingonorinrock.
(e) Forpiles bearingonrock,a minimumof1.5mofrockcoreshould be obtainedateach boringlocationto
ensuretheboringhasnotbeenterminatedinaboulder.
(f) Forshaftssupportedonorextendingintorock,aminimumof1.5mofrockcore,oralengthofrockcore
equaltoatleastthreetimestheshaftdiameterforisolatedshaftsortwotimesthemaximumshaftgroup
dimensionforashaftgroup,whicheverisgreater,shouldbeobtainedtoensurethattheboringhadnotbeen
terminated in a boulder and to determine the physical properties of rock within the zone of foundation
influencefordesign.
(g) The depth, to which weathering process affects the deposit, shall be regarded as the minimum depth of
explorationforasite.However,innocaseshallthisdepthbelessthan2m,butwhereindustrialprocesses
affectthesoilcharacteristics,thisdepthmaybemore.
(h) Itisgoodpracticetohaveatleastoneboringcarriedtobedrock,ortowellbelowtheanticipatedlevelof
influenceofthebuilding.Bedrockshouldbeprovedbycoringintoittoaminimumdepthof3m.
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3.4.2.4
Chapter3
SoundingandPenetrationTests
Subsurface soundings are used for exploring soil strata of an erratic nature. They are useful to determine the
presenceofanysoftpocketsbetweendrillholesandalsotodeterminethedensityindexofcohesionlesssoilsandthe
consistency of cohesive soils at desired depths. A field test called Vane Shear Test may be used to determine the
shearingstrengthofthesoillocatedatadepthbelowtheground.
Penetrationtestsconsistofdrivingor pushingastandardsamplingtubeora cone.Thedevicesarealsotermed as
penetrometers,sincetheypenetratethesubsoilwithaviewtomeasuringtheresistancetopenetratethesoilstrata.
Ifasamplingtubeisusedtopenetratethesoil,thetestisreferredtoasStandardPenetrationTest(orsimplySPT).Ifa
cone is used, the test is called a Cone Penetration Test. If the penetrometer is pushed steadily into the soil, the
procedureisknownasStaticPenetrationTest.Ifdrivenintothesoil,itisknownasDynamicPenetrationTest.Details
ofsoundingandpenetrationstestsarepresentedinAPPENDIX6.3.A.
3.4.2.5
GeotechnicalInvestigationReport
The results of a geotechnical investigationshall be compiled in the Geotechnical Investigation Reportwhichshall

formapartoftheGeotechnicalDesignReport.TheGeotechnicalInvestigationReportshallconsistofthefollowing:
(i)
(ii)
apresentationofallappropriategeotechnicalinformationonfieldandlaboratorytestsincluding
geologicalfeaturesandrelevantdata;
a geotechnical evaluation of the information, stating the assumptions made in the
interpretationofthetestresults.
TheGeotechnicalInvestigationReportshallstateknownlimitationsoftheresults,ifappropriate.TheGeotechnical
InvestigationReportshouldproposenecessaryfurtherfieldandlaboratoryinvestigations,withcommentsjustifying
the need for this further work. Such proposals should be accompanied by a detailed programme for the further
investigationstobecarriedout.
The presentation of geotechnical information shall include a factual account of all field and laboratory
investigations.Thefactualaccountshouldincludethefollowinginformation:
thepurposeandscopeofthegeotechnicalinvestigationincludingadescriptionofthesiteanditstopography,
oftheplannedstructureandthestageoftheplanningtheaccountisreferringto;
thenamesofallconsultantsandcontractors;
thedatesbetweenwhichfieldandlaboratoryinvestigationswereperformed;
thefieldreconnaissanceofthesiteoftheprojectandthesurroundingareanotingparticularly:
i) evidenceofgroundwater;
ii)behaviourofneighbouringstructures;
iii) exposuresinquarriesandborrowareas;
iv)areasofinstability;
v) difficultiesduringexcavation;
vi) historyofthesite;
vii)geologyofthesite,
viii)surveydatawithplansshowingthestructureandthelocationofallinvestigationpoints;
ix)localexperienceinthearea;
x) informationabouttheseismicityofthearea.
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The presentation of geotechnical information shall include documentation of the methods, procedures and
resultsincludingallrelevantreportsof:
deskstudies;
fieldinvestigations,suchassampling,fieldtestsandgroundwatermeasurements;
laboratorytests.
The results of the field and laboratoryinvestigations shall be presented and reported according to the
requirementsdefinedintheASTMorequivalentstandardsappliedintheinvestigations.
3.5
IDENTIFICATION,CLASSIFICATIONANDDESCRIPTIONOFSOILS
3.5.1 IdentificationofSoil
Samplesandtrialpitsshouldbeinspectedvisuallyandcomparedwithfieldlogsofthedrillingssothatthepreliminary
groundprofilecanbeestablished.Forsoilsamples,thevisualinspectionshouldbesupportedbysimplemanualtests
to identify the soil and to give a first impression of its consistency and mechanical behaviour. A standard visual
manualprocedureofdescribingandidentifyingsoilsmaybefollowed.
Soilclassificationtestsshouldbeperformedtodeterminethecompositionandindexpropertiesofeachstratum.Thesamplesfor
theclassificationtestsshouldbeselectedinsuchawaythatthetestsareapproximatelyequallydistributedoverthecomplete
areaandthefulldepthofthestratarelevantfordesign.
3.5.2 SoilClassification
3.5.2.1
ParticleSizeClassification
Dependingonparticlesizes,mainsoiltypesaregravel,sand,siltandclay.However,thelargergravelscanbefurther
classifiedascobbleandboulder.ThesoilparticlesizeshallbeclassifiedinaccordancewithTable6.3.1.
Table6.3.1:ParticleSizeRangesofSoils
ParticleSize
Range,mm
SoilType
3.5.2.2
RetainedonMesh
Size/SieveNo.
Boulder
Cobble
>300
12
30075
Gravel:
Coarse
7519
3/4
Medium
199.5
3/8
Fine
9.54.75
No.4
Sand:
Coarse
4.752.00
No.10
Medium
2.000.425
No.40
Fine
0.4250.075
No.200
Silt
0.0750.002
Clay
<0.002
EngineeringClassification
Soilsaredividedintothreemajorgroups,coarsegrained,finegrainedandhighlyorganic.Theclassificationisbased
onclassificationtestresultsnamelygrainsizeanalysisandconsistencytest.Thecoarsegrainedsoilsshallbeclassified
usingTable6.3.2.OutlinesoforganicandinorganicsoilseparationsarealsoprovidedinTable6.3.2.Thefinegrained
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soils shall be classified using the plasticity chart shown in Fig. 6.3.1. For details, reference can be made to ASTM
D2487.Inadditiontotheseclassifications,asoilshallbedescribedbyitscolour,particleangularity(forcoarsegrained
soils)andconsistency.Furthertotheaboveclassificationsoilsexhibitingswellingorcollapsingcharacteristicshallbe
recorded.
For undisturbed soils information on stratification, degree of compactness, cementation, moisture conditions and
drainagecharacteristicsshallbeincluded.
3.5.2.2.1IdentificationandClassificationofOrganicSoils
Thepresenceoforganicmattercanhaveundesirableeffectsontheengineeringbehaviourofsoil.Forexample,the
bearing capacity is reduced, the compressibility is increased, swelling and shrinkage potential is increased due to
organiccontent.Organiccontenttestsareusedtoclassifythesoil.Insoilwithlittleornoclayparticlesandcarbonate
content,theorganiccontentisoftendeterminedfromthelossonignitionatacontrolledtemperature.Othersuitable
tests can also be used. For example, organic content can be determined from the mass loss on treatment with
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which provides a more specific measure of organics. Organic deposits are due to
decompositionoforganicmattersandfoundusuallyintopsoilandmarshyplace.Asoildepositinorganicoriginissaid
topeatifitisatthehigherendoftheorganiccontentscale(75%ormore),organicsoilatthelowend,andmuckin
between. Peat soil is usually formed of fossilized plant minerals and characterized by fiber content and lower
decomposition. The peats have certain characteristics that set them apart from moist mineral soils and required
special considerations for construction over them. This special characteristic includes, extremely high natural
moisture content, high compressibility including significant secondary and even tertiary compression and very low
undrainedshearstrengthatnaturalmoisturecontent.
However, there are many other criteria existed to classify the organic deposits and it remains still as controversial
issuewithnumerousapproachesavailableforvaryingpurposeofclassification.Soilfromorganicdepositsanditrefers
to a distinct mode of behavior different than traditional soil mechanics in certain respects. A possible approach is
beingconsideredbytheAmericansocietyforTestingandMaterialsforclassifyingorganicsoilshavingvaryingamount
oforganicmattercontents.TheclassificationisgiveninTable6.3.3.
3.5.2.2.2IdentificationandClassificationofExpansiveSoils
Expansive soils are those which swell considerably on absorption of water and shrink on the removal of water. In
monsoonseasons,expansivesoilsimbibewater,becomesoftandswell.Indrierseasons,thesesoilsshrinkorreduce
in volume due to evaporation of water and become harder. As such, the seasonal moisture variation in such soil
depositsaroundandbeneaththestructureresultsintosubsequentupwardanddownwardmovementsofstructures
leading to structural damage, in the form of wide cracks in the wall and distortion of floors. For identification and
classification of expansive soils parameters like free swell, free swell index, linear shrinkage, swelling potential,
swellingpressureandvolumechangeshouldbeevaluatedexperimentallyorfromavailablegeotechnicalcorrelation.
3.5.2.2.2IdentificationandClassificationofCollapsibleSoils
Soildepositsmostlikelytocollapseare;(i)loosefills,(ii)alteredwindblownsands,(iii)hillwashoflooseconsistency,
and(iv)decomposedgraniteorotheracidigneousrocks.
Averysimpletestforrecognizingcollapsiblesoilisthesaugestest.Twoundisturbedcylindricalsamples(sausages)
ofthesamediameterandlength(volume)arecarvedfromthesoil.Onesampleisthenwettedandkneadedtoforma
cylinderoftheoriginaldiameter.Adecreaseinlengthascomparedtotheoriginal,undisturbedcylinderwillconfirma
collapsiblegrainstructure.Collapseisprobablewhenthenaturalvoidratio,eiishigherthanacriticalvoidratio,ec
thatdependsonvoidratioseLandepatliquidlimitandplasticlimitsrespectively.
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Table6.3.2: EngineeringClassificationofSoils(CriteriaforAssigningGroupSymbolsandGroupNamesusing
LaboratoryTestsA)
Classification(Forparticlessmaller
than75mmandbasedonestimated
weights)
Gravels
(Morethan
50%of
coarse
fraction
retainedon
No.4sieve
(4.75mm)
Coarse
grainedsoils
(Morethan50%
ofthematerial
retainedonNo.
200sieve(0.075
mm)
Sands
Clean
gravels
Group
Symbol
GroupName B
GW
Wellgradedgravels,sandy
gravels,sandgravelmixture,
D
littleornofines.
GP
Clayeygravels,siltyclayey
D,F,G
gravels..
>12
Clean
Sands
SW
Wellgradedsand,gravelly
H
sand,littleornofines.
SP
Poorlygradedsands,gravelly
H
sand,littleornofines.
SM
Siltysand,poorlygradedsand
F,G,H
siltmixtures.
Inorganic
wL50
Organic
Soilsofhighorganicorigin
ML
Siltoflowtomedium
compressibility,veryfine
sands,rockflour,siltwith
K,L,M
sand.
CL
Claysoflowtomedium
plasticity,gravellyclay,sandy
K,L,M
clay,siltyclay,leanclay.
IP<4orthe
limitvalues
below'A'lineof
plasticitychart
IP>7andthe
limitvalues
above'A'lineof
PlasticityChart
For4>IP>7
andlimit
values
above
'A'line,dual
symbol
required*
Cu6and
1Cz3C
<5
Cu<6and/or
1>Cz>3C
>12E
Clayeysand,sandclay
F,G,H
mixtures.
IP<4orthe
limitvalues
below'A'lineof
Plasticitychart
IP>7andthe
limitvalues
above'A'lineof
plasticitychart
For4>IP>7
andlimit
values
aboveA
line,dual
symbols
required.
Limitvaluesonorbelow'A'lineofplasticity
chart&IP<4
Limitvaluesabove'A'lineof
plasticitychartand/orIP>4
K,L,M,N
OL
Organicclay
and
K,L,M,O
Organicsilt
oflowtomediumplasticity
Silts&
Clays
1>Cz>3
GC
Organic
Cu<4and/or
Siltygravels,siltysandy
D,F,G
gravels.
Inorganic
Poorlygradedgravels,sandy
gravels,Sandgravelmixture,
D
littleornofines.
GM
Finegrained
wL<50
soils
(Over
50%ofthe
material
smallerthan
0.075mm)
Cu4and
1Cz3
Gravel
withfines
(over50%of
coarse
fraction
Sandswith
smallerthan
fines
4.75mm)
Silts&
Clays
<5
SC
LaboratoryClassification
Percent
OtherCriteria
finer than
0.075mm
Liquidlimit(ovendried)
Liquidlimit(undried) <0.75
Limitvaluesonorbelow'A'lineofplasticity
chart
MH
Siltofhighplasticity,
micaceousfinesandyorsilty
K,L,M
soil,elasticsilt.
CH
Highplasticclay,fatclay.
M
OH
Organicclayofhighplasticity.
K,L,M,P
Liquidlimit(ovendried)
Liquidlimit(undried) <0.75
PT
Peatandhighlyorganicsoils.
K,L,M,Q
Identifiedbycolour,odour,fibroustexture
andspongycharacteristics.
K,L,
Limitvaluesabove'A'lineof
plasticitychart
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NOTES:
A Based on the material passing the 3-in. (75-mm) sieve

B If field sample contained cobbles or boulders, or both, add with cobbles or boulders, or both to group name.
C Cu = D60/D10, CZ = (D30)2 / (D10 D60)
D If soil contains 15 % sand, add with sand to group name.
E Gravels with 5 to 12 % fines require dual symbols:
GW-GM well-graded gravel with silt
GW-GC well-graded gravel with clay
GP-GM
poorly graded gravel with silt
GP-GC
poorly graded gravel with clay
F If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual symbol GC-GM, or SC-SM.

G If fines are organic, add with organic fines to group name.
H If soil contains 15 % gravel, add with gravel to group name.
I Sands with 5 to 12 % fines require dual symbols:
SW-SM well-graded sand with silt
SW-SC well-graded sand with clay
SP-SM
poorly graded sand with silt
SP-SC
poorly graded sand with clay.
J If Atterberg limits plot in hatched area, soil is a CL-ML, silty clay.

K If soil contains 15 to 29 % plus No. 200, add with sand or with gravel, whichever is predominant.
L If soil contains 30 % plus No. 200, predominantly sand, add sand to group name.
M If soil contains 30 % plus No. 200, predominantly gravel, add gravelly to group name.
N PI 4 and plots on or above A line.
O PI < 4 or plots below A line.
P PI plots on or above A line.
Q PI plots below A line.
If desired, the percentages of gravel, sand, and fines may be stated in terms indicating a range of percentages, as follows:
Trace
Particles are present but estimated to be less than 5 %
Few
5 to 10 %
Little
15 to 25 %
Some
30 to 45 %
Mostly
50 to 100 %
Fig.6.3.1:PlasticityChart(basedonmaterialspassing425mSieve)
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Table6.3.3:ClassificationandDescriptionofOrganicSoils(afterEdil,1997)
OrganicContent
(TestMethod:ASTMD2974)
<5%
Description
Littleeffectonbehavior;consideredinorganicsoil.
6~20%
Effectspropertiesbutbehaviorisstilllikemineralsoils;organic
siltsandclays.
21~74%
Organicmattergovernsproperties;traditionalsoilmechanics
maybeapplicable;siltyorclayeyorganicsoils.
Displaysbehaviordistinctfromtraditionalsoilmechanics
especiallyatlowstress.
>75%
Thefollowingformulashouldbeusedtoestimatethecriticalvoidratio.
ec = 0.85 e L + 015 e P
(6.3.1)
Collapsiblesoils(withadegreeofsaturation,Sr0.6)shouldsatisfythefollowingcondition:
e L ei
0.10
1 + ei
(6.3.2)
Aconsolidationtestistobeperformedonanundisturbedspecimenatnaturalmoisturecontentandtorecordthe
thickness,Honconsolidationunderapressurepequaltooverburdenpressureplustheexternalpressurelikelyto
beexertedonthesoil.ThespecimenisthensubmergedunderthesamepressureandthefinalthicknessHrecorded.
Relativesubsidence,Isubsisfoundas:
I subs =
H H
H
(6.3.3)
SoilshavingIsubs0.02areconsideredtobecollapsible.
3.5.2.2.4IdentificationandClassificationofDispersiveSoils
Dispersivenatureofasoilisameasureoferosion.Dispersivesoilisduetothedispersedstructureofasoilmatrix.An
identificationofdispersivesoilscanbemadeonthebasisofpinholetest.
Thepinholetestwasdevelopedtodirectlymeasure dispersibilityof compactedfinegrainedsoilsinwhichwateris
madeto flow through a smallhole in a soil specimen, wherewater flow through the pinhole simulates waterflow
throughacrackorotherconcentratedleakagechannelintheimperviouscoreofadamorotherstructure.Thetestis
rununder50,180,380and1020mmheadsandthesoilisclassifiedasfollowsinTable6.3.4.
Table6.3.4:ClassificationofDispersiveSoilOntheBasisofPinholeTest(Sherardet.al.1976)
TestObservation
Failsrapidlyunder50mmhead.
Erodeslowlyunder50mmor180mmhead
Nocolloidalerosionunder380mmor1020mm
head
TypeofSoil
ClassofSoil
Dispersivesoils
D1andD2
Intermediatesoils
ND4andND3
Nondispersivesoils
ND2andND1
AnothermethodofidentificationistofirstdeterminethepHofa1:2.5soil/watersuspension.IfthepHisabove7.8,
thesoilmaycontainenoughsodiumtodispersethemass.Thendetermine:(i)totalexcahangablebases,thatis,K+,
Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ (milliequivalent per 100g of air dried soil) and (ii) cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soil
(milliequivalentper100gofairdriedsoil).TheExchangeableSodiumPercentageESPiscalculatedfromtherelation:
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ESP =
Chapter3
Na
100(%)
CEC
(6.3.4)
(6.3.5)
EmgPisgivenby:
EMgP =
Mg
100(%)
CEC
IftheESPisabove8percentandESPplusEMgPisabove15,dispersionwilltakeplace.ThesoilswithESP=7to10are
moderatelydispersiveincombinationwithreservoirwatersoflowdissolvedsalts.SoilswithESPgreaterthan15have
serious piping potential. Dispersive soils do not actually present any problems with building structures. However,
dispersive soil can lead to catastrophic failures of earth embankment dams as well as severe distress of road
embankments.
3.5.2.2.5IdentificationandClassificationofSoftInorganicSoils
Nostandarddefinitionexistsforsoftclaysintermsofconventionalsoilparameters,mineralogyorgeologicalorigin.It
is, however, commonly understood that soft clays give shear strength, compressibility and severe time related
settlement problems. In near surface clays, where form a crust, partial saturation and overconsolidation occur
togetherandtheoverconsolidationisaresultofthedryingoutoftheclayduetochangesinthewatertable.
In below surface clays, overconsolidation may have taken place when the clay was previously at, or close to the
ground surface and above the water table, but due to subsequent deposition the strata may now be below the
surface, saturated and overconsolidated. Partial saturation does not in itself cause engineering problems, but may
leadtolaboratorytestingdifficulties.Softclayshaveundrainedshearstrengthsbetweenabout10kPaand40kPa,in
otherwords,fromexudingbetweenthefingerswhensqueezedtobeingeasilymouldedinthefingers.
Softclayspresentveryspecialproblemsofengineeringdesignandconstruction.Foundationfailuresinsoftclaysare
comparativelycommon.Theconstructionofbuildingsinsoftclayshasalwaysbeenassociatedwithstabilityproblems
andsettlement.Shallowfoundationsinevitablyresultsinlargesettlementswhichmustbeaccommodatedforinthe
design, and which invariably necessitate longterm maintenance of engineered facilities. The following relationship
amongNvaluesobtainedfromSPT,consistencyandundrainedshearstrengthofsoftclaysmaybeusedasguides.
Nvalue(blows/300mmofpenetration)
Consistency
UndrainedShearStrength(kN/m2)
Below2
24
Verysoft
Soft
Lessthan20
2040
Undrainedshearstrengthishalfofunconfinedcompressivestrengthasdeterminedfromunconfinedcompression
testorhalfofthepeakdeviatorstressasobtainedfromunconsolidatedundrained(UU)triaxialcompressiontest.
3.6
MATERIALS
AllmaterialsfortheconstructionoffoundationsshallconformtotherequirementsofPart5:BuildingMaterials.
3.6.1 Concrete
All concrete materials and steel reinforcement used in foundations shall conform to the requirements specified in
Chapter 5 unless otherwise specified in this section. For different types of foundation the recommended concrete
properties are shown in Table 6.3.5. However, special considerations should be given for hostile environment
(salinity,acidicenvironment).
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Table6.3.5:PropertiesofConcreteforDifferentTypesofFoundations
Minimumcement
content
3
(kg/m )
SpecifiedMin.
28daysCylinder
Strength(MPa)
Slump
(mm)
Remarks
Footing/raft
350
20
25to125
Drilledshaft/Castinsitupile
(tremieconcrete)
400
18
125to200
Retarderand
plasticizer
recommended.
Drivenpile
350
25
25to125
FoundationType
3.6.2 Steel
3.7.2.1General
Corrosion in soil, water or moist outdoor environment is caused by electrochemical processes. The process takes
placeincorrosioncellsonthesteelsurface,whichconsistsofananodicsurface(wherethecorrosiontakesplace),a
cathodic surface (where oxygen is reduced) and the electrolyte, which reacts with these surfaces. In the case of
general corrosion, the surface erosion is relatively even across the entire surface. Local corrosion however is
concentratedtoalimitedsurfacearea.Pronouncedcavityerosionisratherunusualonunprotectedcarbonsteelin
soilorwater.
In many circumstances, steel corrosion rates are low and steel piles may be used for permanent works in an
unprotected condition. The degree of corrosion and whether protection is required depend upon the working
environmentwhichcanbevariable,evenwithinasingleinstallation.Undergroundcorrosionofsteelpilesdriveninto
undisturbed soils is negligible irrespective of the soi1 type and characteristics. The insignificant corrosion attack is
attributedtothelowoxygenlevelspresentinundisturbedsoil.Forthepurposeofcalculations,amaximumcorrosion
rateof0.015mmpersideperyearmaybeused.Inrecentfillsoilsorindustrialwastesoils,wherecorrosionrates
maybehigher,protectionsystemsshouldbeconsidered.
3.7.2.2AtmosphericCorrosion
AtmosphericcorrosionofsteelintheUKaveragesapproximately0035mm/sideperyearandthisvaluemaybeused
formostatmosphericenvironments.
3.7.2.3CorrosioninFreshWaters
Corrosionlossesinfreshwaterimmersionzonesaregenerallylowerthanforseawatersotheeffectivelifeofsteel
piles is normally proportionately longer. However, fresh waters arevariable and no general advice can begiven to
quantifytheincreaseinthelengthoflife.
3.7.2.4CorrosioninMarineEnvironments
Marine environments may include several exposure zones with different aggressivity and different corrosion
performance.
(a) Belowthebedlevel:Wherepilesarebelowthebedlevellittlecorrosionoccursandthecorrosionrategiven
forundergroundcorrosionisapplicable,thatis,0.015mm/sideperyear.
(b) Seawaterimmersionzone:Corrosionofsteelpi111nginimmersionconditionsisnormallylow,withamean
corrosionrateof0035mm/sideperyear.
(c) Tidalzones:Marinegrowthsinthiszonegivesignificantprotectiontothepiling,byshelteringthesteelfrom
waveactionbetweentidesandbylimitingtheoxygensupplytothesteelsurface.Thecorrosionrateofsteels
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in the tidal zone is similar to that of immersion zone corrosion, i.e. 0 035 mm/side per year. Protection
shouldbeprovidedwherenecessary,tothesteelsurfacestopreventtheremovalordamageofthemarine
growth.
(d) Lowwaterzone:Intidalwaters,thelowwaterlevelandthesplashzonearereasonsofhighestthickness
losses,whereameancorrosionrateof0075mm/sideperyearoccurs.Occasionallyhighercorrosionrates
areencounteredatthelowerwaterlevelbecauseofspecificlocalconditions.
(e) Splash and atmospheric zones: In the splash zone, which is a more aggressive environment than the
atmosphericzone,corrosionratesaresimilartothelowwaterlevel,i.e.0.075mm/sideperyear.Inthiszone
thickstratifiedrustlayersmaydevelopandatthicknessesgreaterthan10mmthesetendtospallfromthe
steelespeciallyoncurvedpartsofthepilessuchastheshouldersandtheclutches.Rusthasamuchgreater
volumethanthesteelfromwhichitisderivedsothatthesteelcorrosionlossesarerepresentedbysome10
%to20%oftherustthickness.
The boundary between the splash and atmospheric zones is not well defined, however, corrosion rates
diminishrapidlywithdistance above peakwave heightand themean atmosphericcorrosion rateof 0.035
mm/sideperyearcanbeusedforthiszone.
3.7.2.5MethodsofIncreasingEffectiveLife
Theeffectivelifeofunpaintedorotherwiseunprotectedsteelpilingdependsuponthecombinedeffectsofimposed
stressesandcorrosion.Wheremeasuresforincreasingtheeffectivelifeofastructurearenecessary,thefollowing
shouldbeconsidered;introductionofacorrosionallowance(i.e.oversizedcrosssectionsofpiles,highyieldsteeletc),
anticorrosionpainting,applicationofapolyethylene(PE)coating(onsteeltubepiles),zinccoating,electrochemical
(cathodic)protection,castingincementmortarorconcrete,anduseofatmosphericcorrosionresistantsteelproducts
insteadofordinarycarbonsteelinanyfoundationworkinvolvingsteel.
(a) Use of a heavier section: Effective life may be increased by the use of additional steel thickness as a
corrosion allowance. Maximum corrosion seldom occurs at the same position as the maximum bending
moment.Accordingly,theuseofacorrosionallowanceisacosteffectivemethodofincreasingeffectivelife.
Itispreferabletouseatmosphericcorrosionresistanthighstrengthlowalloysteel.
(b) Useofahighyieldsteel:Analternativetousingmildsteelinaheaviersectionistouseahigheryieldsteel
andretainthesamesection.
(c) Zinccoatings:Steelpilesshouldnormallybecoatedundershopconditions.Paintsshouldbeappliedtothe
cleaned surfaceby airless spraying and then cured rapidly to produce the required coatingthickness in as
few coats as possible. Hot zinccoating of steel piles in soil can achieve normally longlasting protection,
providedthatthezinclayerhassufficientthickness.Insomesoils,especiallythosewithlowpHvalues,the
corrosionofzinccanbehigh,therebyshorteningtheprotectionduration.LowpHvaluesoccurnormallyin
theaeratedzoneabovethelowestgroundwaterlevel.Insuchacase,itisrecommendedtoapplyprotection
paintontopofthezinclayer.
(d) Concreteencasement:Concreteencasementmaybeusedtoprotectsteelpilesinmarineenvironment.The
useofconcretemayberestrictedtothesplashzonebyextendingtheconcretecopetobelowthemeanhigh
waterlevel,bothsplashandtidalzonesmaybeprotectedbyextendingthecopetobelowthelowestwater
level.Theconcreteitselfshouldbeaquantitysufficienttoresistseawaterattack.
(e) Cathodicprotection:Thedesignandapplicationofcathodicprotectionsystemstomarinepilesstructuresisa
complex operation requiring the experience of specialist firms. Cathodic protection with electric current
applied to steel sheet pile wall. Rodtype anodes are connected directly with steel sheet pile Cathodic
protection is considered to be fully effective only up to the halftide mark. For zones above this level,
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including the splash zone, alternative methods of protection may be required, in addition to cathodic
protection.Wherecathodicprotectionisusedonmarinestructures,provisionshouldbemadeforearthing
shipsandburiedservicestothequay.
(f) Polyetheline coating: Steel tube piles can be protected effectively by application of a PEcover of a few
millimeter thickness. This cover can be applied in the factory and is usually placed on a coating of epoxy.
Steel tube piles in water, where the mechanical wear is low, can in this way be protected for long time
periods. When the steel tube piles with the PEcover are driven into coarsegrained soil, the effect of
damagingtheprotectionlayermustbetakenintoconsideration.
(g) Properly executed anticorrosion measures, using highquality methods can protect steel piles in soil or
wateroverperiodsof15to20years.PEcoverincombinationwithepoxycoatingcanachieveevenlonger
protectiontimes.
3.6.3 Timber
TimbermaybeusedonlyforfoundationoftemporarystructureandshallconformtothestandardsspecifiedinSec
2.9ofPart5.Wheretimberisexposedtosoilorusedasloadbearingpileabovegroundwaterlevel,itshallbetreated
inaccordancewithBDS819:1975.
3.7
TYPESOFFOUNDATION
3.7.1 ShallowFoundation
Shallow foundations spread the load to the ground at shallow depth. Generally, the capacity of this foundation is
derivedfrombearing.
3.7.1.1 Footing
Footings are foundations that spread the load to the ground at shallow depths. These include individual column
footings,continuouswallfootings,andcombinedfootings.Footingsshallbeprovidedunderwalls,pilasters,columns,
piers,chimneysetc.bearingonsoilorrock,exceptthatfootingsmaybeomittedunderpierormonolithicconcrete
wallsifsafebearingcapacityofthesoilorrockisnotexceeded.
3.7.1.2 Raft/Mat
Afoundationconsistingofcontinuousslabthatcoverstheentireareabeneaththestructureandsupportsallwalls
andcolumnsisconsideredasaraftormatfoundation.Araftfoundationmaybeoneofthefollowingtypes:
(a) Flatplateorconcreteslabofuniformthicknessusuallysupportingcolumnsspaceduniformlyandrestingon
soilsoflowcompressibility.
(b) Flatplatesasin(a)butthickenedundercolumnstoprovideadequateshearandmomentresistance.
(c) Twowayslabandbeamsystemsupportinglargelyspacedcolumnsoncompressiblesoil.
(d) Cellularraftorrigidframesconsistingofslabsandbasementwalls,usuallyusedforheavystructures.
3.7.2 DeepFoundation
Acylindrical/boxfoundationhavingaratioofdepthtobasewidthgreaterthan5isconsideredaDeepFoundation.
Generally,itscapacityisderivedfromfrictionandendbearing.
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3.7.2.1 Drivenpiles
A slender deep foundation unit made of materials such as steel, concrete, wood, or combination thereof, which is
premanufacturedandplacedbydriving,jacking,jettingorscrewinganddisplacingthesoil.
(a)Driven Precast Concrete Piles: Pile structure capable of being driven into the ground and able to resist
handlingstressesshallbeusedforthiscategoryofpiles.
(b) DrivenCastinsituConcretePiles:Apileformedbydrivingasteelcasingorconcreteshellinoneormore
pieces,whichmayremaininplaceafterdrivingorwithdrawn,withtheinsidefilledwithconcrete,fallsinthis
categoryofpiles.Sometimesanenlargedbasemaybeformedbydrivingoutaconcreteplug.
(c) Driven Prestressed Concrete Pile: A pile constructed in prestressed concrete in a casting yard and
subsequentlydriveninthegroundwhenithasattainedsufficientstrength.
(d) Timber Piles: structural timber (see Sec 2.9 of Part 5) shall be used as piles for temporary structures for
directlytransmittingtheimposedloadtosoil.Whendriventimberpolesareusedtocompactandimprove
thedeposit.
3.8.2.2 Boredpiles/castinsitupiles
A deep foundation of generally small diameter, usually less than 600 mm, constructed using percussion or rotary
drillingintothesoil.Theseareconstructedbyconcretingboreholesformedbyauguring,rotarydrillingorpercussion
drillingwithorwithoutusingbentonitemudcirculation.Excavationordrillingshallbecarriedoutinamannerthat
will not impair the carrying capacity of the foundations already in place or will not damage adjacent foundations.
Thesefoundationsmaybetestedforcapacitybyloadtestorforintegritybysonicresponseorothersuitablemethod.
Underreamingdrilledpierscanbeconstructedincohesivesoilstoincreasetheendbearing.
3.8.2.3 Drilledpier/drilledshafts
Thedrilledpierisatypeofboredpilehavingalargerdiameter(morethan600mm)constructedbyexcavatingthesoil
orsinkingthefoundation.
3.8.2.4
Caisson/well
Acaissonorwellfoundation isadeepfoundationoflargediameterrelativetoitslengththatisgenerallyahollow
shaftorboxwhichissunktoposition.Itdiffersfromothertypesofdeepfoundationinthesensethatitundergoes
rigidbodymovementunderlateralload,whereastheothersareflexiblelikeabeamundersuchloads.Thistypeof
foundationisusuallyusedforbridgesandmassivestructures.
PARTB:SERVICELOADDESIGNMETHODOFFOUNDATIONS(SECTIONS3.9to3.12)
3.8
SHALLOWFOUNDATION
ShallbeapplicabletoisolatedFootings,CombinedFootingsandRaft/Mats.
3.8.1 DistributionofBearingPressure
Footing shall be designed to keep the maximum imposed load within the safe bearing values of soil and rock. To
preventunequalsettlementfootingshallbedesignedtokeepthebearingpressureasnearlyuniformaspractical.
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For raft design, distribution of soil pressures should be consistent with the properties of the foundation materials
(subsoil) and the structure (raft thickness) and with the principles of geotechnical engineering. Mat or raft and
floatingfoundationsshallonlybeusedwhentheappliedloadofbuildingorstructureissoarrangedastoresultin
practicallyuniformlybalancedloading,andthesoilimmediatelybelowthematisofuniformbearingcapacity.
3.8.2 FootingsinFillSoil
Footings located in fill are subject to the same bearing capacity, settlement, and dynamic ground stability
considerationsasfootingsinnaturalsoil.Thebehaviorofbothfillandunderlyingnaturalsoilshouldbeconsidered.
3.8.3 SoilandRockPropertySelection
Soilandrockpropertiesdefiningthestrengthandcompressibilitycharacteristicsoffoundationmaterialsarerequired
for footing design. Foundation stability and settlement analysis for design shall be conducted using soil and rock
propertiesbasedontheresultsoffieldandlaboratorytesting.
3.8.4 MinimumDepthofFoundation
Theminimumdepthoffoundationshallbe1.5mforexteriorfootingofpermanentstructuresincohesivesoilsand2
mincohesionlesssoils.Fortemporarystructurestheminimumdepthofexteriorfootingshallbe400mm.Incaseof
expansiveandsoilssusceptibletoweatheringeffects,theabovementionedminimumdepthswillbenotapplicable
andmayhavetobeincreased.
3.8.5 Scour
Footingssupportedonsoilshallbeembeddedsufficientlybelowthemaximumcomputedscourdepthorprotected
withascourcountermeasure.
3.8.6 MassMovementofGroundinUnstableAreas
In certain areas mass movement of ground may occur from causes independent of the loads applied to the
foundation. These include mining subsidence, landslides on unstable slopes and creep on clay slopes. In areas of
groundsubsidence,foundationsandstructuresshouldbemadesufficientlyrigidandstrongtowithstandtheprobable
worstloadingconditions.Theconstructionofstructuresonslopeswhicharesuspectedofbeingunstableandsubject
to landslip shall be avoided. Spread foundations on such slopes shall be on a horizontal bearing and stepped. For
foundationsonclayslopes,thestabilityofthefoundationshouldbeinvestigated.
3.8.7 FoundationExcavation
Foundationexcavationbelowgroundwatertableparticularlyinsandshallbemadesuchthatthehydraulicgradient
atthebottomoftheexcavationisnotincreasedtoamagnitudethatwouldcasethefoundationsoilstoloosendueto
upwardflowofwater.Further,footingexcavationsshallbemadesuchthathydraulicgradientsandmaterialremoval
do not adversely affect adjacent structures. Seepage forces and gradients may be evaluated by standard flow net
procedures.Dewateringorcutoffmethodstocontrolseepageshallbeusedwhennecessary.
Incaseofsoilexcavationforraftfoundations,thefollowingissuesshouldbeadditionallytakenintoconsideration:
(a) Protectionfortheexcavationusingshoreorsheetpilesand/orretainingsystemwithorwithoutbracing,
anchorsetc.
(b) Considerationoftheadditionalbearingcapacityoftheraftforthedepthofthesoilexcavated.
(c) Considerationofthereductionofbearingcapacityforanyupwardbuoyancypressureofwater.
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SoilsandFoundations
3.9
Chapter3
GEOTECHNICALDESIGNOFSHALLOWFOUNDATIONS
3.9.1 General
Shallow foundations on soil shall be designed to support the design loads with adequate bearing and structural
capacityandwithtolerablesettlements.Inaddition,thecapacityoffootingssubjectedtoseismicanddynamicloads
shall be appropriately evaluated. The location of the resultant pressure on the base of the footings should be
maintainedpreferablywithinB/6ofthecentreofthefooting.
3.9.2 DesignLoad
Shallowfoundationdesign(consideringbearingcapacityduetoshearstrength)shallconsiderthemostunfavourable
effectofthefollowingcombinationsofloading:
(a)
FullDeadLoad+NormalLiveLoad
(b)
FullDeadLoad+NormalLiveLoad+WindLoadorSeismicLoad
(c)
0.9(FullDeadLoad)+BuoyancyPressure
Shallow foundation design (considering settlement) shall consider the most unfavourable effect of the following
combinationsofloading:
SAND
(a)
FullDeadLoad+NormalLiveLoad
(b)
FullDeadLoad+NormalLiveLoad+WindLoadorSeismicLoad
CLAY
FullDeadLoad+0.5NormalLiveLoad
3.9.3 Bearingcapacity
When physical characteristics such as cohesion, angle of internal friction, density etc. are available, the bearing
capacity shall be calculated from stability considerations. Established bearing capacity equations shall be used for
calculating bearing capacity. A factor of safety of between 2.0 to 3.0 (depending on the extent of soil exploration,
qualitycontrolandmonitoringofconstruction)shallbeadoptedtoobtainallowablebearingpressurewhendeadload
andnormalliveloadisused.Thirtythreepercentoverstressingaboveallowablepressureshallbeallowedincaseof
designconsideringwindorseismicloading.Allowableloadshallalsolimitsettlementbetweensupportingelementsto
atolerablelimit.
3.9.4 PresumptiveBearingCapacityforPreliminaryDesign
Forlightlyloadedandsmallsizedstructures(twostoriedorlessinoccupancycategoryA,B,C&D)andforpreliminary
design of any structure, the presumptive bearing values (allowable) as given in Table 6.3.6 may be assumed for
uniformsoilintheabsenceoftestresults.
Table6.3.6:PresumptiveValuesofBearingCapacityforLightlyLoadedStructures*
SoilType
SoilDescription
SoftRockorShale
Gravel,sandygravel,siltysandygravel;verydenseandofferhighresistanceto
penetrationduringexcavation(soilshallincludethegroupsGW,GP,GM,GC)
SafeBearingCapacity,kPa
440
400**
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StructuralDesign
SoilType
SoilDescription
SafeBearingCapacity,kPa
Sand(otherthanfinesand),gravellysand,siltysand;dry(soilshallincludethe
groupsSW,SP,SM,SC)
200**
Finesand;loose&dry(soilshallincludethegroupsSW,SP)
100**
Silt,clayey silt,clayeysand;drylumpswhichcanbeeasilycrushedbyfinger(soil
shallincludethegroupsML,,SC,&MH)
150
Clay,sandyclay;canbeindentedwithstrongthumbpressure(soilshallincludethe
groupsCL,&CH)
150
Softclay;canbeindentedwithmodestthumbpressure(soilshallincludethe
groupsCL,&CH)
100
Very soft clay; can be penetrated several centimeters with thumb pressure (soil
shallincludethegroupsCL&CH)
50
Organicclay&Peat(soilshallincludethegroupsOH,OL,Pt)
10
Fills
Tobedeterminedafter
investigation.
Tobedeterminedafter
investigation.
* Twostoriesorless(OccupancycategoryA,B,CandDasperBNBC)
** 50%ofthesevaluesshallbeusedwherewatertableisabovethebase,orbelowitwithinadistanceequaltothe
leastdimensionoffoundation
3.9.5 AllowableIncreaseofBearingPressureduetoWindandEarthquakeForces
Theallowablebearingpressureofthesoildeterminedinaccordancewiththissectionmayaybeincreasedby33per
centwhenlateralforcesduetowindorearthquakeactsimultaneouslywithgravityloads.Noincreaseinallowable
bearingpressureshallbepermittedforgravityloadsactingalone.Inazonewhereseismicforcesexist,possibilityof
liquefactioninloosesand,siltandsandysoilsshallbeinvestigated.
3.9.6 SettlementofFoundation
Foundationshallbeso designedthattheallowable bearingcapacity is notexceeded,andthetotal anddifferential
settlementarewithinpermissiblevalues.Foundationscansettleinvariouswaysandeachaffectstheperformanceof
thestructure.Thesimplestmodeconsistsoftheentirestructuresettlinguniformly.Thismodedoesnotdistortthe
structure. Any damage done is related to the interface between the structure and adjacent ground or adjacent
structures. Shearing of utility lines could be a problem. Another possibility is that one side of the structure settles
muchmorethantheoppositesideandtheportionsinbetweensettleproportionately.Thiscausesthestructureto
tilt,butitstilldoesnotdistort.Anominaltiltwillnotaffecttheperformanceofthestructure,althoughitmaycreate
aestheticandpublicconfidenceproblems.However,asaresultofdifferenceinfoundationsettlementthestructure
maysettleanddistortcausingcracksinwallsandfloors,jammingofdoorsandwindowsandoverloadingofstructural
members.
3.9.7 TotalSettlement
Totalsettlement()istheabsoluteverticalmovementofthefoundationfromitsasconstructedpositiontoitsloaded
position.Totalsettlementoffoundationduetonetimposedloadshallbeestimatedinaccordancewithestablished
engineeringprinciple.Anestimateofsettlementwithrespecttothefollowingshallbemadewhereapplicable:
6172
(i)
Elasticcompressionoftheunderlyingsoilbelowthefoundationandofthefoundation.
(ii)
Consolidationsettlement.
(iii)
Secondaryconsolidation/compressionoftheunderlyingsoil.
Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations
Chapter3
(iv)
Compression and volume changedue to change ineffective stress or soil migration associatedwith
loweringormovementofgroundwater.
(v)
Seasonalswellingandshrinkageofexpansiveclays.
(vi)
Groundmovementonearthslopes,suchassurfaceerosion,creeporlandslide.
(vii)
Settlementduetoadjacentexcavation,miningsubsidenceandundergrounderosion.
Innormalcircumstancesofinorganicandorganicsoildepositsthetotalsettlementisattributedduetothefirstthree
factorsasmentionedabove.Theotherfactorsareregardedasspecialcases.Becausesoilsettlementcanhaveboth
timedepended and noontimedependent components, it is often categorized in terms shortterm settlement (or
immediate settlement) which occurs as quickly as the load is applied, and longterm settlement (or delayed
settlement), whichoccurs over some longer period. Many engineersassociate consolidation settlement solelywith
thelongtermsettlementofclay.However,thisisnotstrictlytrue.Consolidationisrelatedtovolumechangedueto
changeineffectivestressregardlessofthetypeofsoilorthetimerequiredforthevolumechange.
3.9.7.1
Elastic/DistortionSettlement
Elastic Settlement (d) of foundation soils results from lateral movements of the soil without volume change in
responsetochangesineffectiveverticalstress.ThisisnontimedependentphenomenonandsimilartothePoissons
effectwhereanobjectisloadedintheverticaldirectionexpandslaterally.Elasticordistortionsettlementsprimarily
occurwhentheloadisconfinedtoasmallarea,suchasastructuralfoundation,orneartheedgesoflargeloaded
areasuchasembankments.
3.9.7.2
ImmediateSettlement/ShortTermSettlement
Thisverticalcompressionoccursimmediatelyaftertheapplicationofloadingeitheronaccountofelasticbehaviour
thatproducesdistortionatconstantvolumeandonaccountofcompressionofairvoid.Thisissometimesdesignated
asi.forsandysoils,eventheconsolidationcomponentisimmediate.
3.9.7.3
PrimaryConsolidationSettlement
Primaryconsolidationsettlementorsimplytheconsolidationsettlement(c)offoundationisduetoconsolidationof
theunderlyingsaturated or nearly saturated soil especially cohesivesiltor clay. The full deal load and 50%of the
totalliveloadshouldbeconsideredwhencomputingtheconsolidationsettlementoffoundationsonclaysoils.
3.9.7.4
SecondaryConsolidationSettlement
Secondaryconsolidationsettlement(s)ofthefoundationisduetosecondarycompressionorconsolidationofthe
underlyingsaturatedornearlysaturatedcohesivesiltorclay.Thisisprimarilyduetoparticlereorientation,creep,and
decompositionoforganicmaterials.Secondarycompressionisalwaystimedependentandcanbesignificantinhighly
plasticclays,organicsoils,andsanitarylandfills,butitisnegligibleinsandsandgravels.
3.9.7.5
DifferentialSettlementanditsEffectontheStructure
Differential settlement is the difference in total settlement between two foundations or two points in the same
foundation.Itoccursasaresultofrelativemovementbetweentwopartsofabuilding.Therelatedtermsdescribing
the effects of differential settlement on the structural as a whole or on parts of it are tilt, rotation and angular
distortion/relativerotationwhicharedefinedbelow.
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3.9.7.6
Tilt
It is rotation of the entire superstructure or a well defined part of it as a result of nonuniform or differential
settlementoffoundationasaresultofwhichonesideofthebuildingsettlesmorethantheotherthusaffectingthe
verticalityofthebuilding.
3.9.7.7
Rotation
It is the angle between the horizontal line and an imaginary straight line connecting any two foundations or two
pointsinasinglefoundation.
3.9.7.8
AngularDistortion/RelativeRotation
Angular distortion or relative rotation is the angle between imaginary straight line indicating the overall tilt of a
structureandtheimaginaryconnectinglineindicatingtheinclinationofaspecificpartofit.Itismeasuredastheratio
ofdifferentialsettlementtothedistancebetweenthetwopoints..
3.9.8 CausesofDifferentialSettlement
Dueconsiderationshallbegiventoestimatethedifferentialsettlementthatmayoccurunderthebuildingstructure
underthefollowingcircumstances:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Nonuniformityinsubsoilformationwithintheareacoveredbythebuildingduetogeologicorman
madecauses,oranomaliesintype,structure,thicknessanddensityoftheformation.
Nonuniformpressuredistributionduetononuniformandincompleteloading.
Groundwaterconditionduringandafterconstruction.
Loadinginfluenceofadjacentstructures.
(v)
Unevenexpansionandcontractionduetomoisturemigration,unevendrying,wettingorsoftening.
3.9.9 TolerableSettlement,TiltandRotation
Allowableorlimitingsettlementofabuildingstructurewilldependonthenatureofthestructure,thefoundationand
the soil. Different types of structures have varying degrees of tolerance to settlements and distortions. These
variations depend on the type of construction, use of the structure, rigidity of the structure and the presence of
sensitive finishes. As a general rule, a total settlement of 25 mm and a differential settlement of 20 mm between
columns in most buildings shall be considered safe for buildings on isolated pad footings on sand for workingload
(unfactored). A total settlement of 40 mm and a differential settlement of 20 mm between columns shall be
considered safe for buildings on isolated pad footings on clay soil for working load. Buildings on raft can usually
tolerate greater total settlements. Limiting tolerance for distortion and deflections introduced in a structure is
necessarily a subjective process, depending on the status of the building and any specific requirements for
serviceability.Thelimitingvalues,giveninTable6.3.7maybefollowedasguidelines.
3.9.10 DynamicGroundStabilityorLiquefactionAnalysis
Soilliquefactionisaphenomenoninwhichasaturatedsoildepositloosesmost,ifnotall,ofitsstrengthandstiffness
duetothegenerationofexcessporewaterpressureduringearthquakeinducedgroundshaking.Ithasbeenamajor
cause for damage of structures during past earthquakes (e.g., 1964 Niigata Earthquake). Current knowledge of
liquefactionissignificantlyadvancedandseveralevaluationmethodsareavailable.Hazardsduetoliquefactionare
routinelyevaluatedandmitigatedinseismicallyactivedevelopedpartsoftheworld.
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Table6.3.7:PermissibleTotalSettlement,DifferentialSettlementandAngularDistortion(tilt)forShallowFoundationsinSoils(AdaptedfromNBCI,2005)
TypeofStructure
IsolatedFoundations
SandandHardClay
RaftFoundation
PlasticClay
SandandHardClay
PlasticClay
Maximum
Settlement
(mm)
Differential
Settlement
(mm)
Angular
Distortion
(mm)
Maximum
Settlement
(mm)
Differential
Settlement
(mm)
Angular
Distortion
(mm)
Maximum
Settlement
(mm)
Differential
Settlement
(mm)
Angular
Distortion
(mm)
Maximum
Settlement
(mm)
Differential
Settlement
(mm)
Angular
Distortion
(mm)
SteelStructure
50
0.0033L
1/300
50
0.0033L
1/300
75
0.0033L
1/300
100
0.0033L
1/300
RCCStructures
50
0.0015L
1/666
75
0.0015L
1/666
75
0.0021L
1/500
100
0.002L
1/500
60
0.002L
1/500
75
0.002L
1/500
75
0.0025L
1/400
125
0.0033L
1/300
(i)L/H=2*
60
0.0002L
1/5000
60
0.0002L
1/5000
Notlikelytobeencountered
(ii)L/H=7*
60
0.0004L
1/2500
60
0.0004L
1/2500
Notlikelytobeencountered
Silos
50
0.0015L
1/666
75
0.0015L
1/666
100
0.0025L
1/400
125
0.0025L
1/400
WaterTank
50
0.0015L
1/666
75
0.0015L
1/666
100
0.0025L
1/400
125
0.0025L
1/400
MultistoriedBuilding
(a)RCCorsteelframed
buildingwithpanel
walls
(b)Loadbearingwalls
Note:ThevaluesgivenintheTablemaybetakenonlyasaguideandthepermissibletotalsettlement,differentialsettlementandtilt(angulardistortion)ineachcaseshouldbedecidedasper
requirementsofthedesigner.
Ldenotesthelengthofdeflectedpartofwall/raftorcentretocentredistancebetweencolumns.
Hdenotestheheightofwallfromfoundationfooting.
*ForintermediateratiosofL/H,thevaluescanbeinterpolated.
Part6
StructuralDesign
6175
LiquefactionAnalysis
Liquefaction can be analyzed by a simple comparison of the seismically induced shear stress with the similarly
expressedshearstressrequiredtocauseinitialliquefactionorwhateverlevelofshearstrainamplitudeisdeemed
intolerableindesign.Usually,theoccurrenceof5%doubleamplitude(DA)axialstrainisadoptedtodefinethecyclic
strengthconsistentwith100%porewaterpressurebuildup.Thecorrespondingstrength(CRR)canbeobtainedby
severalprocedures.
Thus,theliquefactionpotentialofasanddepositisevaluatedintermsoffactorofsafetyFL,definedasinEquation
(6.3.6).Theexternallyappliedcyclicstressratio(CSR)canbeevaluatedbyEquations(6.3.7a,6.3.7band6.3.8).
FL =
CRR
CSR
(6.3.6)
IfthefactorofsafetyFLis<1,liquefactionissaidtotakeplace.Otherwise,liquefactiondoesnotoccur.Thefactorof
safetyobtainedinthiswayisgenerallyusedtoidentify thedepthtowhichliquefactionisexpectedtooccurina
futureearthquake.Thisinformationisnecessaryifsomecountermeasureistobeimplementedinaninsitudeposit
ofsands.
Thecyclicshearstressinducedatanypointinlevelgroundduringanearthquakeduetotheupwardpropagationof
shearwavescanbeassessedbymeansofasimpleprocedureproposed.Ifasoilcolumntoadepthzisassumedto
movehorizontallyandifthepeakhorizontalaccelerationonthegroundsurfaceis amax ,themaximumshearstress
max actingatthebottomofthesoilcolumnisgivenby
max = amax rd ( t )(z / g )
and,
rd = 1 0.015z
(6.3.7a)
(6.3.7b)
Wheretisunitweightofthesoil,gisthegravitationalaccelerationandrdisastressreductioncoefficienttoallow
forthedeformabilityofthesoilcolumn(rd<1).ItisrecommendedtousetheempiricalformulagiveninEquation
(6.3.7b)tocomputestressreductioncoefficientrd,wherezisinmeters.DivisionofbothsidesofEquation(6.3.7a)
bytheeffectiveverticalstress v gives
CSR =
max a max v
=
rd '
g
v'
v
(6.3.8)
Where,v=tz isthe total vertical stress. Equation (6.3.8) has been used widelyto assessthe magnitude of shear
stressinducedinasoilelementduringanearthquake.OneoftheadvantagesofEquation(6.3.8)isthatallthevast
amountofinformationonthehorizontalaccelerationsthathaseverbeenrecordedonthegroundsurfacecanbe
useddirectlytoassesstheshearstressinducedbyseismicshakinginthehorizontalplanewithintheground.
The second step is to determine the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) of the in situ soil. The cyclic resistance ratio
represents the liquefaction resistance of the in situ soil. The most commonly used method for determining the
liquefactionresistanceistousethedataobtainedfromthestandardpenetrationtest.Acyclictriaxialtestmayalso
beusedtoestimateCRRmoreaccurately.
SiteAmplificationFactor
Site response analysis of a site may be carried out to estimate the site amplification factor. For this purpose,
dynamic parameters such as shear modulus and damping factors need to be estimated. The site amplification
factorisrequiredtoestimatetheamaxforagivensiteproperly.
Part6
StructuralDesign
6176
SoilsandFoundations
Chapter3
3.9.11 PrinciplesofStructuralDesignofFoundations
3.9.11.1
LoadsandReactions
3.9.11.1.1 DeterminationofLoadsandReactions
Footingsshallbeconsideredasundertheactionofdownwardforces,duetothesuperimposedloads,resistedbyan
upwardpressureexertedbythefoundationmaterialsanddistributedovertheareaofthefootingsasdetermined
by the eccentricity of the resultant of the downward forces. Where piles are used under footings, the upward
reactionofthefoundationshallbeconsideredasaseriesofconcentratedloadsappliedatthepilecenters,eachpile
beingassumedtocarrythecomputedportionofthetotalfootingload.
3.9.11.1.2 IsolatedandMultipleFootingReactions
Whenasingleisolatedfootingsupportsacolumn,pierorwall,thefootingshallbeassumedtoactasacantilever
element. When footings support more than one column, pier, or wall, the footing slab shall be designed for the
actualconditionsofcontinuityandrestraint.
RaftFoundationReactions
3.9.11.1.3
Fordeterminingthedistributionofcontactpressurebelowaraftitisanalysedeitherasarigidorflexiblefoundation
consideringtherigidityoftheraft,andtherigidityofthesuperstructureandthesupportingsoil.Considerationshall
begiventotheincreasedcontactpressuredevelopedalongtheedgesofraftoncohesivesoilsandthedecreasein
contact pressure along the edges on granular soils. Any appropriate analytical method reasonably valid for the
conditionmaybeused.Choiceofaparticularmethodshallbegovernedbythevalidityoftheassumptionsinthe
particularcase.Numericalanalysisofraftsusingappropriatesoftwaremaybeusedfordeterminationofreactions,
shearsandmoments.
Analyticalmethods(basedonbeamsonelasticfoundation)andnumericalmethodsrequirevaluesofthemodulus
of subgrade reaction of the soil. For use in preliminary analysis and design, indicative values of the modulus of
subgradereactionforcohesionlesssoilsandcohesivesoilsishowninTable6.3.7andTable6.3.8,respectively.
(6.3.9)
Table6.3.7:ModulusofSubgradeReaction(k)forCohesionlessSoils
SoilCharacteristic
*ModulusofSubgradeReaction(k)Soil
3
Characteristic(kN/m )
Relative
Density
StandardPenetrationTest
Value(N)(Blowsper300
mm)
ForDryorMoistState
Loose
<10
15000
9000
Medium
10to30
15000to47000
9000to29000
Dense
30andover
47000to180000
29000to108000
ForSubmergedState
*Theabovevaluesapplytoasquareplate300mmx300mmorbeams300mmwide.
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StructuralDesign
Table6.3.8ModulusofSubgradeReaction(k)forCohesiveSoils
SoilCharacteristic
Consistency
UnconfinedCompressiveStrength
2
(kN/m )
Stiff
100to200
ModulusofSubgradeReaction,k
(kN/m3)
27000
VeryStiff
200to400
27000to54000
Hard
400andover
54000to108000
*Thevaluesapplytoasquareplate300mmx300mm.Theabovevaluesarebasedontheassumption
thattheaverageloadingintensitydoesnotexceedhalftheultimatebearingcapacity.
3.9.11.2
Moment
3.9.11.2.1
CriticalSection
Externalmomentonanysectionofafootingshallbedeterminedbypassingaverticalplanethroughthefootingand
computingthemomentoftheforcesactingovertheentireareaofthefootingononesideofthatverticalplane.
Thecriticalsectionforbendingshallbetakenatthefaceofthecolumn,pier,orwall.Inthecaseofcolumnsthatare
not square or rectangular, the section shall be taken at the side of the concentric square of equivalent area. For
footingsundermasonrywalls,thecriticalsectionshallbetakenhalfwaybetweenthemiddleandedgeofthewall.
Forfootingsundermetalliccolumnbases,thecriticalsectionshallbetakenhalfwaybetweenthecolumnfaceand
theedgeofthemetallicbase.
3.9.11.2.2
DistributionofReinforcement
Reinforcementofsquarefootingsshallbedistributeduniformlyacrosstheentirewidthoffooting.Reinforcementof
rectangular footings shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing in the long direction. In the
shortdirection,theportionofthetotalreinforcementgivenbythefollowingequationshallbedistributeduniformly
overabandwidth(centeredoncenterlineofcolumnorpier)equaltothelengthoftheshortsideofthefooting.
(6.3.10)
Here,istheratioofthefootinglengthtowidth.Theremainderofreinforcementrequiredintheshortdirection
shallbedistributeduniformlyoutsidethecenterbandwidthoffooting.
3.9.11.2.3 Shear
3.9.11.2.4 CriticalSection
Computationofshearinfootings,andlocationofcriticalsectionshallbeinaccordancewithrelevantsectionsofthe
structuraldesignpartofthecode.Locationofcriticalsectionshall be measuredfromthefaceof column,pieror
wall, for footings supporting a column, pier, or wall. For footings supporting a column or pier with metallic base
plates, the critical section shall be measured from the location defined in the critical section for moments for
footings.
3.9.11.2.5 CriticalSectionforFootingsonDrivenPiles/BoredPiles/DrilledPiers
Shearonthecriticalsectionshallbeinaccordancewiththefollowing.Entirereactionfromanydrivenpileorbored
piles,anddrilledpierwhosecenterislocateddP/2(dP=diameterofthepile)ormoreoutsidethecriticalsectionshall
be considered as producing shear on that section. Reaction from any driven pile or drilled shaft whose center is
locateddP/2ormoreinsidethecriticalsectionshallbeconsideredasproducingnoshearonthatsection.Forthe
intermediate position of driven pile or drilled shaft centers, the portion ofthe driven pile or shaft reactionto be
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SoilsandFoundations
Chapter3
considered as producing shear on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at
dP/2outsidethesectionandzerovalueatdP/2insidethesection.
3.9.11.3
ReinforcementandDevelopmentLength
3.9.11.3.1
DevelopmentLength
Computationofdevelopmentlengthofreinforcementinfootingsshallbeinaccordancewiththerelevantsections
ofthestructuraldesignpartofthecode.
3.9.11.3.2
CriticalSection
Criticalsectionsfordevelopmentlengthofreinforcementshallbeassumedatthesamelocationsasdefinedabove
asthecriticalsectionformomentsandatallotherverticalplaneswherechangesinsectionorreinforcementoccur.
3.9.11.4
TransferofForceatBaseofColumn
3.9.11.4.1
TransferofForce
All forces and moments applied at base of column or pier shall be transferred to top of footing by bearing on
concreteandbyreinforcement.
3.9.11.4.2
LateralForce
Lateralforcesshallbetransferredtosupportingfootinginaccordancewithsheartransferprovisionsoftherelevant
sectionsofthestructuraldesignpartofthecode.
3.9.11.4.3
BearingStrengthofConcrete
Bearing on concrete at contact surface between supporting and supported member shall not exceed concrete
bearingstrengthforeithersurface.
3.9.11.4.4
Reinforcement
Reinforcementshallbeprovidedacrossinterfacebetweensupportingandsupportedmembereitherbyextending
main longitudinal reinforcement into footings or by dowels. Reinforcement across interface shall be sufficient to
satisfyallofthefollowing:
(i)
Reinforcement shall be provided to transfer all force that exceeds concrete bearing strength in
supportingandsupportedmember.
(ii)
If it is required that loading conditions include uplift, total tensile force shall be resisted by
reinforcement.
(iii)
3.9.11.4.5
Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005 times gross area of supported member, with a
minimumof4bars.
DowelSize
Diameterofdowels,ifused,shallnotexceedthediameteroflongitudinalreinforcements.
3.9.11.4.6
DevelopmentLengthandSplicing
Fortransferofforcebyreinforcement,developmentlengthofreinforcementinsupportingandsupportedmember,
requiredsplicingshallbeinaccordancewiththerelevantsections(Part.6,Chapter6)ofthestructuraldesignpartof
thecode.
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Part6
StructuralDesign
3.10 GeotechnicalDesignofDeepFoundations
3.10.1 DrivenPiles
Theprovisionsofthisarticleshallapplytothedesignofaxiallyandlaterallyloadeddrivenpilesinsoil.Drivenpile
foundation shall be designed and installed on the basis of a site investigation report that will include subsurface
exploration at locations and depths sufficient to determine the position and adequacy of the bearing soil unless
adequatedataisavailableuponwhichthedesignandinstallationofthepilescanbebased.Thereportshallinclude:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Recommendedpiletypeandcapacities
Drivingandinstallationprocedure
Fieldinspectionprocedure
Pileloadtest,integritytestrequirements
Durabilityandqualityofpilematerial
Designationofbearingstratumorstrata
Aplanshowingclearlythedesignationofallpilesbyanidentifyingsystemshallbefiledpriortoinstallationofsuch
piles.Alldetailedrecordsforindividualpilesshallbearanidentificationcorrespondingtothatshownontheplan.A
copyofsuchplanshallbeavailableatthesiteforinspectionatalltimesduringtheconstruction.
Thedesignandinstallationofdrivenpilefoundationsshallbeunderthedirectsupervisionofacompetentengineer
whoshallcertifythatthepilesasinstalledsatisfythedesigncriteria
3.10.1.1
Application
Pile driving may be considered when footings cannot be founded on granular or stiff cohesive soils within a
reasonable depth. At locations where soil conditions would normally permit the use of spread footings but the
potential for scour exists, piles may be driven as a protection against scour. Piles may also be driven where an
unacceptableamountofsettlementofspreadfootingsmayoccur
3.10.1.2
Materials
Driven piles may be castinplace concrete, precast concrete, prestressed concrete, timber, structural steel
sections,steelpipe,oracombinationofmaterials.
3.10.1.3
Penetration
Pilepenetrationshallbedetermined basedonverticalandlateralloadcapacitiesof boththepileandsubsurface

materials. In general, the design penetration for any pile shall be not less than 3m into hard cohesive or dense
granularmaterial,norlessthan6mintosoftcohesiveorloosegranularmaterial.
3.10.1.4
EstimatedPileLength
Estimatedpilelengthsofdrivenpilesshallbeshownonthedrawingandshallbebaseduponcarefulevaluationof
availablesubsurfaceinformation,axialandlateralcapacitycalculations,and/orpastexperience.
3.10.1.5
DrivenPileTypes
Drivenpilesshallbeclassifiedas"friction"or"endbearing"oracombinationofbothaccordingtothemannerin
which load transfer is developed. The ultimate load capacity of a pile consists of two parts. One part is due to
frictioncalledskinfrictionorshaftfrictionorsideshear,andtheotherisduetoendbearingatthebaseortipofthe
pile.Iftheskinfrictionisgreaterthanabout80%oftheendbearingloadcapacity,thepileisdeemedafrictionpile
and,ifthereverse,anendbearingpile.Iftheendbearingisneglected,thepileiscalledafloatingpile.
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3.10.1.6
Chapter3
BatterPiles
When the lateral resistance of the soil surrounding the piles is inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces
transmittedtothefoundation,orwhenincreasedrigidityoftheentirestructureisrequired,batterpilesshouldbe
used in the foundation. Where negative skin friction loads are expected, batter piles should be avoided, and an
alternatemethodofprovidinglateralrestraintshouldbeused.
Freestandingbatterpilesaresubjecttobendingmomentsduetotheirownweight,orexternalforcesfromother
sources. Batter piles in loose fill or consolidating deposits may become laterally loaded due to settlement of the
surroundingsoil.Inconsolidatingclay,specialprecautions,likeprovisionofpermanentcasing,shallbetaken.
3.10.1.7
SelectionofSoilandRockProperties
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and compressibility characteristics of the foundation materials, are
requiredfordrivenpiledesign.
3.10.1.8
DesignofPileCapacity
The design pile capacity is the maximum load that the driven pile shall support with tolerable movement. In
determiningthedesignpilecapacitythefollowingitemsshallbeconsidered:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Ultimategeotechnicalcapacity(axialandlateral).
Structuralcapacityofpilesection(axialandlateral).
Theallowableaxialloadonapileshallbetheleastvalueoftheabovetwocapacities.
Indeterminingthedesignaxialcapacity,considerationshallbegiventothefollowing:
(i)
Theinfluenceoffluctuationsintheelevationofgroundwatertableoncapacity.
(ii)
Theeffectsofdrivingpilesonadjacentstructureandslopes.
(iii)
Theeffectsofnegativeskinfrictionordownloadsfromconsolidatingsoilandtheeffectsofliftloads
fromexpansiveorswellingsoils.
(iv)
Theinfluenceofconstructiontechniquessuchasaugeringorjettingonpilecapacity.
(v)
Thedifferencebetweenthesupportingcapacitysinglepileandthatofagroupofpiles.
(vi)
Thecapacityofanunderlyingstratatosupportloadofthepilegroup;
(vii)
Thepossibilityofscouranditseffectonaxiallateralcapacity.
3.10.1.9
UltimateGeotechnicalCapacityofDrivenPileforAxialLoad
Theultimateloadcapacity,Qult,ofapileconsistsoftwoparts.Onepartisduetofrictioncalledskinfrictionorshaft
friction or side shear, Qs andthe other is due to endbearing atthe base or tip ofthe pile,Qb The ultimate axial
capacity(Qult)ofdrivenpilesshallbedeterminedinaccordancewiththefollowingforcompressionloading.
Qult
= Qs + Qb W
(6.3.11)
(6.3.12)
6.3.13
Forupliftloading;
Qult 0.7Qs + W
Theallowableorworkingaxialloadshallbedeterminedas:
Qallow = Qult / FS
Where,WistheweightofthepileandFSisagrossfactorofsafetyusuallygreaterthan2.5.Often,forcompression
loading,theweighttermisneglectediftheweight,W,isconsideredinestimatingimposedloading.
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Theultimatebearingcapacity(skinfrictionand/orendbearing)ofasingleverticalpilemaybedeterminedbyanyof
thefollowingmethods.
(i)
Bytheuseofstaticbearingcapacityequations
(ii)
BytheuseofSPTandCPT
(iii)
Byfieldloadtests
(iv)
Bydynamicmethods
3.10.1.10
StaticBearingCapacityEquationsforPileCapacity
Theskinfriction,QsandendbearingQbcanbecalculatedas:
QS
= AS f S
(6.3.14a)
(6.3.14b)
and;
Qb = Ab f b
Where,
As= skinfrictionarea(perimeterarea)ofthepile=PerimeterLength
fs= skin frictional resistance on unit surface area of pile, that depends on soil properties and loading
conditions(drainedorundrained)
Ab= endbearingareaofthepile=Crosssectionalareaofpiletip(bottom)
fb= endbearingresistanceonunittipareaofpile,thatdependsonsoilpropertiestoadepthof2B(Bis
thediameterforacircularpilesectionorlengthofsidesforasquarepilesection)fromthepiletip
andloadingconditions(drainedorundrained)
Foralayeredsoilsystemcontainingnnumberoflayers,endbearingresistancecanbecalculatedconsideringsoil
propertiesofthelayeratwhichthepilerests,andtheskinfrictionresistanceconsidersallthepenetratinglayers
calculatedas:
(6.3.15)
Where,Zi representsthethicknessofany(ith)layerand(Perimeter)iistheperimeterofthepileinthatlayer.The
mannerinwhichskinfrictionistransferredtotheadjacentsoildependsonthesoiltype.Infinegrainedsoils,the
loadtransferisnonlinearanddecreaseswithdepth.Asaresult,elasticcompressionofthepileisnotuniform;more
compressionoccursonthetoppartthanonthebottompartofthepile.Forcoarsegrainedsoils,theloadtransferis
approximatelylinearwithdepth(higherloadsatthetopandlowerloadsatthebottom).
Inordertomobilizeskinfrictionandendbearing,somemovementofthepileisnecessary.Fieldtestshaverevealed
that to mobilize the full skin friction a vertical displacement of 5 to 10 mm is required. The actual vertical
displacementdependsonthestrengthofthesoilandisindependentofthepilelengthandpilediameter.Thefull
end bearing resistance is mobilized in driven piles when the vertical displacement is about 10% of the pile tip
diameter.Forboredpilesordrilledshafts,averticaldisplacementofabout30%ofthepiletipdiameterisrequired.
Thefullendbearingresistanceismobilizedwhensliporfailurezonessimilartoshallowfoundationsareformed.The
endbearingresistancecanthenbecalculatedbyanalogywithshallowfoundations.Theimportantbearingcapacity
factorisNq.
Thefullskinfrictionandfullendbearingarenotmobilizedatthesamedisplacement.Theskinfrictionismobilized
ataboutonetenthofthedisplacementrequiredtomobilizetheendbearingresistance.Thisisimportantindecid
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ing on the factor of safety to be applied to the ultimate load. Depending on the tolerable settlement, different
factorsofsafetycanbeappliedtoskinfrictionandtoendbearing.
Generally,pilesdrivenintoloose,coarsegrainedsoilstendtodensitytheadjacentsoil.Whenpilesaredriveninto
dense, coarsegrained soils, the soil adjacent to the pile becomes loose. Pile driving usually remolds finegrained
soilsnearthepileshaft.Theimplicationofpileinstallationisthattheintactshearstrengthofthesoilischangedand
onemustaccountforthischangeinestimationsoftheloadcapacity.
3.10.1.11 AxialCapacityofDrivenPilesinCohesiveSoilusingStaticBearingCapacity
Equations
The ultimate axial capacity of driven piles in cohesive may be calculated from static formula, given by (6.3.14a),
(6.3.14b)and(6.3.15),usingatotalstressmethodforundrainedloadingconditions,oraneffectivestressmethod
fordrainedloadingconditions.Appropriatevaluesofadhesionfactor()andcoefficientofhorizontalsoilstress(ks)
for cohesive soils that are consistent with soil condition and pile installation procedure may be used. There are
basicallytwoapproachesforcalculatingskinfriction:
(i)
Themethodthatisbasedontotalstressanalysisandisnormallyusedtoestimatetheshorttermload
capacity of piles embedded in fine grained soils. In this method, a coefficient is used to relate the
undrainedshearstrengthcuorsutotheadhesivestress(fs)alongthepileshaft.Assuch,
Qs = cu As
=1.0
forclayswithcu25kN/m2
=0.5
forclayswithcu70kN/m2
(6.3.16)
forclayswith25kN/m2<cu<70kN/m2
Theendbearinginsuchacaseisfoundbyanalogywithshallowfoundationsandisexpressedas:
Qb = (cu ) b ( N c ) b Ab
(6.3.17)
Nc isabearingcapacityfactor,usually9.cuistheundrainedshearstrengthofsoilatthebaseofthepile.
Thesuffixbsareindicativesofbaseofpile.ThegeneralequationforNcis,however,asfollows.
6 1
0.2
(6.3.18)
ThesymbolDbrepresentsthediameteratthebaseofthepile.Theskinfrictionvalue,fb=(cu)b(Nc)bshould
notexceed4.0MPa.
(ii)
Themethodisbasedonaneffectivestressanalysisandisusedtodetermineboththeshorttermand
long term pile load capacities. The friction along the pile shaft is found using Coulombs friction law,
.Thelateraleffectivestress,xisproportional
wherethefrictionstressisgivenby
toverticaleffectivestress,zbyacoefficient,K.Assuch,
f s = K z tan = z
Where,
(6.3.19a)
(6.3.19b)
is the effective angle of internal friction of soil and OCR is the over-consolidation ratio. Fornormally
consolidated clay, varies from 0.25 to 0.29. The value of decreases for very long piles, as such a
correctionfactorisused.
0.5
(6.3.19c)
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The end bearing capacity is calculated by analogy with the bearing capacity of shallow footings and is
determinedfrom:
f b = ( v ) b ( N q ) b
(6.3.20)
Where,Nqisabearingcapacityfactorthatdependsonangleofinternalfriction of the soil at the base

of the pile, aspresentedinFig.6.3.2.Subscriptbdesignatestheparametersatthebasesoil.
BearingCapacityFactor,Nq
1000
100
10
20
25
30
35
40
45
AngleofInternalFriction, (Degree)
50
Fig.6.3.2:BearingCapacityFactorNqforDeepFoundation(AfterBerezantzev,1961)
3.10.1.12 Axial Capacity of Driven Piles in Cohesive Soil and Nonplastic Silt using
SPTValues
StandardPenetrationTestNvalueisameasureofconsistencyofclaysoilandindirectlythemeasureofcohesion.
The skin friction of pile can thus be estimated from Nvalue. The following relation may be used for preliminary
designofpilesinclayandsiltsoils.TheNvalueusedshouldbecorrectedforoverburden.
Forclayandsilt:
f s = 1.67 N (in kPa)
70 kPa
(6.3.21)
Forendbearing,therelationshipisasunder.
Forclay:
f b = 45 N
(6.3.22)
Forsilt:
L
f b = 40 N (in kPa) 300 N and 10000 kPa
D
(6.3.23)
(in kPa)
3.10.1.13 Axial Capacity of Driven Piles in Cohesionless Soil using Static Bearing
CapacityEquations
Pilesincohesionlesssoilsshallbedesignedbyeffectivestressmethodsofanalysisfordrainedloadingconditions.
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesionless soils may also be calculated using empirical effective stress
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method or from insitu methods and analysis such as the cone penetration or pressure meter tests. Dynamic
formula may be used for driven piles in cohesionless soils such as gravels, coarse sand and deposits where pore
pressuredevelopedduetodrivingisquicklydissipated.
Forpilesincohesionlesssoil,theultimatesideresistancemaybeestimatedusingthefollowingformula:
f s = z
(6.3.24)
Where,zistheeffectiveverticalstressatthelevelunderconsideration.Thevaluesforareasunder.
=0.10
for=33o
=0.20
for=35o
=0.35
for=37o
Foruncementedcalcareoussandthevalueofvariesfrom0.05to0.10.
Thefollowingequation,asusedforcohesivesoil,maybeusedtocomputetheultimateendbearingcapacityofpiles
insandysoilinwhich,themaximum effectivestress,vallowedforthecomputationis240kPa
f b = ( v ) b ( N q ) b
Nq=8to12
forloose sand
Nq=12to40
formedium sand
Nq=40
fordense sand
(6.3.25)
Fig.6.3.2mayalsobeusedtoestimatethevalueofNq.
CriticalDepthforEndBearingandSkinFriction
The vertical effective stress (v or z) increases with depth. Hence the skin friction should increase with depth
indefinitely. In reality skin friction does not increase indefinitely. It is believed that skin friction would become a
constant at a certain depth. This depth is named critical depth. Pile end bearing in sandy soils is also related to
effective stress. Experimental data indicates that end bearing capacity does not also increase with depth
indefinitely.Duetolackofavalidtheory,Engineersusethesamecriticaldepthconceptadoptedforskinfrictionfor
end bearing capacity as well. Both the skin friction and the end bearing capacity are assumed to increase till the
criticaldepth,dcandthenmaintainaconstantvalue.Followingapproximationsmaybeusedforthecriticaldepthin
relationtodiameterofpile,D.
dc=10D
forloose sand
dc=15D
formedium dense sand
dc=20D
fordense sand
3.10.1.14 AxialCapacityofDrivenPilesinCohesionlessSoilusingSPTValues
TheskinfrictionofpilecanthusbeestimatedfromNvalue.Thefollowingrelationmaybeusedforclaysoils.
Forlargedisplacementpiles:
fb = 2 N
Forlargedisplacementpiles:
f b = 1N
(in kPa)
(in kPa)
(6.3.26a)
(6.3.26b)
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3.10.1.15
L
D
(6.3.27)
AxialCapacityofDrivenPileusingPileLoadTest
Generally, the total test load is twice the design load. The pile load test has considered to have failed, if the
settlementintothesoil,thatisthegrosssettlementminuselasticshortening,isgreaterthan25mmatfulltestload
orthesettlementintothesoilisgreaterthan13mm,attheendofthetestafterremovaloftheload.
3.10.1.16
SelectionofFactorofSafety
Afactorofsafetyshallbeappliedtoallestimatesoffailureloadafterconsidering:
i)
Thereliabilityofthevalueoftheultimatebearingcapacity,
ii)
Controlofthepileinstallationprocedure
ii)
Thetypeofsuperstructureandtypeofloading,and
iii)
Allowabletotalanddifferentialsettlementofthestructure.
Whenultimatebearingcapacityiscalculatedfromeitherstaticformulaordynamicformula,theabovefactorsshall
be considered. The minimum factor of safety on static formula shall be 3.0. The factor of safety shall actually
dependonthereliabilityoftheformula,dependingonaparticularsiteandthereliabilityofthesubsoilparameters
employed in the calculations. The assumption of a factor of safety shall also consider the load settlement
characteristicsofthestructureasawholeonagivensite.Thedesignpilecapacityshallbespecifiedontheplansso
thefactorofsafetycanbeadjustedifthespecifiedconstructioncontrolprocedureisaltered.Whensafeloadona
drivenpileisassessedbyapplyingafactorofsafetytoloadtestdata,theminimumsafetyfactorshallbe2.
Settlementistobelimitedordifferentialsettlementavoided(i.e.,foraccuratelyalignedmachineryorafragilefinish
ofsuperstructure)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
largeimpactorvibratingloadsareexpected
soilstrengthormodulusmaybeexpectedtodeterioratewithtime
liveloadonastructurecarriedbyfrictionpilesisaconsiderableportionofthetotalloadand
approximatethedeadloadinduration.
Theallowableaxialloadonapileshallbetheleastvaluepermittedbyconsiderationofthefollowingfactors:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Thecapacityofthepileasastructuralmember.
Theallowablebearingpressureonsoilstrataunderlyingthepiletip.
Theresistancetopenetrationofthepile,includingresistancetodriving,resistancetojacking,the
rateofpenetration,orotherequivalentcriteria.
(iv)
Thecapacityasindicatedbyloadtest,whereloadtestsarerequired.
Drivenpileinsoilshallbedesignedforaminimumoverallfactorofsafetyof2.0againstbearingcapacityfailure(end
bearing,sideresistanceorcombined)whenthedesignisbasedontheresultsofaloadtestconductedatthesite.
Otherwise, it shall be designed for a minimum overall factor of safety 3.0. The minimum recommended overall
factorofsafetyisbasedonanassumednormalleveloffieldqualitycontrolduringconstruction.Ifanormallevelof
fieldqualitycontrolcannotbeassured,higherminimumfactorsofsafetyshallbeused.Therecommendedvaluesof
overallfactorofsafetyonultimateaxialloadcapacitybasedonspecifiedconstructionControlispresentedinTable
6.3.8.
Partialfactorofsafetymaybeusedindependentlyforskinfrictionandendbearing.Thevaluesofpartialfactorof
safetymaybetakenas1.5and3.0respectivelyforskinfrictionandendbearing.Thedesign/allowableloadmaybe
takenastheminimumofthevaluesconsideringoverallandpartialfactorofsafety.
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Table6.3.8:DesignFactorofSafetyforDeepFoundationforDownwardandUpwardLoad
Structure
Design
Life(yrs.)
Probability
ofFailure
GoodControl
Monument
Permanent
Temporary
>100
25100
<25
105
DesignFactorofSafety
NormalControl PoorControl
V.PoorControl
2.30
3.00
3.50
4.00
2.00
2.50
2.80
3.40
1.40
2.00
2.30
2.80
10
10
Forupliftload,factorofsafetyishigher.Usually1.5to2.0timesofthevaluesinthischartfordownwardloading
3.10.1.17
GroupPilesandGroupCapacityofDrivenPiles
Allpilesshallbebracedtoprovidelateralstabilityinalldirections.Threeormorepilesconnectedbyarigidcapshall
be considered as being braced, provided that the piles are located in a radial direction from the centroid of the
group, notless than60 degrees apartcircumferentially. A two pile group inarigidcap shall be considered to be
bracedalongtheaxisconnectingthetwopiles.Pilessupportingwallsshallbedrivenalternatelyinlinesatleast300
mm apart and located symmetrically under the centre of gravity of the wall load, unless effective measures are
takentocaterforeccentricityandlateralforces,orthewallpilesareadequatelybracedtoprovidelateralstability.
Grouppilecapacityofdrivenpilesshouldbedeterminedastheproductofthegroupefficiency,numberofpilesin
the group and the capacity of a single pile. In general, a group efficiency value of 1.0 should be used except for
frictionpilesdrivenincohesivesoils.Theminimumcentertocenterpilespacingof2.5Bisrecommended.
3.10.1.17.1 PileCaps
Pilecapsshallbeofreinforcedconcrete.Thesoilimmediatelybelowthepilecapshallnotbeconsideredascarrying
anyverticalload.Thetopsofallpilesshallbeembeddednotlessthan75mmintopilecapsandthecapshallextend
atleast100mmbeyondtheedgeofallpiles.Thetopsofallpilesshallbecutbacktosoundmaterialbeforecapping.
Thepilecapshallberigidenough,sothattheimposedloadcanbedistributedonthepilesinagroupequitably.The
cap shall generally be cast over a 75 mm thick levelling course of concrete. The clear cover for the main
reinforcementinthecapslabundersuchconditionshallnotbelessthan60mm.
3.10.1.18
LateralLoads(Capacity)onDrivenPiles
Thedesignoflaterallyloadedpilesisusuallygovernedbylateralmovementcriteria.Thedesignoflaterallyloaded
piles shall account for the effects of soilstructure interaction between the pile and ground. Methods of analysis
evaluatingtheultimatecapacityordeflectionoflaterallyloadedpilesmaybeusedforpreliminarydesignonlyasa
meanstoevaluateappropriatepilesections.Lateralcapacityofverticalsinglepilesshallbetheleastofthevalues
calculatedonthebasisofsoilfailure,structuralcapacityofthepileanddeflectionofthepilehead.
Deflectioncalculationsrequirehorizontalsubgrademodulusofthesurroundingsoil.Whenconsideringlateralload
onpiles,theeffectofothercoexistentloads,includingaxialloadonthepile,shallbetakenintoconsiderationfor
checkingstructuralcapacityoftheshaft.
Forestimatingthedepthoffixity,establishedmethodofanalysisshallbeused.Todeterminelateralloadcapacity,
lateralloadtesttoatleasttwicetheproposeddesignworkingloadshallbemade.Theresultingallowableloadshall
notbemorethanonehalfofthetestloadthatproducesagrosslateralmovementof25mmatthegroundsurface.
Lateral load tests shall be performed. All piles standing unbraced in air, water or soils not capable of providing
lateralsupportshallbedesignedascolumnsinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthisCode.
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3.10.1.19
VerticalGroundMovement
Thepotentialforexternalloadingonapilebyverticalgroundmovementsshallbeconsideredaspartofthedesign.
Vertical ground movements may result in negative skin friction or downdrag loads due to settlement of
compressible soils or may result in uplift loads due to heave of expansive soils. For design purposes, the full
magnitudeofmaximumverticalgroundmovementshallbeassumed.
3.10.1.19.1 NegativeSkinFriction(DownwardMovement)
Drivenpilesinstalledincompressiblefillorsoftsoilsubjecttocompressionshallbedesignedagainstdownwardload
duetodowndragknownasthenegativefrictionofthecompressiblesoil.Thepotentialforexternalloadingonapile
by negative skin friction/downdrag due to settlement of compressible soil shall be considered as a part of the
design.Evaluationofnegativeskinfrictionshallincludealoadtransfermethodofanalysistodeterminetheneutral
point (i.e., point of zero relative displacement) and load distribution along shaft. Due to the possible time
dependence associated with vertical ground movement, the analysis shall consider the effect of time on load
transfer between the ground and shaft and the analysis shall be performed for the time period relating to the
maximum axial load transfer to thepile.Ifnecessary, negative skin frictionloads that cause excessivesettlement
may be reduced by application of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the pile surfaces before In estimating
negativeskinfrictionthefollowingfactorsshallbeconsidered:
(i)
Relativemovementbetweensoilandpileshaft.
(ii)
Relativemovementbetweenanyunderlyingcompressiblesoilandpileshaft.
(iii)
Elasticcompressionofthepileundertheworkingload.
(iv)
Therateofconsolidationofthecompressiblelayer.
Negativeskinfrictionismobilizedonlywhentendencyforrelativemovementbetweenpileshaftandsurrounding
soilexists.
3.10.1.19.2 ExpansiveSoils(UpwardMovement)
Pilesdriveninswellingsoilsmaybesubjectedtoupliftforcesinthezoneofseasonalmoisturechange.Pilesshall
extend a sufficient distance into moisturestable soils to provide adequate resistance to swelling uplift forces. In
addition,sufficientclearanceshallbeprovidedbetweenthegroundsurfaceandtheundersideofpilecapsorgrade
beams to preclude the application of uplift loads at the pile cap. Uplift loads may be reduced by application of
bitumenorotherviscouscoatingstothepilesurfaceintheswellingzone.
3.10.1.20
Dynamic/SeismicDesignofPiles
In case of submerged loose sands, vibration caused by earthquake may cause liquefaction or excessive total and
differentialsettlements.Thisaspectoftheproblemshallbeinvestigatedandappropriatemethodsofimprovements
should be adopted to achieve suitable values of N. Alternatively, large diameter drilled pier foundation shall be
providedandtakentodepthswellintothelayerswhicharenotlikelytoliquefy.
3.10.1.21
ProtectionagainstCorrosionandAbrasion
Whereconditionsofexposurewarrant,concreteencasementorothercorrosionprotectionshallbeusedonsteel
pilesandsteelshells.Exposedsteel pilesorsteelshellsshall nothe usedinsaltor brackish water, andonlywith
cautioninfreshwater.DetailsaregiveninSection3.7.2.
3.10.1.22
DynamicMonitoring
Dynamic monitoring may be specified for piles installed in difficult subsurface conditions such as soils with
obstructions and boulders to evaluate compliance with structural pile capacity. Dynamic monitoring may also be
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consideredforgeotechnicalcapacityverification,wherethesizeoftheprojectorotherlimitationsdetersstaticload
testing.
3.10.1.23
MaximumAllowableDrivingStresses
Maximumallowabledrivingstressesinpilematerialfortopdrivenpilesshallnotexceed0.9Fy(compression),0.9Fy
(tension)forsteelpiles,0.85f cconcrete(compression)and0.7Fy (steelreinforcement(tension)for concrete piles

and0.85fcfpc(compression)forprestressedconcretepiles.
3.10.1.24
Buoyancy
The effects ofhydrostatic pressure shall be considered in the design of driven piles, where used with foundation
subjectedtobuoyancyforces.
3.10.1.25
ProtectionagainstDeterioration
3.10.1.25.1 SteelPiles
Asteelpilefoundationdesignshallconsiderthatsteelpilesmaybesubjecttocorrosion,particularlyinfillsoilslow
pHsoils(acidic)andmarineenvironments.AfieldelectricresistivitysurveyorresistivitytestingandpHtestingof
soil and ground water samples should be used to evaluate the corrosion potential. Methods of protecting steel
piling in corrosive environments include use of protective coatings, cathodic protection, and increased pile steel
area.
3.10.1.25.2 ConcretePiles
Aconcretepilefoundationdesignshallconsiderthatdeteriorationofconcretepilescanoccurduetosulfatesinsoil,
groundwater,orseawater;chloridesinsoilsandchemicalwastes;acidicgroundwateranorganicacids.Laboratory
testing of soil and ground water samples for sulfates and ph is usually sufficient to assess pile deterioration
potential. A full chemical analysis of soil and round water samples is recommended when chemical wastes are
suspected. Methods of protecting concrete piling can include dense impermeable concrete, sulfate resisting
portlandcement,minimumcoverrequirementsforreinforcingsteel,anduseofepoxies,resins,orotherprotective
coatings
3.10.1.25.3 TimberPiles
Atimberpilefoundation(usedfortemporarystructures)designshallconsiderthatdeteriorationoftimberpilescan
occurduetodecayfromwettinganddryingcyclesorfrominsectsormarineborersMethodsofprotectingtimber
pilingincludepressuretreatingwithcreosoteorotherwoodpreservers
3.10.1.26
PileSpacing,ClearanceandEmbedment
3.10.1.26.1 PileSpacing
Endbearingdrivenpilesshallbeproportionedsuchthattheminimumcentertocenterpilespacingshallexceedthe
greaterof750mmor2.5pilediameters/widths.Thedistancefromthesideofanypiletothenearestedgeofthe
pilecapshallnotbelessthan100mm.Thespacingofpilesshallbesuchthattheaverageloadonthesupporting
strata will not exceed the safe bearing value of those strata as determined by test boring or other established
methods.
Pilesderivingtheircapacityfromfrictionalresistanceshallbesufficientlyaparttoensurethatthezonesofsoilfrom
which the piles derive their support do not overlap to such an extent that their bearing values are reduced.
Generally,insuchcases,thespacingshallnotbelessthan3.0timesthediameteroftheshaft.
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3.10.1.26.2 MinimumProjectionofPileintothePileCap
Thetopsofpilesshallprojectnotlessthan100mmintoconcreteafteralldamagedpilematerialhasbeenremoved.
3.10.1.27
StructuralCapacityofDrivenPileSection
The crosssection of driven piles shall be of sufficient size and pile material shall have the necessary structural
strengthtoresistallhandlingstressesduringdrivingorinstallationandthenecessarystrengthtotransmittheload
imposedonthemtotheunderlyingandsurroundingsoil.Pilediameter/crosssectionofapileshaftatanylevelshall
notbelessthanthedesignatednominaldiameter/crosssection.Thestructuraldesignofpilesmustconsidereachof
thefollowingloadingconditions.
Handlingloadsarethoseimposedonthepilebetweenthetimeitisfabricatedandthetimeitisinthe
piledriverleadsandreadytobedriven.Theyaregeneratedbycranes,forklifts,andotherconstruction
equipment.
Drivingloadsareproducedbythepilehammerduringdriving.
Serviceloadsarethedesignloadsfromthecompletedstructures.
The maximum allowable stress on a pile shall not exceed 0.33 f c for precast concrete piles and 33 f c f pc for
prestressedconcretepilesand 0 .25 f y forsteelHpiles.Theaxialcarryingcapacityofapilefullyembeddedinsoil
withundrainedshearstrengthgreaterthan10kN/m2shallnotbelimitedbyitsstrengthaslongcolumn.Forweaker
soils(undrainedshearstrengthlessthan10kN/m2),considerationshallbegiventodeterminewhethertheshaft
wouldbehaveasalongcolumn.Ifnecessary,suitablereductionsshallbemadeinitsstructuralstrengthconsidering
buckling.Theeffectivelengthofapilenotsecuredagainstbucklingbyadequatebracingshallbegovernedbyfixity
conditionsimposedonitbythestructureitsupportsandbythenatureofthesoilinwhichitisinstalled.
3.10.1.28
DrivenCastinPlaceConcretePiles
Driven castinplace concrete piles shall be in general cast in metal shells driven into the soil that will remain
permanently in place. However, other types of castinplace piles, plain or reinforced, cased or uncased, may be
usedifthesoilconditionspermittheiruseandiftheirdesignandmethodofplacingaresatisfactory.
3.10.1.28.1 Shape
Castinplaceconcretepilesmayhaveauniformcrosssectionormaybetaperedoveranyportion.
3.10.1.28.2 MinimumArea
Theminimumareaatthebuttofthepileshallbe650squarecmsandtheminimumdiameteratthetipofthepile
shallbe200mm.
3.10.1.28.3 GeneralReinforcementRequirements
Dependingonthedrivingandinstallationconditionsandtheloadingcondition,theamountofreinforcementandits
arrangement shall vary. Castinplace piles, carrying axial loads only, where the possibility of lateral forces being
appliedtothepilesisinsignificant,neednotbereinforcedwherethesoilprovidesadequatelateralsupport.Those
portions of castinplace concrete piles that are not supported laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete
columnsandthereinforcingsteelshallextend3000mmbelowtheplanewherethesoilprovidesadequatelateral
restraint.Wheretheshellissmoothpipeandmorethan3mminthickness,itmaybeconsideredasloadcarryingin
theabsenceofcorrosion.Wheretheshelliscorrugatedandisatleast2mminthickness,itmaybeconsideredas
providingconfinementintheabsenceofcorrosion.
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Chapter3
3.10.1.28.4 ReinforcementintoSuperstructure
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junction of the pile with the superstructure to make a suitable
connection.Theembedmentofthereinforcementintothecapshallbeasspecifiedforprecastpiles
3.10.1.28.5 ShellRequirements
The shell shall be of sufficient thickness and strength, so that it will hold its original form and show no harmful
distortionafteritandadjacentshellshavebeendrivenandthedrivingcore,ifany,hasbeenwithdrawn.Theplans
shallstipulatethatalternativedesignsoftheshellmustbeapprovedbytheEngineerbeforeanydrivingisdone.
3.10.1.28.6 Splices
Piles may be spliced provided the splice develops the full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on the
contractplans.Anyalternativemethodofsplicingprovidingequalresultsmaybeconsideredforapproval.
3.10.1.28.7 ReinforcementCover
Thereinforcementshallbeplacedacleardistanceofnotlessthan50mmfromthecasedoruncasedsides.When
piles are in corrosive or marine environments, or when concrete is placed by the water or slurry displacement
methods, the clear distance shall not be less than 75 mm for uncased piles and piles with shells not sufficiently
corrosionresistant.Reinforcementsshallextendtowithin100mmoftheedgeofthepilecapReinforcementsshall
extendtowithin100mmoftheedgeofthepilecap.
3.10.1.28.8 Installation
Steel cased piles shall have the steel shell mandrel driven their full length in contact with surrounding soil, left
permanentlyinplaceandfilledwithconcrete.Nopileshallbedrivenwithin4.5timestheaveragepilediameterofa
pilefilledwithconcretelessthan24hoursold.Concreteshallnotbeplacedinsteelshellswithintheheaverangeof
driving
3.10.1.28.9 Concreting
Forboredordrivencastinsitupiles,concreteshallbedepositedinsuchawayastoprecludesegregation.Concrete
shallbedepositedcontinuouslyuntilitisbroughttotherequiredlevel.Thetopsurfaceshallbemaintainedaslevel
aspossibleandtheformationofseamsshallbeavoided.
Forunderreamedpiles,theslumpofconcreteshallrangebetween100mmand150mmforconcretinginwater
free holes. For large diameter holes concrete may be placed by tremie or by drop bottom bucket; for small
diameterboreholesatremieshallbeutilized.
Aslumpof125mmto150mmshallbemaintainedforconcretingbytremie.Incaseoftremieconcretingforpilesof
smallerdiameterandlengthupto10m,theminimumcementcontentshallbe350kg/m3 ofconcrete.Forlarger
diameterand/ordeeperpiles,theminimumcementcontentshallbe400kg/m3ofconcrete.
Forconcretingunderwater,theconcreteshallcontainatleast10percentmorecementthanthatrequiredforthe
samemixplacedinthedry.Theamountofcoarseaggregateshallbenotlessthanoneandahalftimes,normore
thantwotimes,thatofthefineaggregate.Thematerialsshallbesoproportionedastoproduceaconcretehavinga
slumpofnotlessthan100mm,normorethan150mm,exceptwhereplasticizingadmixturesisusedinwhichcase,
theslumpmaybe175mm
3.10.1.28.10 StructuralIntegrity
Bored piles shall be installed in such a manner and sequence as to prevent distortion or damage to piles being
installedoralreadyinplace,totheextentthatsuchdistortionordamageaffectsthestructuralintegrityofthepiles.
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3.10.1.29
PrestressedConcretePiles
3.10.1.29.1 SizeandShape
Prestressed concrete piles that are generally octagonal, square or circular shall be of approved size and shape..
Concrete in prestressed piles shall have a minimum compressive strength (cylinder), fc of 35 MPa at 28 days.
Prestressed concrete piles may be solid or hollow. For hollow piles, precautionary measures should be taken to
preventbreakageduetointernalwaterpressureduringdriving.
3.10.1.29.2 MainReinforcement
Mainreinforcementshallbespacedandstressedsoastoprovideacompressivestressonthepileafterlosses;fpc,
generallynotlessthan5MPatopreventcrackingduringhandlingandinstallation.Pilesshallbedesignedtoresist
stressesdevelopedduringhandlingaswellasunderserviceloadconditions.Bendingstressesshallbeinvestigated
forallconditionsofhandling,takingintoaccounttheweightofthepileplus50percentallowanceforimpact,with
tensilestresseslimitedto5fc.
3.10.1.29.3 VerticalandSpiralReinforcement
The fulllength of verticalreinforcementshall beenclosed within spiral reinforcement.For pilesup to 600 mm in
diameter,spiralwireshallbeNo.5(U.S.SteelWireGage).Spiralreinforcementattheendsofthesepilesshallhavea
pitchof75mmforapproximately16turns.
Inaddition,thetop150mmofpileshallhavefiveturnsofspiralwindingat25mmpitch.Fortheremainderofthe
pile,theverticalsteelshallbeenclosedwithspiralreinforcementwithnotmorethan150mmpitch.Forpileshaving
diametersgreaterthan600mm.spiralwireshallbeNo.4(U.S.SteelWireGage).Spiralreinforcementattheendof
thesepilesshallhaveapitchof50mmforapproximately16turns.Inaddition,thetop150mmofpileshallhave
fourturnsofspiralwindingat38mmpitch.Fortheremainderofthepile,theverticalsteelshallbeenclosedwith
spiralreinforcementwithnotmorethan100mmpitch.Thereinforcementshallbeplacedatacleardistancefrom
thefaceoftheprestressedpileofnotlessthan50mm.
3.10.1.29.4 DrivingandHandlingStresses
Aprestressedpileshallnotbedrivenbeforetheconcretehasattainedacompressivestrengthofatleast28MPa,
butnotlessthansuchstrengthsufficienttowithstandhandlinganddrivingforces.
3.10.2
BoredPiles
Inboredcastinplacepiles,theholesarefirstboredwithapermanentortemporarycasingorbyusingbentonite
slurrytostabilizethesidesofthebore.Aprefabricatedsteelcageisthenloweredintotheholeandconcretingis
carriedbytremiemethod.
3.10.2.1
UltimateGeotechnicalCapacityofBoredPileforAxialLoad
Thebasicconceptofultimatebearingcapacityandusefulequationsforaxialloadcapacityareidenticaltothatof
drivenpileasdescribedinSection3.11.1.9.
3.10.2.2
AxialCapacityofBoredPilesinCohesiveSoilusingStaticBearingCapacity
Equations
Theultimateaxialcapacityofboredpilesincohesivemaybecalculatedfromthesamestaticformulaasusedfor
drivenpiles,givenbyEquations(6.3.14a),(6.3.14b)and(6.3.15),usingatotalstressmethodforundrainedloading
conditions,oraneffectivestressmethodfordrainedloadingconditions.Theskinfriction(fs)maybetakenas0.67
timesthevalueofdrivenpilesandtheendbearing(fb)maybetakenas1/3rdofdrivenpile.
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3.10.2.3
Chapter3
AxialCapacityofBoredPilesinCohesiveSoilandNonplasticSiltusingSPT
Values
Thefollowingrelationmaybeusedforpreliminarydesignofpilesinclayandsiltsoils.TheNvalueusedshouldbe
correctedforoverburden.
Forclayandsilt:
f s = 1.11 N (in kPa)
70 kPa
(6.3.28)
Forclay:
f b = 15 N
f b = 10 0 N
(in kPa)
(6.3.29)
(6.3.30)
Forsilt:
3.10.2.4
(in kPa)
Axial Capacity of Bored Piles in Cohesionless Soil using Static Bearing

CapacityEquations
Theultimateaxialcapacityofboredpilesincohesivemaybecalculatedfromthesamestaticformulaasusedfor
drivenpilesdescribedsection3.1.11.13.Theskinfriction(fs)maybetakenas0.67timesthevalueofdrivenpiles
andtheendbearing(fb)maybetakenas1/3rdofdrivenpile.
CriticalDepthforEndBearingandSkinFriction
Similartodrivenpiles,followingapproximationsmaybeusedforthecriticaldepthinrelationtodiameterofpile,D.
3.10.2.5
dc=10D
forloose sand
dc=15D
formedium dense sand
dc=20D
fordense sand
AxialCapacityofBoredPilesinCohesionlessSoilusingSPTValues
TheskinfrictionofpilecanthusbeestimatedfromNvalue.Thefollowingrelationmaybeusedforclaysoils.
f s = 1.33N (in kPa)
60 kPa
(6.3.31)
3.10.2.6
L
D
(6.3.32)
AxialCapacityofBoredPileusingPileLoadTest
Theproceduresandprinciplesofpileloadtestforultimatecapacityaresimilartothatofdrivenpiles.
3.10.2.7
SelectionofFactorofSafety
Selectionoffactorofsafetyforaxialcapacityofboredpileissimilartothatusedfordrivenpiles.
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3.10.2.8
GroupCapacityofBoredPilesandother
The behavior of group bored piles is almost similar to that of driven piles. For the pile cap, lateral load capacity,
vertical ground movement, negative skin friction, piles in expansive soil, dynamic and seismic design, corrosion
protection,dynamicmonitoringandbuoyancy,Sections3.11.1.17shouldbeconsultedastheyaresimilarforboth
drivenandboredpiles.
3.10.3
SettlementofDrivenandBoredPiles
Thesettlementofaxiallyloadedpilesandpilegroupsattheallowableloadsshallbeestimated.Elasticanalysis,load
transferand/orfiniteelementtechniquesmaybeused.Thesettlementofthepileorpilegroupshallnotexceedthe
tolerablemovementlimitsasrecommendedforshallowfoundations(Table6.3.7).
Whenapileisloadedtwothingswouldhappeninvolvingsettlement.
Thepilewouldsettleintothesoil
Thepilematerialwouldcompressduetoload
Thesettlementofasinglepilecanbebrokendownintothreedistinctparts.
Settlementduetoaxialdeformation,Sax
Settlementatthepiletip,Spt
Settlementduetoskinfriction,Ssf
Thus,
(6.3.33)
Moreover,pilesactinginagroupcouldundergolongtermconsolidationsettlement.
Settlementduetoaxialdeformationofasinglepilecanbeestimatedas:
Where,
Qp=
(6.3.34)
(6.3.35)
Loadtransferredtothesoilattiplevel
Qs=
Totalskinfrictionload
L=
Lengthofthepile
A=
Crosssectionareaofthepile
Ep=
Youngsmodulusofpilematerial
a=
0.5forclayandsiltsoils
a=
0.67forsandysoil
Piletipsettlement,Stpcanbeestimatedas:
Where,
6194
Qp=
Loadtransferredtothesoilattiplevel
D=
Diameterofthepile
qo=
Ultimateendbearingcapacity
Cp=
EmpiricalcoefficientasgiveninTable6.3.9
a=
0.67forsandysoil
Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations
Chapter3
Table6.3.9:TypicalValuesofCpforSettlementCalculationofSinglePile
SoilType
ValuesofCP
DenseSand
DrivenPile
0.02
BoredPile
0.09
LooseSand
0.04
0.18
StiffClay
0.02
0.03
SoftClay
0.03
0.06
DenseSilt
0.03
0.09
LooseSilt
0.05
0.12
Skinfrictionactingalongtheshaftwouldstressthesurroundingsoil.Skinfrictionactsupwarddirectionalongthe
pile.Theforceduetopileonsurroundingsoilwouldbeindownwarddirection.Whenthepileisloaded,thepile
wouldslightlymovedown.Thepilewoulddragthesurroundingsoilwithit.Hence,thepilesettlementwouldoccur
duetoskinfrictionasgivenby:
Where,
0.93
0.16
Cs=
Empiricalcoefficient
Cp=
EmpiricalcoefficientasgiveninTable6.3.9
Qs=
Totalskinfrictionload
D=
Diameterofthepile
qo=
Ultimateendbearingcapacity
(6.3.36)
ShortTermPileGroupSettlement
Shorttermorelasticpilegroupsettlementcanbeestimatedusingthefollowingrelation.
.
Where,
Sg=
(6.3.37)
Settlementofthepilegroup
St(single)= Totalsettlementofasinglepile
B=
Smallestdimensionofthepilegroup
D=
Diameterofthepile
Interestingly, geometry of the group does not have much of an influence on the settlement. As such, Group
SettlementRatio,Rsofapilegroupconsistingofnnumberofpilescanbeapproximatedasfollows.
.
(6.3.38)
SettlementofthegroupcanbeestimatedasthehighestvalueasobtainedfromEquations(6.3.37)and(6.3.38).
LongTermSettlementforPileGroup
Forpilegroups,settlementduetoconsolidationismoreimportantthanforsinglepiles.Consolidationsettlementof
pilegroupinclaysoiliscomputedusingthefollowingsimplifiedassumptions.
Thepilegroupisassumedtobeasolidfoundationwithadepth2/3rdthelengthofthepiles
Effectivestressatmidpointoftheclaylayerisusedtocomputesettlement
If soil properties are available consolidation settlement may obtained from the following equation. The depth of
significant stress increase (10%) or the depth of bed rock whichever is less should be taken for computation of
settlement.Stressdistributionmaybeconsideredas2verticalto1horizontal.
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StructuralDesign
Where,
Cc=
Compressionindexofsoil
eo=
initialvoidratio
(6.3.39)
H=
Thicknessoftheclaylayer
o=
Initialeffectivestressatmidpointoftheclaylayer
p=
Increaseineffectivestressatmidpointoftheclaylayerduetopileload.
Inabsenceofsoilpropertiesthefollowingempiricalequationsmaybeusedtoestimatethelongterm(consolidation
settlementofclaysoils.
Forclay:
Forsand:
Ln
(6.3.40)
(6.3.41)
Where,
H=
Thicknessoftheclaylayer
o=
Initialeffectivestressatmidpointoftheclaylayer
1=
Neweffectivestressatmidpointoftheclaylayerafterpileload.
r=
Referencestress(100kPa)
M=
DimensionlessmodulusnumberasobtainedfromTable6.3.10
j=
StressexponentasobtainedfromTable6.3.10.
Table6.3.10:SettlementParameters
Soil
Density
Modulus
Number,M
Stress
Exponent,j
1000300
1.0
Till
V.DensetoDense
Gravel
40040
0.5
Sand
Dense
400250
0.5
Sand
MediumDense
250150
0.5
Sand
Loose
150100
0.5
Silt
Dense
20080
0.5
Silt
MediumDense
8060
0.5
Silt
Loose
6040
0.5
SiltyClay
Stiff
6040
0.5
SiltyClay
MediumStiff
2010
0.5
SiltyClay
Soft
105
0.5
MarineClay
Soft
205
0.0
OrganicClay
Soft
205
0.0
Peat
51
0.0
3.10.4 DrilledShafts/DrilledPiers
3.10.4.1
General
Largediameter(morethan400mm)boredpilesaresometimesclassifiedasdrilledshaftordrilledpiers.Theyare
usuallyprovidedwithenlargedbasecalledbell.Theprovisionsofthisarticleshallapplytothedesignofaxiallyand
laterallyloadeddrilledshafts/drilledpiersinsoilorextendingthroughsoiltoorintorock.
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SoilsandFoundations
3.10.4.2
Chapter3
Application
Drilled shafts may be considered when spread footings cannot be founded on suitable soil within a reasonable
depthandwhenpilesarenoteconomicallyviableduetohighloadsorobstructionstodriving.Drilledshaftsmaybe
used in lieu of spread footings as a protection against scour. Drilled shafts may also be considered to resist high
lateralorupliftloadswhendeformationtolerancesaresmall.
3.10.4.3
Material
Shaftsshallbecastinplaceconcreteandmayincludedeformedbarsteelreinforcement,structuralsteelsections,
and/orpermanentsteelcasingasrequiredbydesign.
3.10.4.4
Embedment
Shaft embedment shall be determined based on vertical and lateral load capacities of both the shaft and sub
surfacematerials.
3.10.4.5
BatterShafts
Theuseofbatteredshaftstoincreasethelateralcapacityoffoundationsisnotrecommendedduetotheirdifficulty
ofconstructionandhighcost.Instead,considerationshouldfirstbegiventoincreasingtheshaftdiametertoobtain
therequiredlateralcapacity.
3.10.4.6
SelectionofSoilProperties
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and compressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are
requiredfordrilledshaftdesign.
3.10.4.7
GeotechnicalDesign
Drilledshaftsshallbedesignedtosupportthedesignloadswithadequatebearingandstructuralcapacity,andwith
tolerable settlements. In addition, the response of drilled shafts subjected to seismic and dynamic loads shall be
evaluated.
Shaftdesignshallbebasedonworkingstressprinciplesusingmaximumunfactoredloadsderivedfromcalculations
ofdeadandliveloadsfromsuperstructures,substructures,earth(i.e.,slopingground),windandtraffic.Allowable
axialandlateralloadsmaybedeterminedbyseparatemethodsofanalysis.
The design methods presented herein for determining axial load capacity assume drilled shafts of uniform cross
section,withverticalalignment,concentricaxialloading,andarelativelyhorizontalgroundsurface.Theeffectsof
anenlargedbase,groupaction,andslopinggroundaretreatedseparately
3.10.4.7.1
BearingCapacityEquationsforDrilledShaft
Theultimateaxialcapacity(Qult)ofdrilledshaftsshallbedeterminedinaccordancewiththeprincipleslaidforbored
piles.
CohesiveSoil
Skinfrictionresistanceincohesivesoilmaybedeterminedusingeitherthemethodorthemethodasdescribed
intherelevantsectionofdrivenpiles.However,forclaysoil,methodhaswidebeenusedbytheengineers.This
methodgives:
(6.3.42)
Where,
fs=
Skinfriction
su=
undrainedshearstrengthofsoilalongtheshaft
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Part6
StructuralDesign
adhesionfactor=0.55forundrainedshearstrength190kPa(4000psf)
For higher values of su the value of may be taken from Fig. 6.3.3 as obtained from test data of previous
investigators.Theskinfrictionresistanceshouldbeignoredintheupper1.5moftheshaftandalongthebottom
one diameter of straight shafts because of interaction with the end bearing. If end bearing is ignored for some
reasons,theskinfrictionalongthebottomonediametermaybeconsidered.Forbelledshaft,skinfrictionalongthe
surfaceofthebellandalongtheshaftforadistanceofoneshaftdiameterabovethetopofbellshouldbeignored.
Fig.6.3.3AdhesionFactorforDrilledShaft(afterCoduto,1994)
Forendbearingofcohesivesoil,thefollowingrelationsgivenbyEquations(6.3.43)and(6.3.44)arerecommended.
f b = N c su
4000 kPa
6 1
Where,
0.2
fb=
Endbearingstress
(6.3.43)
(6.3.18)
su=
undrainedshearstrengthofsoilalongtheshaft
Nc=
Bearingcapacityfactor
L=
Lengthofthepile(Depthtothebottomoftheshaft)
Db=
Diameteroftheshaftbase
If the base diameter is more than 1900 mm, the value of fb from Equation (6.3.43) could produce settlements
greaterthan25mm,whichwouldbeunacceptableformostbuildings.Tokeepsettlementwithintolerablelimits,
thevalueoffbshouldbereducedtofbbymultiplyingafactorFrsuchthat:
f b = Fr f b
6198
0.0071
(6.3.44a)
(6.3.44b)
0.0015
(6.3.44c)
1.0
0.0021
Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations
Where,
1.59
Chapter3
0.521.5
Br=
Referencewidth=1ft=0.3m=12inch=300mm
r=
Referencestress=100kPa=2000psf
(6.3.44d)
CohesionlessSoil
Skin friction resistance in cohesionless soil is usually determined using the method. The relevant equation is
reproducedagain:
Where,
fs=
f s = z
(6.3.45)
= K tan S
(6.3.46)
Skinfriction
z=
Effectiveverticalstressatmidpointofsoillayer
K=
Coefficientoflateralearthpressure
s=
Soilshaftinterfacefrictionangle
ThevaluesofKand scanbeobtainedfromthechartofTables6.3.11,fromthesoilfrictionangle, and
preconstruction coefficient of lateral earth pressure Ko. However, Ko is very difficult to determine. An
alternative is to compute directly using the following empirical relation.
1.5
Where,
0.135
Br=
z=
Depthfromthegroundsurfacetothemidpointofthestrata
(6.3.47)
Table6.3.11:TypicalS/ and K/KoValuesfortheDesignofDrilledShaft

S/
ConstructionMethod
ConstructionMethod
K/Ko
Openholeortemporarycasing
1.0
Dryconstructionwithminimalsidewall
disturbanceandpromptconcreting
Slurrymethodminimalslurrycake
1.0
Slurryconstructiongoodworkmanship
Slurrymethodheavyslurrycake
0.8
Slurryconstructionpoorworkmanship
2/3
Permanentcasing
0.7
Casingunderwater
5/6
Theunitendbearingcapacityfordrilledshaftincohesionlesssoilswillbelessthanthatfordrivenpilesbecauseof
variousreasonslikesoildisturbanceduringaugering,temporarystressreliefwhiletheholeisopen,largerdiameter
anddepthofinfluenceetc.Thereasonsarenotwelldefined,assuchthefollowingempiricalformuladevelopedby
ReeseandONell(1989)maybesuggestedtousetoestimateendbearingstress.
0.60
Where,
4500 kPa
(6.3.48)
fb=
Unitbearingresistance
r=
Referencestress=100kPa=2000psf
N=
MeanSPTvalueforthesoilbetweenthebaseoftheshaftandadepthequaltotwotimes
thebasediameterbelowthebase.Nooverburdencorrectionisrequired(N=N60)
If the base diameter is more than 1200 mm, the value of fb from Equation (6.3.48) could produce settlements
greaterthan25mm,whichwouldbeunacceptableformostbuildings.Tokeepsettlementwithintolerablelimits,
thevalueoffbshouldbereducedtofbbymultiplyingafactorFrsuchthat:
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StructuralDesign
f b = Fr f b
Where,
3.10.4.7.2
4.17
(6.3.49a)
1.0
(6.3.49b)
Br=
Db=
Basediameterofdrilledshaft
OtherMethodsofEvaluatingAxialLoadCapacity
A number of other methods are available to estimate the ultimate axial load capacity of drilled shafts. These
methodsarebasedonNvaluesobtainedfromStandardPenetrationTest(SPT)andonangleofinternalfrictionof
sand. These methods may alsobe used to estimatethe ultimate load carryingcapacity of drilled shafts.Three of
thesemethodsareasfollows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
MethodbasedontheStandardPenetrationTest(CanadianFoundationEngineeringManual,1985)
MethodbasedonTheoryofPlasticity(CanadianFoundationEngineeringManual,1985)
Tomlinson(1995)Method
ThesemethodsaresummarizedinAppendix6.3.C.
3.10.4.7.3
FactorofSafety
Similartoboredandrivenpiles,drilledshaftsshallbedesignedforaminimumoverallfactorofsafetyof2.0against
bearingcapacityfailure(endbearing,sideresistanceorcombined)whenthedesignisbasedontheresultsofaload
testconductedatthesite.Otherwise,itshallbedesignedforaminimumoverallfactorofsafety3.0.Theminimum
recommended overall factor of safety is based on an assumed normal level of field quality control during
construction.Ifanormalleveloffieldqualitycontrolcannotbeassured,higherminimumfactorsofsafetyshallbe
used. The recommended values of overall factor of safety on ultimate axial load capacity based on specified
constructionControlispresentedinTable6.3.8.
3.10.4.7.4
DeformationandSettlementofAxiallyLoadDrilledShaft
Similar to driven and bored piles, settlement of axially loaded shafts at working or allowable loads shall be
estimated using elastic or load transfer analysis methods. For most cases, elastic analysis will be applicable for
design provided thestress levels inthe shaftare moderaterelative toQult. Analytical methods are similar to that
providedinSection3.11.3fordrivenandboredpiles.ThechartsprovidedinAppendix6.3.Cmayalsobeusedto
estimatethesettlementofdrilledshaft.
3.10.4.7.5
LayeredSoilProfile
The shortterm settlement of shafts in a layered soil profile may be estimated by summing the proportional
settlementcomponentsfromlayersofcohesiveandcohesionlesssoilcomprisingthesubsurfaceprofile
3.10.4.7.6
TolerableMovement
Tolerable axial displacement criteria for drilled shaft foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
consistentwiththefunctionandtypeofstructure,fixityofbearings,anticipatedservicelife,andconsequencesof
unacceptabledisplacementsonthestructureperformance.Drilledshaftdisplacementanalysesshallbebasedon
the results of insitu and/or laboratory testing to characterize the loaddeformation behavior of the foundation
materials.
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SoilsandFoundations
3.10.4.8
3.10.4.8.1
Chapter3
GroupLoadingofDrilledShaft
CohesiveSoil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the
groundsurfaceandthespacingbetweenadjacentshafts.
Forashaftgroupwithacapinfirmcontactwiththeground,Qultmaybecomputedasthelesserof(1)thesumof
theindividualcapacitiesofeachshaftinthegroupor(2)thecapacityofanequivalentpierdefinedintheperimeter
areaofthegroup.Fortheequivalentpier,theshearstrengthofsoilshallnotbereducedbyanyfactor(e.g.,(1)to
determinetheQscomponentofQult,thetotalbaseareaoftheequivalentpiershallbeusedtodeterminetheQT
componentofQultandtheadditionalcapacityofthecapshallbeignored.
Ifthecapisnotinfirmcontactwiththeground,orifthesoilatthesurfaceislooseorsoft,theindividualcapacityof
eachshaftshouldbereducedtotimesQTforanisolatedshaft,where=0.67foracentertocenter(CTC)spacing
of3B(whereBistheshaftdiameter)and=1.0foraCTCspacingof6B.Forintermediatespacings,thevalueof
maybedeterminedbylinearinterpolation.Thegroupcapacitymaythenbecomputedasthelesserof(1)thesum
ofthemodifiedindividualcapacitiesofeachshaftinthegroup,or(2)thecapacityofanequivalentpierasdescribed
above.
3.10.4.8.2
CohesionlessSoil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesion soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
Regardlessofcapcontactwiththeground,theindividualcapacityofeachshaftshouldbereducedtotimesQTfor
anisolatedshaft,where=0.67foracenterlocenter(CTC)spacingof3Band=1.0foraCTCspacingof8B.For
intermediate spacings, the value of may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may be
computed as the lesser of (I) the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group or (2) the
capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group including resistance over the entire perimeter and base
areas.
3.10.4.8.3
StrongSoilOverlyingWeakSoil
Ifagroupofshaftsisembeddedinastrongsoildepositwhichoverliesaweakerdeposit(cohesionlessandcohesive
soil),considerationshallbegiventothepotentialforapunchingfailureofthelipintotheweakersoilstrata.Forthis
case,theunittipcapacityoftheequivalentshaft(qE)maybedeterminedusingthefollowing:
qE =
HBt
(qUP q Lo )
10
qUp
(6.3.50)
IntheaboveequationqUPistheultimateunitcapacityofanequivalentshaftbearinginthestrongerupperlayerand
qLOistheultimateunitcapacityofanequivalentshaftbearingintheweakerunderlyingsoillayer.Iftheunderlying
soilunitisaweakercohesivesoilstrata,carefulconsiderationshallbegiventothepotentialforlargesettlementsin
theweakerlayer.
3.10.4.9
LateralLoadsonDrilledShaft
3.10.4.9.1
SoilLayering
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts in layered soils shall be based on evaluation of the soil parameters
characteristicoftherespectivelayers
3.10.4.9.2
GroundWater
Thehighestanticipatedwaterlevelshallbeusedfordesign
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3.10.4.9.3
Scour
Thepotentialforlossoflateralcapacityduetoscourshallbeconsideredinthedesign.Ifheavyscourisexpected,
considerationshallbegiventodesigningtheportionoftheshaftthatwouldbeexposedasacolumn.Inallcases,
theshaftlengthshallbedeterminedsuchthatthedesignstructuralloadcanbesafelysupportedentirelybelowthe
probablescourdepth.
3.10.4.9.4
GroupAction
There is no reliable rational method for evaluating the group action for closely spaced, laterally loaded shafts.
Therefore,asageneralguide,drilledshaftwithdiameterBinagroupmaybeconsideredtoactindividuallywhen
the centertocenter (CTC) spacing is greater than 2.5B in the direction normal to loading, and CTC > 8B in the
directionparalleltoloading.Forshaftlayoutnotconformingtothesecriteria,theeffectsofshaftinteractionshall
beconsideredinthedesign.Asageneralguide,theeffectsofgroupactionforinlineCTC<8Bmaybeconsidered
usingtheratios(CGS,1985)appearingasbelow:
3.10.4.9.5
CentretoCentreShaftSpacing
forInlineLoading
RatioofLateralResistanceof
ShaftinGrouptoSingleShaft
8B
1.00
6B
0.70
4B
0.40
3B
0.25
CyclicLoading
The effects of traffic, wind, and other nonseismic cyclic loading on the loaddeformation behavior of laterally
loadeddrilledshaftsshallbeconsideredduringdesign.Analysisofdrilledshaftssubjectedtocyclicloadingmayhe
consideredintheCOM624analysis(Reese.1984).
3.10.4.9.6
CombinedAxialandLateralLoading
Theeffectsoflateralloadingincombinationwithaxialloadingshallbeconsideredinthedesign.Analysisofdrilled
shaftssubjectedtocombinedloadingmaybeconsideredintheCOM624analysis(Reese.1984)
3.10.4.9.7
SlopingGround
Fordrilledshaftswhichextendthroughorbelowslopingground.thepotentialforadditionallateralloadingshallbe
consideredinthedesign.ThegeneralmethodofanalysisdevelopedbyBordenandGabr(1987)maybeusedforthe
analysisofshaftsinstableslopes.Forshaftsinmarginallystableslopes.Additionalconsiderationshouldbegivenfor
smallerfactorsofsafetyagainstslopefailureorslopesshowinggroundcreep,orwhenshaftsextendthroughfills
overlying soft foundation soils and bear into more competent underlying soil or rock formations. For unstable
ground.detailedexplorations,testingandanalysisarerequiredtoevaluatepotentialadditionallateralloadsdueto
slopemovements
3.10.4.9.8
TolerableLateralMovements
Tolerable lateral displacement criteria for drilled shaft foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
consistentwiththefunctionandtypeofstructure,fixity,anticipatedservicelife,andconsequencesofunacceptable
displacementsonthestructureperformance.Drilledshaftlateraldisplacementanalysisshallbebasedontheresults
ofinsituand/orlaboratorytestingtocharacterizetheloaddeformationbehaviorofthefoundationmaterials.
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3.10.4.9.9
Chapter3
UpliftLoadsonDrilledShaft
Upliftcapacityshallrelyonlyonsideresistanceinconformancewithrelatedarticlesfordrivenpiles.Iftheshafthas
anenlargedbase,Qsshallbedeterminedinconformancewithrelatedarticlesfordrivenpiles.
3.10.4.9.10 ConsiderationofVerticalGroundMovement
Thepotentialforexternalloadingonashaftbyverticalgroundmovement(i.e.,negativeskinfrictiondowndragdue
tosettlementofcompressiblesoilorupliftduetoheaveofexpansivesoil)shallbeconsideredasapartofdesign.
Fordesignpurposes,itshallbeassumedthatthefullmagnitudeofmaximumpotentialverticalgroundmovement
occurs.
NegativeSkinFriction
Evaluationofnegativeskinfrictionshallincludealoadtransfermethodofanalysistodeterminetheneutralpoint
(i.e.,pointofzerorelativedisplacement)andloaddistributionalongshaft(e.g.,ReeseandO'Neill,1988).Duetothe
possibletimedependenceassociatedwithverticalgroundmovement,theanalysisshallconsidertheeffectoftime
onloadtransferbetweenthegroundandshaftandtheanalysisshallbeperformedforthetimeperiodrelatingto
the maximum axial load transfer to the shaft. Evaluation of negative skin friction shall include a loadtransfer
methodofanalysisto determinetheneutralpoint(i.e.,pointofzerorelativedisplacement)andloaddistribution
along shaft (e.g., Reese and O'Neill, 1988) Due to the possible time dependence associated with vertical ground
movement, the analysis shall consider the effect of time on load transfer between the ground and shaft and the
analysisshallbeperformedforthetimeperiodrelatingtothemaximumaxialloadtransfertotheshaft..
ExpansiveSoils
Shaftsdesignedforandconstructedinexpansivesoilshallextendtoasufficientdepthintomoisturestablesoilsto
provideadequateanchoragetoresistupliftmovementInaddition;sufficientclearanceshallbeprovidedbetween
thegroundsurfaceandundersideofcapsorbeamsconnectingshaftstoprecludetheapplicationofupliftloadsat
theshaft/capconnectionfromswellinggroundconditions.
3.10.4.9.11 Dynamic/SeismicDesignofDrilledShaft
RefertoSeismicDesignsectionofthiscodeandLamandMartin(1986a;1986b)forguidanceregardingthedesign
ofdrilledshaftssubjectedtodynamicandseismicloads.
3.10.4.10
StructuralDesign,ShaftDimensionsandShaftSpacing
3.10.4.10.1 Design
Drilled shafts shall be designed to resist failure loads to insure that the shaft will not collapse or suffer loss of
serviceabilityduetoexcessivestressand/ordeformation.
3.10.4.10.2 Dimensions
All shafts should be sized in 150 mm increments with a minimum shaft diameter of 450 mm. The diameter of
columnssupportedbyshaftsshallbelessthanorequaltotheshaftdiameterB
3.10.4.10.3 CentertoCenterSpacing
ThecentertocenterspacingofdrilledshaftsofdiameterBshouldbe3Borgreatertoavoidinterferencebetween
adjacentshaftsduringconstruction.Ifcloserspacingisrequired,thesequenceofconstructionshallbespecifiedand
theinteractioneffectsbetweenadjacentshaftsshallbeevaluatedbythedesigner
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3.10.4.10.4 ReinforcementSpacing,ClearanceandEmbedment
Reinforcement
Wherethepotentialforlateralloadingisinsignificant,drilledshaftsneedtobereinforcedforaxialloadsonly.Those
portions of drilled shafts that are not supported laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete columns in
accordance with relevant sections in structural design part of the code and the reinforcing steel shall extend a
minimumof5mbelowtheplanewherethesoilprovidesadequatelateralrestraint.Wherepermanentsteelcasing
isusedandtheshellissmoothpipeandmorethan3mminthickness,itmaybeconsideredasloadcarryinginthe
absenceofcorrosion.
Thedesignoflongitudinalandspiralreinforcementshallbeinconformancewiththerequirementsoftherelevant
sections of the structural design part of the code. Development of length of deformed reinforcement shall be in
conformancewiththerelevantsectionsofthestructuraldesignpartofthecode.
LongitudinalBarSpacing
Theminimumcleardistancebetweenlongitudinalreinforcementshallnothelessthan3timesthebardiameternor
3 times the maximum aggregate size. If bars arc bundled in forming the reinforcing cage, the minimum clear
distancebetweenlongitudinalreinforcementshallnotbelessthan3timesthediameterofthebundledbars.Where
heavyreinforcementisrequired,considerationmaybegiventoaninnerandouterreinforcingcage.
Splices
Splices shall develop the full capacity of the bar in tension and compression. The location of splices shall be
staggeredaroundtheperimeterofthereinforcingcagesoasnottooccuratthesamehorizontalplane.Splicesmal
be developed by lapping, welding, and special approved connectors. Splices shall be in conformance with the
relevantsectionsofthestructuraldesignpartofthecode.
TransverseReinforcement
Transversereinforcementshallbedesignedtoresiststressescausedbyfreshconcreteflowingfrominsidethecage
tothesideoftheexcavatedhole.Transversereinforcementmaybeconstructedofhoopsorspiralsteel.
HandlingStresses
Reinforcementcagesshallbedesignedtoresisthandlingandplacementstresses.
ReinforcementCover
Thereinforcementshallbeplacedacleardistanceofnotlessthan50mmfromthepermanentlycasedor75mm
from the uncased sides. When shafts are constructed in corrosive or marine environments, or when concrete is
placedbythewaterorslurrydisplacementmethods,thecleardistanceshallnotbelessthan100mmforuncased
shaftsandshaftswithpermanentcasingsnotsufficientlycorrosionresistant.
The reinforcement cage shall be centered in the hole using centering devices. All steel centering devices shall be
epoxycoated.
ReinforcementintoSuperstructure
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at tit junction of the shaft with the superstructure to make a suitable
connection.Theembedmentofthereinforcementintothecapshallbeinconformancewithrelevantarticlesofthe
structuraldesignpartofthecode.
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3.10.4.10.5 EnlargedBases
Enlargedbasesshallbedesignedtoinsurethatplainconcreteisnotoverstressed.Theenlargedbaseshallslopeata
sideanglenotlessthan30degreesfromtheverticalandhaveabottomdiameternotgreaterthan3timesdiameter
oftheshaft.Thethicknessofthebottomedgeofenlargedbaseshallnotbelessthan150mm.
3.10.4.11
ConstructionandConcretingofDrilledShafts
3.10.4.11.1 MethodofConstruction
Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry, casing, or wet method of construction, or a combination of
methods.Ineverycase,excavationofhole,placementofconcrete,andallotheraspectsofshaftconstructionshall
beperformedinconformancewiththeprovisionsofthiscode.
Theloadcapacityanddeformationbehaviorofdrilledshaftscanbegreatlyaffectedbythequalityandmethodsof
construction. The effects of construction methods are incorporated in design by application of factor of safety
consistent with the expected construction methods and level of field quality control measures undertaken as
describedintherelevantsectionsfordrivenpiles.
Where the spacing between shafts in a group is restricted, consideration shall be given to the sequence of
constructiontominimizetheeffectofadjacentshaftconstructionoperationsonrecentlyconstructedshafts.
Thefollowingconstructionprocedureshallbefollowed:
(i) Placepermanent/temporarysteelcasinginpositionandembedcasingtoeintofirmstrata.
(ii) Boreandexcavateinsidethesteelcasingdowntocasingtoelevel,ortoalevelapproved,andcontinue
excavationto finalpiletiplevelusingdrillingmud.Thefluidlevelinsidecasingsshallatalltimes beat
least2metreshigherthanoutsidethecasings.
(iii) Carefullycleanupallmudorsedimentationfromthebottomofborehole.
(iv) Placereinforcementcage,inspectionpipesetc.
(v) Concretecontinuouslyunderwater,ordrillingfluid,byuseofthetremiemethod.
(vi) Afterhardening,breakoutthetopsectionoftheconcretepiletoreachsoundconcrete.
Indrillingofholesforallpiles,bentoniteandanyothermaterialshallbemixedthoroughlywithcleanwatertomake
asuspensionwhichshallmaintainthestabilityofthepileexcavationfortheperiodnecessarytoplaceconcreteand
complete construction. The control tests shall cover the determination of' density, viscosity, gel strength and pH
values.BentoniteslurryshallmeettheSpecificationsasshowninTable6.3.12.
Table6.3.12SpecificationsofBentoniteSlurry
ItemtobeMeasured
RangeofResultsat20C
TestMethod
Densityduringdrillingtosupport
excavation
greaterthan1.05g/ml
MuddensityBalance
Densitypriortoconcreting
lessthan1.25g/ml
MuddensityBalance
Viscosity
3090seconds
MarshConeMethod
pH
9.5to12
pHindicatorpaperstripsor
electricalpHmeter
Temporarycasingofapprovedqualityoranapprovedalternativemethodshallbeusedtomaintainthestabilityof
pileexcavations,whichmightotherwisecollapse.Temporarycasingsshallbefreefromsignificantdistortion.
Whereaboreholeisformedusingdrillingfluidformaintainingthestabilityofaboring,thelevelofthewaterorfluid
intheexcavationshallbemaintainedsothatthewaterorfluidpressurealwaysexceedsthepressureexertedbythe
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soilsandexternalgroundwater.Thewaterorfluidlevelshallbemaintainedatalevelnotlessthan2metresabove
thelevelofgroundwater.
The reinforcement shall be placed as indicated on the Drawings. Reinforcement in the form of a cage shall be
assembledwithadditionalsupport,suchasSpreaderforksandlacings,necessarytoformarigidcage.Hoops,links
orhelicalreinforcementshallfitcloselyaroundthemainlongitudinalbarsandbeboundtothembyapprovedwire,
theendsofwhichshallbeturnedintotheinteriorofthepileorpour.Reinforcementshallbeplacedandmaintained
inposition.Thecovertoallreinforcementforpilecapandboredcastinplacepileshallbenotlessthan75mm.
Jointsinlongitudinalsteelbarsshallbepermittedunlessotherwisespecified.Jointsinreinforcementshallbesuch
that the full strength of the bar is effective across the joint and shall be made so that there is no relative
displacementofthereinforcementduringtheconstructionofthepile.
Jointsinlongitudinalbarsinpileswithtension(forinstancefortestloading)shallbecarriedoutbyweldingorother
approvedmethod.
Concretetobeplacedunderwaterordrillingfluidshallbeplacedbytremieequipmentandshallnotbedischarged
freely into the water or drilling fluid. The tremie equipment shall be designed to minimize the occurrence of
entrappedairandothervoids,sothatitcausesminimalsurfacedisturbance,whichisparticularlyimportantwhena
concretewaterinterfaceexists.Itshallbesodesignedthatexternalprojectionsareminimised,allowingthetremie
topassthroughreinforcingcageswithoutcausingdamage.Theinternalfaceofthepipeofthetremieshallbefree
fromprojections.Thetremiepipesshallmeetthefollowingrequirements:
(i)
The tremie pipes shall be fabricated of heavy gage steel pipe to withstand all anticipated handling
stress.Aluminiumpipeshallnotbeusedforplacingconcrete.
(ii)
Tremiepipesshouldhaveadiameterlargeenoughtoensurethataggregatescausedblockagewillnot
occur.Thediameterofthetremiepipeshallbe200mmto300mm.
(iii)
Thetremiepipesshallbesmoothinternally.
(iv)
Since deep placement of concrete will be carried out, the tremie shall be made in sections/lengths
with detachable joints that allow the upper sections/lengths to be removed as the placement
progresses.
(v)
Sections may be joined by flanged, bolted connections (with gaskets) or may be screwed together.
Whatever joint technique is selected, joints between tremie sections must be watertight. The joint
systemselectedshallbetestedforwatertightnessbeforebeginningofconcreteplacement.
(vi)
ThejointsystemtobeusedshallneedapprovaloftheEngineer.
(vii)
Thetremiepipeshouldbemarkedtoallowquickdeterminationofthedistancefromthesurfaceofthe
watertothemouthofthetremie.
(viii) The tremie should be provided with adequately sized funnel or hopper to facilitate transfer of
sufficientconcretefromthedeliverydevicetothetremie.
Before placing concrete, it shall be ensured that there is no accumulation of silt, other material, or heavily
contaminatedbentonitesuspensionatthebaseoftheboring,whichcouldimpairthefreeflowofconcretefromthe
pipeofthetremie.Flushingofboreholesbeforeconcretingwithfreshdrillingfluid/mudispreferred..Asampleof
the bentonite suspension shall be taken from the base of the boring using an approved sampling device. If the
specific gravity of the suspension exceeds 1.25, the placing of concrete shall not proceed. In this event the
Contractorshallmodifythemudquality.
During and after concreting, care shall be taken to avoid damage to the concrete from pumping and dewatering
operations.
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Thehopperandpipeofthetremieshallbecleanandwatertightthroughout.Thepipeshallextendtothebaseof
theboringandaslidingplugorbarriershallbeplacedinthepipetopreventdirectcontactbetweenthefirstcharge
of concrete in the pipe of the tremie and the water or drilling fluid. The pipe shall at all times penetrate the
concrete, which has previously been placed and shall not be withdrawn from the concreteurrtil completion of
concreting. The bottom of the tremie pipe shall be embedded in the fresh concrete at least 2.0 metres and
maintainedatthatdepththroughoutconcreting.Atalltimesasufficientquantityofconcreteshallbemaintained
withinthepipetoensurethatthepressurefromitexceedsthatfromthewaterordrillingfluid.
Toensurethequalityofconcretebeingfreefrommud,claylumpsoranyotherundesirablematerialsmixedwith
concreteatthetopportionofthepile,freshconcreteshallbeoverflowedsufficientlyattheendoftheeachpour.
Thelevelofconcretepouredattheendofconcretingoperationshallbeatleast600mmhigherthantheelevation
ofthepileatcutoff.
3.10.4.11.2 Concreting
In drilled shafts/castinsitu bored piles, concrete shall be placed only after excavation has been completed,
inspected and accepted, and steel reinforcement accurately placed and adequately supported. Concrete shall be
placedinonecontinuousoperationinsuchamannerastoensuretheexclusionofanyforeignmatterandtosecure
afullsizedshaft.Concreteshallnotbe placedthroughwaterexceptwheretremiemethodsareapproved.When
depositingconcretefromthetopofpile,theconcreteshallnotbechuteddirectlyintothepilebutshallbepoured
inarapidandcontinuousoperationthroughafunnelhoppercentredatthetopofthepile.
Forlargediameterholesconcretemaybeplacedbytremieorbydropbottombucket;forsmalldiameterboreholes
atremieshallbeutilized.Intremieconcreting,toeofthetremieshallbesetatamaximumof150mmabovethe
bottom of the borehole. Maximum permissible siltation in bore hole prior to start of concrete operation shall be
75mm.Aslumpof125mmto150mmshallbemaintainedforconcretingbytremie.Incaseoftremieconcretingfor
pilesofsmallerdiameterandlengthupto10m,theminimumcementcontentshallbe350kg/m3 ofconcrete.For
larger diameter and/or deeper piles, the minimum cement content shall be 400kg/m3 of concrete. See relevant
sectionsofthecodeforfurtherspecification
For uncased concrete piles, if pile shafts are formedthrough unstable soiland concrete is placed in an open drill
hole, a steel liner shall be inserted in the hole prior to placing concrete. If the steel liner is withdrawn during
concreting,thelevelofconcreteshallbemaintainedabovethebottomofthelinertoasufficientheighttooffset
anyhydrostaticorlateralearthpressure.
Ifconcreteis placedbypumpingthroughahollowstemauger,the augershallnotbe permittedtorotateduring
withdrawalandshallbewithdrawninasteadycontinuousmotion.Concretepumpingpressuresshallbemeasured
andshallbemaintainedhighenoughatalltimestooffsethydrostaticandlateralearthpressure.Concretevolumes
shall be measured to ensure that the volume of concrete placed in each pile is equal to or greater than the
theoreticalvolumeoftheholecreatedbytheauger.Iftheinstallationprocessofanypileisinterruptedoralossof
concretingpressureoccurs,theholeshallberedrilledtooriginaldepthandreformed.
Auguredcastinsitupileshallnotbeinstalledwithin6pilediameterscentretocentreofapilefilledwithconcrete
lessthan24hoursold.Ifconcretelevelinanycompletedpiledrops,thepileshallberejectedandreplaced.Bored
castinsitu concrete piles shall not be drilled/bored within a clear distance of 3 m from an adjacent pile with
concretelessthan48hoursold.
Forunderreamedpiles,theslumpofconcreteshallrangebetween100mmand150mmforconcretinginwater
freeholes.
3.10.4.11.3 ConcretingunderWater
Forconcretingunderwater,theconcreteshallcontainatleast10percentmorecementthanthatrequiredforthe
samemixplacedinthedry.Theamountofcoarseaggregateshallbenotlessthanoneandahalftimes,normore
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thantwotimes,thatofthefineaggregate.Thematerialsshallbesoproportionedastoproduceaconcretehavinga
slumpofnotlessthan100mm,normorethan150mm,exceptwhereplasticizingadmixturesisusedinwhichcase,
theslumpmaybe175mm.
Successfulplacementofconcreteunderwaterrequirespreventingflowofwateracrossorthroughtheplacement
site.Onceflowiscontrolled,thetremieplacementconsistsofthefollowingthreebasicsteps:
i)
Thefirstconcreteplacedisphysicallyseparatedfromthewaterbyusingarabbitorgodevilinthe
pipe,orbyhavingthepipemouthcappedorsealedandthepipedewatered.
ii)
Oncefilledwithconcrete,thepipeisraisedslightlytoallowtherabbittoescapeortobreaktheend
seal.Concretewillthenflowoutanddevelopamoundaroundthemouthofthepipe.Thisistermedas
establishingaseal.
iii) Oncethesealisestablished,freshconcreteisinjectedintothemassofexistingconcrete.
Twomethodsarenormallyusedfortheplacementofconcreteusingtremiepipe,namely,thecappedtremiepipe
approach and the rabbit plug approach. In the capped tremie approach the tremie pipe should have a seal,
consistingofabottomplateorapprovedequal,thatsealsthebottomofthepipeuntilthepipereachesthebottom
ofexcavation.Thetremiepipeshouldbefilledwithenoughconcretebeforebeingraisedoffthebottom.Thetremie
pipe should then be raised a maximum of 150 mm (6 inch) to initiate flow. The tremie pipe should not be lifted
furtheruntilamoundisestablishedaroundthemouthofthetremiepipe.Initialliftingofthetremieshouldbedone
slowlytominimizedisturbanceofmaterialsurroundingthemouthofthetremie.
Intherabbitplugapproach,opentremiepipeshouldbesetonthebottom,therabbitpluginsertedatthetop
andthenconcreteshouldbeaddedtothetremieslowlytoforcetherabbitdownwardseparatingtheconcrete
fromthewater.Oncethetremiepipeisfullychargedandtherabbitreachesthemouthofthetremie,thetremie
pipeshouldbeliftedamaximumof150mm(6inch)offthebottomtoallowtherabbittoescapeandtostartthe
concreteflowing.Afterthis,atremiepipeshouldnotbeliftedagainuntilasufficientmoundisestablishedaround
themouthofthetremie.
Tremiesshouldbeembeddedinthefreshconcreteaminimumof1.0to1.5m(3to5ft)andmaintainedatthat
depththroughoutconcretingtoprevententryofwaterintothepipe.Rapidraisingorloweringofthetremiepipe
shouldnotbeallowed.Allverticalmovementsofthetremiepipemustbedoneslowlyandcarefullytopreventloss
ofseal.Iflossofsealoccursinatremie,placementofconcretethroughthetremiemustbehaltedimmediately.
Thetremiepipemustberemoved,theendplatemustberestartedusingthecappedtremieapproach.Inorderto
preventwashingofconcreteinplace,arabbitplugapproachmustnotbeusedtorestartatremieafterlossof
seal.
Means of raising or lowering tremie pipes and of removing pipes smoothly without loss of concrete and without
disturbingplacedconcreteortrappingairintheconcreteShallbeprovided.Pipesshallnotbemovedhorizontally
whiletheyareembeddedinplacedconcreteorwhiletheyhaveconcretewithinthem.
Underwater concrete shall be placed continuously for the whole of a pour to its full depth approved by the
Engineer,withoutinterruptionbymealbreaks,changeofshift,movementsofplacingpositions,andthelike.Delays
in placement may allow the concrete to stiffen and resist flow once placement resumes. The rate of pour from
individualtremieshallbearrangedsothatconcretedoesnotriselocallytoalevelgreaterthan500mmabovethe
averagelevelofthesurroundingconcrete.
Tremieblockageswhichoccurduringplacementshouldbeclearedextremelycarefullytopreventlossofseal.Ifa
blockageoccurs,thetremieshouldbequicklyraised150to600mm(6inchto2ft)andthenloweredinanattempt
todislodgetheblockage.Thedepthofpipeembedmentmustbecloselymonitoredduringallsuchattempts.Ifthe
blockagecannotbeclearedreadily,thetremieshallberemoved,cleared,resealed,andrestarted.
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Thevolumeofconcreteinplaceshouldbemonitoredthroughouttheplacement.Underrunsareindicativeoflossof
tremiesealsincethewashedandsegregatedaggregateswilloccupyagreatervolume.Overrunsareindicativeof
lossofconcretefromtheinsideofthesteelpile.
3.11 FIELDTESTSFORDRIVENPILESANDDRILLEDSHAFTS
3.11.1 IntegrityTest
Lowstrainintegritytestingofpilesisatoolforqualitycontroloflongstructuralelementsthatfunctioninamanner
similartofoundationpiles,regardlessoftheirmethodofinstallation,providedthattheyarereceptivetolowstrain
impacttesting.Thetestprovidesvelocity(andoptionallyforce)data,whichassistsevaluationofpileintegrityand
pilephysicaldimensions(i.e.,crosssectionalarea,length),continuityandconsistencyofpilematerial.Thetestdoes
not give any information regarding the pile bearing capacity or about pile reinforcement. Integrity test principles
havebeenwelldocumentedinliterature(ASTM588296;Klingmuller,1993).Thereexisttwomethodsofintegrity
testing,namely,PulseEchoMethod(PEM)andTransientResponseMethod(TRM).InPulseEchoMethod,thepile
head motion is measured as a function of time. The time domain record is then evaluated for pile integrity. In
Transient Response Method, the pile head motion and force (measured with an instrumented hammer) are
measuredasafunctionoftime.Thedataarethenevaluatedusuallyinthefrequencydomain.
InordertocheckthestructuralintegrityofthepilesIntegritytestsshallbeperformedonthepilesinaccordance
withtheprocedureoutlinedinASTMD5882.Thetestiscarriedoutbypressingatransducerontoapiletopwhile
striking the pile head with a hand hammer. The Sonic Integrity Testing (SIT)system registers the impact of the
hammerfollowedbytheresponseofthepileandshowsthedisplay.Ifinstructedbytheoperator,thesignalwillbe
stored in the memory of the SITsystem together with other information, such as pile number, date, time, site,
amplication factor, filter length etc. The reflectograms are horizontally scaled and vertically amplified to
compensate external soil friction, which facilitate the interpretation. Consequently, the reflection of the pile toe
matchesthelengthofthepilewhichwillbeconfirmedbytheSITsystem.Incaseofanydefects,theexactlocation
canbedeterminedfromthegraphonthedisplay.
For any project where pile has been installed, integrity tests shall be performed on 100% of the piles. Integrity
testingmaynotidentifyallimperfections,butitcanbeusedinidentifyingmajordefectswithintheeffectivelength.
Inliterature,therearemanyexamplesthathighlightthesuccessoflowstrainintegritytesting(Klingmuller,1993).
3.11.1.1 SomeFactorsInfluencingImplicationofPileIntegrityTest
(a) Thissonicechopileintegritytestingordynamicresponsemethodisbasedonmeasuring(orobservingonan
oscilloscope)thetimeittakesforareflectedcompressionstresswavetoreturntothetopofthepile.Somewaves
willbereflectedbyadiscontinuityinthepileshaft.Whenthecompressivestrengthisknownforthepilematerial
involved,thedepthtothediscontinuityandthepilelengthcanbedetermined.
(b) Ontheotherhand,areaofpileshaftandhenceitsdiameter,isdeterminedfromimpedanceofwaveresponse,
while impedance in any section is a function of elastic modulus of pile material, shaft area and wave velocity
propagating through that section. If the concrete material is uniform throughout the pile length, elastic modulus
andthewavevelocity(provideddisturbancefromothersourceofvibrationnearbyisinsignificant)areconstantfor
thatpile.Inthatcase,changesinimpedanceusuallyindicatechangesofpilecrosssectionalarea.
(c) Whileevaluatingpileintegrity(i.e.,pilelengthandshaftdiameter),thewavevelocityisusuallyassumedtobe
constant throughout pile length. Therefore, the reliability of integrity evaluation entirely depends on the pile
materialanditsuniformitythroughoutshaftlengthwhilecastingwasdone.Thusthelengthanddiameterobtained
frompileintegritytestismerelyanindicationoftheactuallengthanddiameterofthetestedpiles.
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(d) Besides, this test can only assess shaft integrity and gives no information for pile bearing capacity
determination.However,ifalargenumberofpilesaretested,itisgenerallyeasytofocusthepileshavingunusual
responses.Therefore,wheneveranintegritytestingiscontemplated,considerationmustbegiventothelimitations
of the various methods/process of pile installation (i.e. pile driving or casting) and the possible need for further
investigation(suchaspileloadtest)tochecktheresultsofsuchtesting.
Itshouldbenotedherethatpileintegritytestisanindicativetestaboutthelengthandqualityofconcreteinthe
pile. This test does not give any idea about its actual load capacity. It is usually suggestive to substantiate the
findings of integrity test by excavation or pull out of the pile to facilitate decisions about final acceptance or
rejectionofanypile.Becauseofthelargecostinvolvedinapileloadtest,thenecessityofintegritytestinfacilitating
theselectionofpilesforloadtestisarationalapproachforqualityandsafetyassuranceofpiledfoundations.
3.11.2 AxialLoadTests
Whereaccurateestimateofaxialloadcarryingcapacityofapileisrequiredtestsinaccordancewith"StandardTest
Method for Piles Under Static Compressive Load", (ASTM D1143) or equivalent shall be performed on individual
piles.Foramajorproject,atleast2%ofpiles(testpilesplusservicepiles)shallbetestedineachareaofuniform
subsoilconditions.Wherenecessary,additionalpilesmaybeloadtestedtoestablishthesafedesigncapacity.The
ultimateloadcarryingcapacityofasinglepilemaybedeterminedwithreasonableaccuracyfromloadtesting.The
loadtestonapileshallnotbecarriedoutearlierthanfourweeksfromthedateofcastingthepile.Aminimumof
onepileateachprojectshallbeloadtestedforboredcastinsitupiles.
Twoprincipaltypesoftestmaybeusedforcompressionloadingonpilestheconstantrateofpenetration(CRP)
test and the maintained load (ML) test. The CRP test was developed by Whitaker (1953). The CRP method is
essentiallyatesttodeterminetheultimateloadonapileandisthereforeappliedonlytopreliminarytestpilesor
researchtypeinvestigationswherefundamentalpilebehaviourisbeingstudied.Inthistestthecompressiveforceis
progressively increased to cause the pile to penetrate the soil at constant rate until failure occurs. The rate of
penetration selected usually corresponds to that of shearing soil samples in unconfined compression tests.
However, rate does not affect results significantly. In CRP test the recommended rates of penetration are 0.75
mm/minforfrictionpilesinclayand1.55mm/minforpilesendbearingingranularsoil.TheCRPtestshallnotbe
used for checking compliance with specification requirements for the maximum settlement at given stages of
loading.
Maintainedload(ML)testissofarthemostusualoneinpractice.IntheMLtesttheloadisincreasedinstagesto
1.5timesortwicetheworkingloadwithtimesettlementcurverecordedateachstageofloadingandunloading.
Thegeneralprocedureistoapplystaticloadsinincrementsof25%oftheanticipateddesignload.TheMLtestmay
alsobetakentofailurebyprogressivelyincreasingtheloadinstages.IntheMLtest,theloadtestarrangementsas
specifiedin"StandardTestMethodforPilesunderStaticAxialCompressiveLoad",(ASTMD1143),shallbefollowed.
AccordingtoASTMD1143eachloadincrementismaintaineduntiltherateofsettlementisnotgreaterthan0.25
mm/hror2hoursiselapsed,whicheveroccursfirst.Afterthatthenextloadincrementisapplied.Thisprocedureis
followedforallincrementsofload.Afterthecompletionofloadingifthetestpilehasnotfailedthetotaltestloadis
removed any time after twelve hours if the butt settlement over one hour period is not greater than 0.25 mm
otherwise the total test load is kept on the pile for 24 hours. After the required holding time, the test load is
removedindecrementof25%ofthetotaltestloadwith1hourbetweendecrement.Iffailureoccurs,jackingthe
pile is continued until the settlement equals 15% of the pile diameter or diagonal dimension. Details of the test
procedurehavebeenoutlinedinASTMD1143.
Selectionofanappropriateloadtestmethodshallbebasedonanevaluationoftheanticipatedtypesandduration
ofloadsduringservice,andshallincludeconsiderationofthefollowing:
(a) Theimmediategoalsoftheloadtest(i.e.,toproofloadthefoundationandverifydesigncapacity)
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(b) Theloadsexpectedtoactontheproductionfoundation(compressiveand/oruplift,deadand/orlive),and
thesoilconditionspredominantintheregionofconcern.
(c) Thelocalpracticeortraditionalmethod
Asaminimum,thewrittentestproceduresshouldincludethefollowing:
(a) Apparatusforapplyingloadsincludingreactionsystemandloadingsystem.
(b) Apparatusformeasuringmovements.
(c) Apparatusformeasuringloads.
(d) Proceduresforloadingincludingratesofloadapplication,loadcyclingandmaximumload.
(e) Proceduresformeasuringmovements.
(f) Safetyrequirements.
(g) Datapresentationrequirementsandmethodsofdataanalysis.
(h) Drawingsshowingtheproceduresandmaterialstobeusedtoconstructtheloadtestapparatus.
3.11.2.1
LoadTestEvaluationMethods
Anumberofarbitraryorempiricalmethodsareusedtoserveascriteriafordeterminingtheallowableandultimate
load carrying capacity from pile load test. Some are based on maximum permissible gross or net settlement as
measuredatthepilebuttwhiletheothersarebasedontheperformanceofthepileduringtheprogressoftesting
(Chellis, 1961; Whitaker, 1976; Poulos and Davis, 1980; Fuller, 1983). It is recommended to evaluate the load
carryingcapacityofpilesanddrilledshaftusinganyofthefollowingmethods:
(a)
DavissionOffsetLimit
(b)
BritishStandardInstitutionCriterion
(c)
IndianStandardCriteria
(d)
ButlerHoyCriterion
(e)
BrinchHansen90%Criterion
(f)
Othermethodsapprovedbyengineer
Therecommendedcriteriatobeusedforevaluatingtheultimateandallowableloadcarryingcapacityofpilesand
drilledshaftaresummarizedbelow.
(a) A very useful method of computing the ultimate failure load has been reported by Davisson (1973). This
methodisbasedonoffsetmethodthatdefinesthefailureload.Theelasticshorteningofthepile,consideredas
point bearing, free standing column, is computed and plotted on the loadsettlement curve, with the elastic
shorteninglinepassingthroughtheorigin.Theslopeoftheelasticshorteninglineis20.Anoffsetlineisdrawn
parallel to the elastic line. The offset is usually 0.15 inch plus a quake factor, which is a function of pile tip
diameter.Fornormalsizepiles,thisfactorisusuallytakenas0.1Dinch,whereDisthediameterofpileinfoot.
Theintersectionoftheoffsetlinewiththegrossloadsettlementcurvedeterminesthearbitraryultimatefailure
load.
(b) Terzaghi(1942)reportedthattheultimateloadcapacityofapilemaybeconsideredasthatloadwhichcausesa
settlement equal to 10% of the pile diameter. However, this criterion is limited to a case where no definite
failure point or trend is indicated by the loadsettlement curves (Singh, 1990). This criterion has been
incorporatedinBS8004:1986ofBritishStandardInstitution(1986)whichrecommendsthattheultimateload
capacityofpileshouldbethatwhichcausesthepiletosettleadepthof10%ofpilewidthordiameter.
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(c) AccordingtotheCodeofPractice2004ofBritishStandardsInstitution(1972),theallowableloadcapacity
of pile should be 50% of the final load, which causes the pile to settle a depth of 10% of pile width or
diameter.
(d) AccordingtoIS:2911(PartVI)1979ultimateloadcapacityofpileissmallerofthefollowingtwo:
(i) Load corresponding to a settlement equal to 10% of the pile diameter in the case of normal
uniformdiameterpileor7.5%ofbasediameterincaseofunderreamedorlargediametercastin
situpile.
(ii) Loadcorrespondingtoasettlementof12mm.
(e) AccordingtoIndianStandardCodeofpractice(IS:29111979),allowableloadcapacityofpileissmallerof
thefollowing:
(i) Twothirdsofthefinalloadatwhichthetotalsettlementattainsavalueof12mm.
(ii) Half ofthe final load atwhichtotal settlement equal to 10%of the pile diameter in the case of
normaluniformdiameterpileor7.5%ofbasediameterincaseofunderreamedpile.
(f) ButlerandHoy(1976)statedthattheintersectionofthetangentattheinitialstraightportionoftheload
settlementcurveandthetangentataslopepointof1.27mm/tondeterminesthearbitraryultimatefailure
load.
(g) TheBrinchandHansen(1963)proposedadefinitionforultimateloadcapacityasthatloadforwhichthe
settlementistwicethesettlementunder90percentofthefulltestload.
(h) Where failure occurs, the ultimate load may be taken to calculate the allowable load using a factor of
safetyof2.0to2.5.
3.11.2.2
SomeFactorsInfluencingInterpretationsofLoadTestResults
Thefollowingfactorsshouldbetakenintoaccountwhileinterpretingthetestresultsfrompileloadtests:
(a) Potentialresidualloads(strains)inthepilewhichcouldinfluencetheinterpreteddistributionofloadalong
thepileshaft.
(b) Possible interaction of friction loads from test pile with downward friction transferred to the soil from
reactionpilesobtainingpartoralloftheirsupportinsoilatlevelsabovethetiplevelofthetestpile.
(c) Changesinporewaterpressureinthesoilcausedbypiledriving,constructionfillandotherconstruction
operationswhichmayinfluencethetestresultsforfrictionalsupportinrelativelyimpervioussoilssuchas
clayandsilt.
(d) Differences between conditions at time of testing and after final construction such as changes in grade
groundwaterlevel.
(e) Potentiallossofsoilresistancefromeventssuchasexcavation,orscour,orbothofsurroundingsoil.
(f) Possibledifferenceintheperformanceofapileinagrouporofapilegroupfromthatofasingleisolated
pile.
(g) Affect on long term pile performance of factors such as creep, environmental effects on pile material,
frictionloadsfromswellingsoilsandstrengthlosses.
(h) Type of structure to be supported, including sensitivity ofstructureto movement andrelations between
liveanddeadloads.
(i) Special testing procedures which may be required for the application of certain acceptance criteria or
methodsofinterpretation.
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(j) Requirement that all conditions for non tested piles be basically identical to those for test pile including
suchthingassubsurfaceconditions,piletype,length,sizeandstiffness,andpileinstallationmethodsand
equipmentsothatapplicationorextrapolationofthetestresultstosuchotherpilesisvalid
3.11.3
UpliftCapacityofPileandDrilledShaft
Where required by the design, the uplift capacity of pile and drilled shaft shall be determined by an approved
method or analysis based on a minimum factor of safety of three or by load tests conducted in accordance with
ASTMD3689(StandardTestMethodforIndividualPilesUnderStaticAxialTensileLoad).Themaximumallowable
uplift load shall not exceed the ultimate load capacity as determined using the results of load test conducted in
accordancewithASTMD3689,dividedbyafactorofsafetyof2.0.Whereupliftisduetowindorseismicloading,
the minimum factor of safety shall be 2.0 where capacity is determined by an analysis and 1.5 where capacity is
determinedbyloadtests.
Forgrouppilesubjectedtouplift,theallowableworkingupliftloadforthegroupshallbecalculatedbyanapproved
methodofanalysiswherethepilesinthegroupareplacedatcentretocentrespacingofatleast2.5timestheleast
horizontaldimensionofthelargestpile,theallowableworkingupliftloadforthegroupispermittedtobecalculated
asthelesserofthetwo:
(a) Theproposedindividualworkingloadtimesthenumberofpilesinthegroup.
(b) Twothirds of the effective weight of the group and the soil contained within a block defined by the
perimeterofthegroupandtheembeddedlengthofthepile.
(c) Onehalf the effective weight of the pile group and the soil contained within a block defined by the
perimeterofthegroupandtheembeddedpilelengthplusonehalfthetotalsoilshearontheperipheral
surfaceofthegroup
Upliftortensiontestonpilessubjecttotension/upliftshallbeperformedbyacontinuousrateofuplift(CRU)oran
incrementalloading(i.e.ML)test.Whereupliftloadsareintermittentorcyclicincharacter,asinwaveloadingona
marine structure,it is recommended toadoptrepetitive loading on the test pile. The testsshall be performed in
accordancewith"StandardTestMethodforIndividualPilesUnderStaticAxialTensileLoad",(ASTMD3689).
PART C: ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF

BUILDINGFOUNDATIONS(SECTIONS3.13to3.22)
3.12 EXCAVATION
Excavationforbuildingfoundationorforotherpurposeshallbedoneinasafemannersothatnodangertolifeand
propertyprevailsatanystageoftheworkoraftercompletion.Therequirementsofthissectionshallbesatisfiedfor
allsuchworksinadditiontothoseofSec3.3ofPart7.
Permanent excavations shall have retaining walls of sufficient strength made of steel, masonry, or reinforced
concretetoretaintheembankment,togetherwithanysurchargeload.
Excavationsforanypurposeshallnotextendwithin300mmunderanyfootingorfoundation,unlesssuchfootingor
foundationisfirstproperlyunderpinnedorprotectedagainstsettlement.
3.12.1 NoticetoAdjoiningProperty
Prior to any excavation close to an adjoining building in another property, a written notice shall be given to the
owner of the adjoining property at least 10 days ahead of the date of excavation. The person undertaking the
excavationshall,wherenecessary,incorporateadequateprovisionsandprecautionarymeasurestoensuresafetyof
the adjoining property and shall supply the details of such measures in the notice to the owner of the adjoining
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property.HeshallobtainapprovaloftheAuthorityregardingtheprotectiveprovisions,andpermissionoftheowner
oftheadjoiningpropertyregardingtheproposedexcavationinwriting.
Theprotectivemeasuresshallincorporatethefollowing:
(a) Wherethelevelofthefoundationsoftheadjoiningstructureisatorabovethelevelofthebottomofthe
proposedexcavation,theverticalloadoftheadjoiningstructureshallbesupportedbyproperfoundations,
underpinning,orotherequivalentmeans.
(b) Where the level of the foundations of the adjoining structure is below the level of the bottom of the
proposed excavation, provision shall be made to support any increased vertical or lateral load on the
existingadjoiningstructurecausedbythenewconstruction.
Ifongivingtherequirednotice,incorporatingorproposingtoincorporatetheprotectiveprovisionswhichhaveduly
beenapprovedbytheAuthority,theowneroftheadjoiningpropertyrefusestopermittheproposedexcavationor
toallownecessaryaccessandotherfacilitiestothepersonundertakingtheexcavationforprovidingthenecessary
andapprovedprotectiontotheadjoiningproperty,theresponsibilityforanydamagetotheadjoiningpropertydue
toexcavationshallbethatoftheowneroftheadjoiningproperty.
3.12.2 ExcavationWork
Everyexcavationshallbeprovidedwithsafemeansofentryandexitkeptavailableatalltimes.Whenanexcavation
hasbeencompleted,orpartlycompletedanddiscontinued,abandonedorinterrupted,ortherequiredpermitshave
expired, the lot shall be filled and graded to eliminate all steep slopes, holes, obstructions or similar sources of
hazard.Fillmaterialshallconsistofclean, noncombustiblesubstances.Thefinalsurfaceshallbegradedinsucha
mannerastodrainthelot,eliminatepockets,preventaccumulationofwater,andprecludeanythreatofdamageto
thefoundationsonthepremisesorontheadjoiningproperty.
3.12.2.1
MethodsofProtection
3.12.2.1.1
Shoring,BracingandSheeting
Withtheexceptionofrockcuts,thesidesofallexcavations,includingrelatedorresultingembankments,1.5mor
greater in depth or height measured from the level of the adjacent ground surface to the deepest point of
excavation, shall be protected and maintained by shoring, bracing and sheeting, sheet piling, or other retaining
structures. Alternatively, excavated slopes may be inclined not steeper than 1:1, or stepped so that the average
slope is not steeper than forty five degrees with no step more than 1.5 m high, provided such slope does not
endangeranystructure,includingsubsurfacestructures.Allsidesorslopesofexcavationsorembankmentsshallbe
inspectedafterrainstorms,oranyotherhazardincreasingevent,andsafeconditionsshallberestored.Sheetpiling
andbracingneededintrenchexcavationsshallhaveadequatestrengthtoresistthepossibleforcesresultingfrom
earthorsurchargepressure.DESIGNOFPROTECTIONSYSTEMSHALLBECHECKEDBYAGEOTECHNICALENGINEER.
3.12.2.1.2
GuardRail
Aguardrailorasolidenclosureatleast1mhighshallbeprovidedalongtheopensidesofexcavations,exceptthat
such guard rail or solid enclosure may be omitted from a side or sides when access to the adjoining area is
precluded,orwheresideslopesareoneverticaltothreehorizontalorflatter.
3.12.2.2
PlacingofConstructionMaterial
Excavatedmaterialsandsuperimposedloadssuchasequipment,trucks,etc.shallnotbeplacedclosertotheedge
of the excavation than a distance equal to one and onehalf times the depth of such excavation, unless the
excavationisinrockorthesideshavebeenslopedorsheetpiled(orsheeted)andshoredtowithstandthelateral
force imposed by such superimposed load. When sheet piling is used, it shall extend at least 150 mm above the
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naturalleveloftheground.Inthecaseofopenexcavationswithsideslopes,theedgeofexcavationshallbetaken
asthetoeoftheslope.
3.12.2.3
SafetyRegulations
Wheneversubsurfaceoperationsareconductedthatmayimposeloadsormovementonadjoiningproperty,suchas
drivingofpiles,compactionofsoils,orsoildensification,theeffectsofsuchoperationsonadjoiningpropertyand
structures shall be considered. The owner of the property that may be affected shall be given 48 hours written
noticeoftheintentiontoperformsuchoperations.Whereconstructionoperationswillcausechangesintheground
water level under adjacent buildings, the effects of such changes on the stability and settlement of the adjacent
foundationshallbeinvestigatedandprovisionmadetopreventdamagetosuchbuildings.Whenapotentialhazard
exists,elevationsoftheadjacentbuildingsshallberecordedatintervalsoftwentyfourhoursorlesstoascertainif
movementhasoccurred.Ifso,necessaryremedialactionshallbeundertakenimmediately.
Wheneveranexcavationorfillistobemadethatwillaffectsafety,stability,orusabilityofadjoiningpropertiesor
buildings,theadjoiningpropertiesorbuildingsshallbeprotectedasrequiredbytheprovisionsofSec3.13.
On excavation, the soil material directly underlying footings, piers, and walls shall be inspected by an
engineer/architectpriortoconstructionofthefooting.Ifsuchinspectionindicatesthatthesoilconditionsdonot
conform to those assumed for the purposes of design and described on the plans, or are unsatisfactory due to
disturbance,thenadditionalexcavation,reductioninallowablebearingpressure,orotherremedialmeasuresshall
beadopted.
Exceptincaseswhereaproposedexcavationwillextendlessthan1.5mbelowgrade,allunderpinningoperations
andtheconstructionandexcavationoftemporaryorpermanentcofferdams,caissons,bracedexcavationsurfaces,
orotherconstructionsorexcavationsrequiredfororaffectingthesupportofadjacentpropertiesorbuildingsshall
besubjecttocontrolledinspection.Thedetailsofunderpinning,andconstructionofcofferdams,caissons,bracing
orotherconstructionsrequiredforthesupportofadjacentpropertiesorbuildingsshallbeshownontheplansor
preparedintheformofshopordetaildrawingsandshallbeapprovedbytheengineerwhopreparedtheplans.
3.13 DEWATERING
Allexcavationsshallbedrainedandthedrainagemaintainedaslongastheexcavationcontinuesorremains.Where
necessary, pumping shall be used. No condition shall be created as a result of construction operations that will
interfere with natural surface drainage. Water courses, drainage ditches, etc. shall not be obstructed by refuse,
waste building materials, earth, stones, tree stumps, branches, or other debris that may interfere with surface
drainageorcausetheimpoundmentofsurfacewater.
3.14 SLOPESTABILITYOFADJOININGBUILDINGS
Thepossibilityofoverturningandslidingofthebuildingshallbeconsidered.Theminimumfactorofsafetyagainst
overturningofthestructureasawholeshallbe1.5.Stabilityagainstoverturningshallbeprovidedbythedeadload
ofthebuilding,theallowableupliftcapacityofpiling,anchors,weightofthesoildirectlyoverlyingfootingsprovided
thatsuchsoilcannotbeexcavatedwithoutrecoursetomajormodificationofthebuilding,orbyanycombinationof
thesefactors.
Theminimum factorofsafetyagainstslidingofthestructureunder lateralloadshall be1.5.Resistancetolateral
loadsshallbeprovidedbyfrictionbetweenthefoundationandtheunderlyingsoil,passiveearthpressure,batter
pilesorbyplumbpiles,subjecttothefollowing:
(a) Theresistancetolateralloadsduetopassiveearthpressureshallnotbetakenintoconsiderationwhere
theabuttingsoilcouldberemovedinadvertentlybyexcavation.
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(b) Incaseofpilesupportedstructures,frictionalresistancebetweenthefoundationandtheunderlyingsoil
shallbediscounted.
(c) Theavailableresistancetofrictionbetweenthefoundationandtheunderlyingsoilshallbepredictedonan
assumed friction factor of 0.5. A greater value of the coefficient of friction may be used subject to
verificationbyanalysisandtest.
The faces of cut and fill slopes shall be prepared and maintained to control erosion. The control may consist of
effective planting. The protection for slopes shall be installed as soon as practicable. Where cut slopes are not
subjecttoerosionduetoerosionresistantcharacterofthematerials,suchprotectionmaybeomitted.
Wherenecessary,checkdams,cribbing,ripraporotherdevicesormethodsshallbeemployedtocontrolerosion.
3.15 FILLS
3.15.1 QualityofFill
The excavation outside the foundation shall be backfilled with soil that is free of organic material, construction
debris and large rocks. The backfill shall be placed in lifts and compacted in a manner which does not damage
foundation,thewaterproofingordampproofingmaterial.
3.15.2 PlacementofFill
Fillstobeusedtosupportthefoundationofanybuildingorstructureshallbeplacedinaccordancewithestablished
engineering principle. Before placement of the fill, the existing ground surface shall be stripped off all organic
growth,timber,rubbishanddebris.Afterstripping,thegroundsurfaceshallbecompacted.Materialsforfillshall
consist of sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed earth, or a mixture of these. The fill material shall contain no
particles exceeding 100 mm in the largest dimension. A soil investigation report and a report of satisfactory
placementoffill,bothacceptabletotheBuildingOfficialshallbesubmitted.Inanuncontrolledfill,thesoilwithin
thebuildingareashallbeexploredusingtestpits.Atleastonetestpitpenetratingatleast2mbelowthelevelofthe
bottomoftheproposedfoundationshall beprovidedforevery200m2ofbuildingarea.Whereversuchtest pits
consistentlyindicatethatthefilliscomposedofmaterialthatisfreeofvoidsandfreeofextensiveinclusionofmud,
organic materials such as paper, garbage, cans, metallic objects, or debris, the fill material shall be acceptable.
Wherethefillshowsvoidsorinclusionsasdescribedabove,eitherthefillshallbetreatedashavingnopresumptive
bearingcapacity,orthebuildingshallincorporateadequatestrengthandstiffnesstobridgesuchvoidsorinclusions
orshallbearticulatedtopreventdamageduetodifferentialorlocalizedsettlementofthefill.
3.15.3 Specifications
Wherefoundationsaretobeplacedoncontrolledfillmaterials,thefillmustbecompactedinlayersnotexceeding
300 mm. Clear specifications shall be provided for the range of water content, the degree of compaction to be
achieved and the method of compaction that shall be followed. Such specifications shall be based on the shear
strengthrequirementforthefillsoilandallowablesettlementestimate.Theminimumdensityofcontrolledfillshall
be95%oftheoptimumdensityobtainedfrom"StandardTestMethodforMoistureDensityRelationofSoilandSoil
AggregateMixtureusing10lb(4.54kg)Rammerand18in(457mm)Drop",(ASTMD1557).
Thedegreeofcompactionachievedinafillshallbeobtainedfrominsitudensitymeasurements.Nonewlayershall
beplacedunlessasatisfactorydensityisattainedineachlayer.
3.16 PROTECTIVERetainingStructuresforFoundations/ShorePiles
A retaining wall is a wall designed to resist lateral earth and/or fluid pressures, including any surcharge, in
accordancewithacceptedengineeringpractice.Retainingwallsforfoundationsshallbedesignedtoensurestability
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againstoverturning,sliding,excessivefoundationpressureandwateruplift;andthattheybedesignedforasafety
factorof 1.5 against lateralslidingand overturning. Generally sheet pileretainingwalls are used for construction
raftfoundationsforbuildings.Tallersheetpilesmayneedatiebackanchordrivenandanchoredbehindthesoilof
thesheetpileretainingwall.
3.17 WATERPROOFINGANDDAMPPROOFING
Walls or portions thereof that retain earth and enclose interior spaces, and floors below grade shall be
waterproofedanddampproofed,withtheexceptionofthosespaceswheresuchomissionisnotdetrimentaltothe
building or occupancy. The roof is also required to be waterproofed. The owner shall perform a subsurface
investigationtodeterminethepossibilityofthegroundwatertablerisingabovetheproposedelevationofthefloor
orfloorsbelowgradeunlesssatisfactorydatafromadjacentareasdemonstratethatgroundwaterhasnotbeena
problem.
Theremayarisetwosituations:(i)wherenohydrostaticpressureoccursand(ii)wherehydrostaticpressureoccurs.
Wherehydrostaticpressureconditionsexist,floorsandwallsbelowfinishedgroundlevelshallbewaterproofedin
accordance with Sec 3.13.1 below. Where hydrostatic pressure conditions do not exist, dampproofing and
perimeter drainage shall be provided in accordance with Sec 3.13.2 below. In addition, the dampproofing and
waterproofingshallalsomeettherequirementsofSec3.13.3.Alldampproofingandwaterproofingmaterialsshall
conformtotherequirementsofSec2.16.7ofPart5.
3.17.1.1
WaterproofingwhereHydrostaticPressureOccurs
Wheregroundwaterinvestigationindicatesthatahydrostaticpressureconditionexists,orislikelytooccur,walls
andfloorsshallbewaterproofedinaccordancewiththissection.
3.17.1.2
FloorWaterproofing
Floors required to be waterproofed shall be of concrete and shallbe designed and constructed towithstand the
anticipatedhydrostaticpressure.
Waterproofingofthefloorshallbeaccomplishedbyplacingundertheslabamembraneofrubberizedasphalt,or
butyl rubber, or polymer modified asphalt, or neoprene, or not less than 0.15 mm polyvinyl chloride or
polyethylene,orotherapprovedmaterials,capableofbridgingnonstructuralcracks.Jointsinthemembraneshall
belappednotlessthan150mmandsealedinanapprovedmanner.
3.17.1.3
WallWaterproofing
Walls required to be waterproofed shall be of concrete or masonry designed to withstand the anticipated
hydrostaticpressureandotherlateralloads.Priortotheapplicationofwaterproofingmaterialsonconcretewalls,
allholesandrecessesresultingfromtheremovalofformtiesshallbesealedwithabituminousmaterialorother
approvedmethodsormaterials.Unitmasonrywallsshallbepargeted ontheexteriorsurfacebelowgroundlevel
withnotlessthan10mmofPortlandcementmortar.Thepargetingshallbecontinuedtothefoundation.Pargeting
ofunitmasonrywallsisnotrequiredwhereamaterialisapprovedfordirectapplicationtothemasonry.
Waterproofingshallbeappliedfromapoint300mmabovethemaximumelevationofthegroundwatertabledown
tothetopofthespreadportionofthefoundation.Theremainderofthewalluptoalevelnotlessthan150mm
abovefinishedgradeshallbedampproofed.
Wallwaterproofingmaterialsshallconsist oftwoplyhotmoppedfelts,notlessthan0.15mmpolyvinylchloride,
1.0 mm polymer modified asphalt, 0.15 mm polyethylene or other approved methods or materials capable of
bridging nonstructural cracks. Joints in the membrane shall be lapped not less than 150 mm and sealed in an
approvedmanner.
6217
Part6
StructuralDesign
Jointsinwallsandfloors,jointsbetweenthewallandthefloor,andpenetrationsofthewallandfloorshallbemade
watertightutilizingestablishedmethodsandmaterials.
3.17.1.4
DampproofingwithnoHydrostaticPressure
Where hydrostatic pressure willnot occur, floorsand walls shall be dampproofedand a subsoil drainage system
shallbeinstalledasdescribedbelow:
3.17.1.5
FloorDampproofing
Forfloors,dampproofingmaterialsshallbeinstalledbetweenthefloorandbasematerials.Thebasematerialshall
notbelessthan100mminthicknessconsistingofgravelorcrushedstonecontainingnotmorethan10percent
materialthatpassesa4.76mmsieve.Whereasiteislocatedinwelldrainedgravelorsand/gravelmixture,afloor
base is not required. When the finished ground level is below the floor level for more than 25 per cent of the
perimeter of the building, the base material need not be provided. Where a separate floor is provided above a
concreteslabthedampproofingmaybeinstalledontopoftheslab.
Dampproofingmaterials,whereinstalledbeneaththeslab,shallconsistofnotlessthan0.15mmpolyethylenewith
jointslappednotlessthan150mm,orotherapprovedmethodsormaterials.Wherepermittedtobeinstalledon
topoftheslab, dampproofingshallconsistofmopped onbitumen,notlessthan0.1mmpolyethylene,orother
approved methods or materials. Joints in membranes shall be lapped not less than 150 mm and sealed in an
approvedmanner.
3.17.1.6
WallDampproofing
Forwalls,dampproofingmaterialsshallbeinstalledandshallextendfromapoint150mmabovegrade,downto
thetopofthespreadportionofthefoundation.
Wall dampproofing material shall consist of a bituminous material, acrylic modified cement base coating,
rubberized asphalt, polymermodified asphalt, butyl rubber, or other approved materials capable of bridging
nonstructuralcracks.
3.17.1.7
PerimeterDrain
Adrainshallbeplacedaroundtheperimeterofafoundationthatconsistsofgravelorcrushedstonecontainingnot
morethan10percentmaterialthatpassesthrougha4.76mmsieve.Thedrainshallextendaminimumof300mm
beyondtheoutsideedgeofthefoundation.Thethicknessshallbesuchthatthebottomofthedrainisnothigher
thanthebottomofthebaseunderthefloor,andthatthetopofthedrainisnotlessthan150mmabovethetopof
thefoundation.Thetopofthedrainshallbecoveredwithanapprovedfiltermembranematerial.Whereadraintile
orperforatedpipeisused,theinvertofthepipeortileshallnotbehigherthanthefloorelevation.Thetopofjoints
orthetopofperforationsshallbeprotectedwithanapprovedfiltermembranematerial.Thepipeortileshallbe
placedonnotlessthan50mmofgravelorcrushedstonecomplyingwiththissection,andshallbecoveredwithnot
lessthan150mmofthesamematerial.
The floor base and foundation perimeter drain shall discharge by gravity or mechanical means into an approved
drainagesystem.Whereasiteislocatedinwelldrainedgravelorsand/gravelmixture,adedicateddrainagesystem
isnotrequired.Whenthefinishedgroundlevelisbelowthefloorlevelformorethan25percentoftheperimeter
ofthebuilding,thefoundationdrainneedbeprovidedonlyaroundthatportionofthebuildingwheretheground
levelisabovethefloorlevel.
6218
Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations
3.17.2
OtherDampproofingandWaterproofingRequirements
3.17.2.1
PlacementofBackfill
Chapter3
The excavation outside the foundation shall be backfilled with soil that is free of organic material, construction
debrisandlargerocks.Thebackfillshallbeplacedinliftsandcompactedinamannerwhichdoesnotdamagethe
waterproofingordampproofingmaterialorstructurallydamagethewall.
3.17.2.2
SiteGrading
Thegroundimmediatelyadjacenttothefoundationshallbeslopedawayfromthebuildingataslopenotlessthan
1unitverticalin12unitshorizontal(1:12)foraminimumdistanceof2.5mmeasuredperpendiculartothefaceof
thewalloranalternativemethodofdivertingwaterawayfromthefoundationshallbeused.Considerationshallbe
given to possible additional settlement of the backfill when establishing the final ground level adjacent to the
foundation.
3.17.2.3
ErosionProtection
Where water impacts the ground from the edge of the roof, down spout, scupper, valley or other rainwater
collectionordiversiondevice,provisionsshallbeusedtopreventsoilerosionanddirectthewaterawayfromthe
foundation.
3.18 FOUNDATIONONSLOPES
3.18.1 FootingsonSlopes
Wherefootingsaretobefoundedonaslope,thedistanceoftheslopingsurfaceatthebaselevelofthefooting
measuredfromthecentreofthefootingshallnotbelessthantwicethewidthofthefooting.
When adjacent footings are to be placed at different levels, the distance between the edges of footings shall be
suchastopreventundesirableoverlappingofstructuresinsoilanddisturbanceofthesoilunderthehigherfooting
duetoexcavationofthelowerfooting.
On a sloping site, footing shall be on a horizontal bearing and stepped. At all changes of levels, footings shall be
lappedforadistanceofatleastequaltothethicknessoffoundationorthreetimestheheightofstep,whicheveris
greater.Adequateprecautionsshallbetakentopreventtendencyfortheupperlayersofsoiltomovedownhill.
3.19 FOUNDATIONSONFILLSANDPROBLEMATICSOILS
3.19.1 FootingsonFilledupGround
Footings shall not be constructed on loosely filled up ground with non uniform density or consistency, unless
adequatestrengtheningofthesoilismadebyapplyinggroundimprovementtechniques.
3.19.2 GroundImprovement
Inpoorandweaksubsoils,thedesignofshallowfoundationforstructuresandequipmentmaypresentproblems
withrespecttobothsizingoffoundationaswellascontroloffoundationsettlements.Aviablealternativeincertain
situations developed over recent years is to improve the subsoil to an extent that the subsoil would develop an
adequate bearing capacity and foundations constructed after subsoil improvement would have resultant
settlementswithinacceptablelimits.Selectionofgroundimprovementtechniquesmaybedoneinaccordancewith
goodpractice.
6219
Part6
StructuralDesign
3.19.3 SoilReinforcement
Use of suitable geosynthetics/geotextilesmay be made in an approvedmanner for ground improvement where
applicablebasedongoodpractice.
3.20 FOUNDATIONDESIGNFORDYNAMICFORCES
3.20.1 EffectofDynamicForces
Wheremachineryoperationsorothervibrationsaretransmittedthroughfoundation,considerationshallbegivenin
thefoundationdesigntopreventdetrimentaldisturbanceofthesoil.
Impact forces shall be neglected in foundation design except for foundations bearing on loose granular soils,
foundationssupportingcranes,heavymachineryandmovingequipment,orwheretheratioofliveloadcausingthe
impacttothedeadloadexceeds50%.
3.20.2 MachineFoundation
Machine foundations are subjected to the dynamic forces caused by the machine. These dynamic forces are
transmitted to the foundation supporting the machine. Although the moving parts of the machine are generally
balanced,thereisalwayssomeunbalanceinpracticewhichcausesaneccentricityofrotatingparts.Thisproduces
an oscillating force. The machine foundation must satisfy the criteria for dynamic loading in addition to that for
staticloading.
3.20.2.1
TypesofMachineFoundations
Basically,therearethreetypesofmachinefoundation:
(a) Machineswhichproduceaperiodicunbalancedforce,suchasreciprocatingenginesandcompressors.The
speedofsuchmachinesisgenerallylessthan600rpm.Inthesemachines,therotarymotionofthecrankis
convertedintothetranslatorymotion.Theunbalancedforcevariessinusoidal.
(b) Machineswhichproduceimpactloads,suchasforgehammersandpunchpresses.Inthesemachines,the
dynamic force attains a peak value in a very short time and then dies out gradually. The response is a
pulsating curve. It vanishes before the next pulse. The speed is usually between 60 to 150 blows per
minute.
(c) Highspeedmachines,suchasturbines,androtarycompressors.Thespeedofsuchmachinesisveryhigh;
sometimes,itisevenmorethan3000rpm.
Thefollowingfourtypesofmachinefoundationsarecommonlyused.
(a) BlockType:Thistypeofmachinefoundationconsistsofapedestalrestingonafooting(Fig.6.3.3a).The
foundationhasalargemassandasmallnaturalfrequency.
(b) BoxType:Thefoundationconsistsofahollowconcreteblock(Fig.6.3.3b).Themassofthefoundationis
lessthanthatintheblocktypeandthenaturalfrequencyisincreased.
(c) WallType:Awalltypeoffoundationconsistsofapairofwallshavingatopslab.Themachinerestsonthe
topslab(Fig6.3.3c).
(d) FramedType:Thistypeoffoundationconsistsofverticalcolumnshavingahorizontalframeattheirtops.
Themachineissupportedontheframe(Fig.6.3.3d).
Machines which produce periodical and impulsive forces at low speeds are generally provided with a block type
foundation.Framedtypefoundationsaregenerallyusedforthemachinesworkingathighspeedsandforthoseof
6220
Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations
Ch
hapter3
the rotatin
ng types. Somee machines wh
hich induce veery little dynam
mic forces, succh as lathes, need
n
not be prrovided
withamacchinefoundatio
on.Suchmach
hinesmaybedirectlyboltedttothefloor.
3.20.2.2
2
Design
nConsiderrations
For satisfaactory perform

mance, machin
ne foundationss should satissfy the following requiremeents: (i) resonance is
avoided,(ii)bearingcapacityandsettlementaresaffe,and(iii)theereisanadeq
quatevibration
nandshockiso
olation.
Avoidanceofresonanceisdiscussedinthissection.
(I)Resonan
nce:Basedon theiroperatin
ngfrequenciess,themachinesareclassified
das(i)lowspe
eedhavingfreequency
less than 300
3 revolution
ns per minute (rpm),(ii) med
dium speed, frrequency 300 to 1000 rpm, and (iii) high speed,
frequency greater than 1000 rpm. To avoid resonan
nce, the naturral frequency (or the resonaant frequency)) of the
machine fo
oundationsoil system must be either veryy large or veryy small compaared to the op
perating speed
d of the
machine.
(a) Loow speed macchines (f1 <3000 rpm): Proviide a foundation with a natural frequenccy at least tw
wice the
op
peratingfrequency,i.e.,the frequencyratiior(=f1/fn)is lessthan0.5.N
Naturalfrequeencycanbeinccreased
(i))byincreasinggbaseareaor reducingtotaalstaticweighttofthefoundation,(ii)byin
ncreasingmod
dulusof
sh
hear rigidity off the soil by compaction, grrouting or injection, (iii) by u
using piles to provide the reequired
fo
oundationstiffn
ness.
(b) Highspeedmacchines(f1>1000rpm):Providdeafoundationnwithnaturalfrequencynotthigherthanoonehalf
offtheoperatinggvalue,i.e.,freequencyratio r2.Naturalffrequencycanbedecreased
dbyincreasing weight
offfoundation.D
Duringstartinggandstoppingg,themachinewilloperateb
brieflyatreson
nantfrequencyy(fr)of
th
hefoundation. Probableamp
plitudeiscomp
putedatbothffrandf1and comparedwithallowablevaaluesto
de
etermineiftheefoundationarrrangementmustbealtered.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig.6.3.3.Tyypesofmachin
nefoundationss(a)BlockType
e(b)BoxType(c)WallType((d)FramedTyp
pe.
(2) Types of foundation

ns. Considerin
ng their structtural forms, th
he machine fo
oundations, in
n general, are of the
following types:
t
(i)boxffoundation consistingof a p
pedestal ofcon
ncrete, (ii) boxx foundation consisting
c
of a hollow
concreteb
block,(iii)wallffoundationcon
nsistingofapaairofwallssup
pportingthemachine.(iv)fraamedfoundatio
oncon
sistingofvverticalcolumn
nsandatopho
orizontalframeeworkwhichfo
ormstheseato
ofessentialmaachinery.
Part6
StructuralDesign
Lowspeedmachines(e.g.,forgehammers,presses,lowspeedreciprocatingenginesandcompressors)aregenerally
supportedon blockfoundationhavingalargecontactareawithsoil.Mediumspeedmachines(e.g.,reciprocating
diesel and gas engines) also have, in general, block foundations resting on springs or suitable elastic pads. High
speed and rotating type of machines (e.g., internal combustion engines, electric motors, and turbo generator
machines) are generally mounted on framed foundations. Other high speed machines are placed on block
foundations.Asfaraspossible,theC.G.ofthewholesystemandthecentroidofthebaseareashouldbeonthesame
verticalaxis.Atthemostaneccentricityof5%couldbeallowed.
(3) Permissible amplitude. Many times the permissible amplitude at operating speed is specified by the
manufactures.Ifnotspecified,thefollowingvaluesmaybeadoptedforguidance(i)lowspeedmachines.(f1<500
rpm),horizontalandverticalvibrations,A=0.25run:.(ii)operatingspeedf1 =5001500rpm,A=0.4mmto
0.6mmforhorizontal,andA=0.7mmto0.9mmforverticalmodeofvibration;(iii)operatingspeedf1upto3000
rpm,A=0.2mmforhorizontalandA=0.5mmforverticalvibrations(iv)hammerfoundations,A=10mm.
3.20.2.3
DesignMethods
The various design methods can be grouped as follows: (i) empirical and semiempirical methods, (ii) methods
considering soil as a spring and (iii) methods considering soil as a semiinfinite elastic mass (elastic halfspace
approach)anditsequivalentlumpedparametermethod.Thelumpedparametermethodiscurrentlypreferredand
willbedescribedhere.
Agoodmachinefoundationshouldsatisfythefollowingcriteria.
(a) Likeordinaryfoundations,itshouldbesafeagainstshearfailurecausedbysuperimposedloads,andalso
thesettlementsshouldbewithinthesafelimits.
(b) Thesoilpressureshouldnormallynotexceed80%oftheallowablepressureforstaticloading.
(c) There should be no possibility of resonance. The natural frequency of the foundation should be either
greaterthanorsmallerthantheoperatingfrequencyofthemachine.
(d) Theamplitudesunderserviceconditionshouldbewithinthepermissiblelimitsforthemachine.
(e) Thecombinedcentreofgravityofthemachineandthefoundationshouldbeontheverticallinepassing
throughthecentreofgravityofthebaseplane.
(f) Machine foundation should be taken to a level lower than the level of the foundation of the, adjacent
buildingsandshouldbeproperlyseparated.
(g) Thevibrationsinducedshouldneitherbeannoyingtothepersonsnordetrimentaltootherstructures.
(h) Richart(1967)developedaplotforverticalvibrations,whichisgenerallytakenasaguideforvariouslimits
offrequencyandamplitudewhichhasbeenpresentedinFig.6.3.4.
(i) Thedepthofthegroundwatertableshouldbeatleastonefourthofthewidthofthefoundationbelow
thebaseplace.
3.20.2.4 VibrationAnalysisofaMachineFoundation:
Althoughamachine foundationhas6 degree offreedom, itis assumed tohave a single degreeoffreedom for a
simplifiedanalysis.Fig6.3.5showsamachinefoundationsupportedonasoilmass.Inthiscase,themassmflumps
togetherthemassofthemachineandthemassoffoundation.Thetotalmassmfactsatthecentreofgravityofthe
system.Themassisunderthesupportingactionofthesoil.Theelasticactioncanbelumpedtogetherintoasingle
elasticspringwithastiffnessk.Likewise;alltheresistancetomotionislumpedintothedampingcoefficientc.Thus
the machine foundationreducesto a singlemass having one degree of freedom.The analysis of damped,forced
vibrationis,therefore,applicabletothemachinefoundation.
6222
Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations
Ch
hapter3
Fig.6.3.4.Limitsoffrequeencyandampliitudes(Richarttschart)
5.Machinefou
undationsuppo
ortedonasoilmass
Fig.6.3.5
3.20.2.4
4.1 DetermiinationofP
Parameterss
Forvibratio
onanalysisof amachinefou
undation,the parametersm
m,candkare required.Thesseparameters canbe
determinedasunder.
W
a machine vibrates, ssome portion of the suppo
orting soil masss also vibratees. The
(a) Mass (m): When
vibratingsoil isknownasth
heparticipatin
ngmassorinp
phasesoilmasss.Therefore, thetotalmasssofthe
undation blocck and machin
ne (mf) and th
he mass (ms) of the
system is equal to the maass of the fou
participatingssoil.Thus
(6.3.51)
m = m f + ms
Part6
StructuralDesign
Unfortunately,thereisnorationalmethodtodeterminethemagnitudeofms.Itisusuallyrelatedtothe
mass of the soil in the pressure bulb. The value of ms generally varies between zero and mf. In other
words,thetotalmass(m)variesbetweenmfand2mfinmostcases.
(b) Spring stiffness (k): The spring stiffness depends upon the type of soil, embedment of the foundation
block,thecontactareaandthecontactpressuredistribution.Thefollowingarethecommonmethods.
i)
Laboratorytest:AtriaxialtestwithverticalvibrationsisconductedtodetermineYoungsmodulus
E. Alternatively, the modulus of rigidity (G) is determined conducting the test under torsional
vibration, and E is obtained indirectly from the relation, E = 2G( 1 + ) , where is Poissons
ratio.Thestiffness(k)isdeterminedas
k=
AE
L
(6.3.52)
where,A crosssectionalareaofthespecimen,andL lengthofthespecimen.

ii)
Barkans method: The stiffness can also be obtained from the value of E using the following
relationgivenbyBarken.
k=
1.13E
A
1
(6.3.53)
Where,A baseareaofthemachine,i.e.areaofcontact.
iii) Plateloadtest:Arepeatedplateloadtestisconductedandthestiffnessofthesoil(kp)isfoundas
theslopeoftheloaddeformationcurve.Thespringconstantkofthefoundationisasunder.
Forcohesivesoils:
B
k = k P
BP
Forcohesionlesssoil:
B + 0.3
k = k P
BP + 0.3
(6.3.54)
(6.3.55)
Where, B is the width of foundation. Alternatively, spring constant can be obtained

fromthesubgrademodulus(ks),as
k = K s A
(6.3.56)
Where,A=areaoffoundation.
iv) Resonancetest:Theresonancefrequency(fn)isobtainedusingavibratorofmassmsetupon
asteelplatesupportedontheground.Thespringstiffnessobtainedfromtherelation
II.
fn =
n
1
=
k m = 4 2 f n m
2 2
6.3.57
Dampingconstant(c):Dampingisduetodissipationofvibrationenergy,whichoccursmainlybecauseof
thefollowingreasons.
i)
Internalfrictionlossduetohysterisisandviscouseffects.
ii)
Radiationallossduetopropagationofwavesthroughsoil.
The damping factor D for an underdamped system can be determined in the laboratory. Vibration response is
plottedandthelogarithmicdecrementisfoundfromtheplot,as
6224
Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations
2D
1 D
Chapter3
D=
6.3.58
ThedampingfactorDmayalsobeobtainedfromtheareaofthehysteresisloopoftheloaddisplacementcurve,as
D=
6.3.59
Where,W totalworkdone;andW worklosthysteresis.ThevalueofDformostsoilsgenerallyvaries

between0.01and0.1.
3.21
GEOHAZARDANALYSISFORBUILDINGS
Geohazard analysis of buildings include design considerations for possible landslides, ground subsidence,
earthquakes and other seismic events, erosion and scour, construction in toxic and/or contaminated landfills,
groundwatercontaminationetc.Apreliminaryreviewoftheselectedsiteshouldbecarriedoutforexistenceofany
oftheabovementionedgeohazardinthearea.Adetailedanalysismaybecarriedoutonlyifthepreliminaryreview
indicatesasignificantthreatforthebuildingwhichmayexistfromanyoftheabovementionedpotentialgeohazard
attheselectedlocationforthebuilding.Seerelevantsectionfordetails.
6225

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CHAPTER3

geophysical investigations(e.g. seismic profiling, ground penetratingradar, resistivity measurements

Where groundcontaminationorsoilgasisexpected,informationshallbegatheredfromtherelevantsources. This

The results of a geotechnical investigationshall be compiled in the Geotechnical Investigation Reportwhichshall

A Based on the material passing the 3-in. (75-mm) sieve

poorly graded gravel with silt

poorly graded gravel with clay

F If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual symbol GC-GM, or SC-SM.

poorly graded sand with silt

poorly graded sand with clay.

J If Atterberg limits plot in hatched area, soil is a CL-ML, silty clay.

Particles are present but estimated to be less than 5 %

max = amax rd ( t )(z / g )

Pilepenetrationshallbedetermined basedonverticalandlateralloadcapacitiesof boththepileandsubsurface

Where,Nqisabearingcapacityfactorthatdependsonangleofinternalfriction of the soil at the base

f s = 1.67 N (in kPa)

formedium dense sand

(tension)forsteelpiles,0.85f cconcrete(compression)and0.7Fy (steelreinforcement(tension)for concrete piles

f s = 1.11 N (in kPa)

Axial Capacity of Bored Piles in Cohesionless Soil using Static Bearing

formedium dense sand

f s = 1.33N (in kPa)

ThevaluesofKand scanbeobtainedfromthechartofTables6.3.11,fromthesoilfrictionangle, and

Table6.3.11:TypicalS/ and K/KoValuesfortheDesignofDrilledShaft

PART C: ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF

For satisfaactory perform

(2) Types of foundation

where,A crosssectionalareaofthespecimen,andL lengthofthespecimen.

Where, B is the width of foundation. Alternatively, spring constant can be obtained

Where,W totalworkdone;andW worklosthysteresis.ThevalueofDformostsoilsgenerallyvaries

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