Bone Ash

ESTIMATION OF CONTENT OF BONE ASH

PROJECT SUBMITTED BY
Prashanth.G
12 D
ROLL NO:0000000000000000
Department of Chemistry
Bonafide Certificate
This is to certify that the Chemistry project __________________________
__________________________________________ in Chemistry had been
Submitted by the candidate _________________________________
With roll number __________________ for the class XII practical examination of
the Central Board of Secondary Education in the year 2009.
It is further certified that this project is the individual work of the
Candidate.
Signature:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
I thank the staff of the Chemistry department for the help
And guidance provided to me in completing the project in
Chemistry. I also thank the principal for permitting the use of the
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INDEX
CONTENTS
Bone Introdution
Functions
Characteristics
Cellular Structure
Molecular Structure
Types of Bones
Formation
Re-Modelling
Paracrine Cell Signalling
Experiment Analysis
Report of the project
Results
Disorders
Osteology
Terminology
Bibliography

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Abstract
This project introduces some knowledge about the basics involved in finding the constituents
of bone. This Project deals with the principle of qualitative analysis of cation and anion.
Skeletal system plays an integral part of most of the animals what is that it makes it form
an integral part? The solution of this can be understood more clearly from this project.
Significance of project:

Deals with analysis of bone ash

Provides all basic ideas about concentration of various salts present

Provides information about ion exchange reaction

This project indeed would be a revolution in the world where there is increasing worry about
problems of bone like osteoporosis and in this industrial age amount of calcium content in
bone is also reducing; this project would indeed be a very good solution.
Bone
.
Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to
move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells

and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Because bones come in a
variety of shapes and have a complex internal and external structure they are lightweight, yet
strong and hard, in addition to fulfilling their many other functions. One of the types of tissue
that makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue, also called bone tissue, that gives it
rigidity and a honeycomb-like three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue
found in bones include marrow, endosteum and periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and
cartilage. There are 206 bones in the adult human bodyand 270 in an infant
Functions
Bones have eleven main functions:
Mechanical

Protection Bones can serve to protect internal organs, such as the skull protecting
the brain or the ribsheart and lungs.protecting the

Shape Bones provide a frame to keep the body supported.

Movement Bones, skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints function

together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole
body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space. The interaction between bone
and muscle is studied in biomechanics.

Sound transduction Bones are important in the mechanical aspect of

overshadowed hearing.

Blood production The marrow, located within the medullary cavity of long bones
and interstices of cancellous bone, produces blood cells in a process
called haematopoiesis.

Synthetic
Metabolic

Mineral storage Bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most
notably calciumphosphorus.and

Growth factor storage Mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors
such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, bone morphogenetic
proteins and others.

Fat Storage The yellow bone marrow acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids.

Acid-base balance Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by

absorbing or releasing alkaline salts.

Detoxification Bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign
elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues.
These can later be gradually released for excretion.

Endocrine organ Bone controls phosphate metabolism by releasing fibroblast

growth factor 23 (FGF-23), which acts on kidneys to reduce phosphate re
absorption.

Characteristics
The primary tissue of bone, osseous tissue, is a relatively hard and lightweight composite
material, formed mostly of calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement termed
calcium hydroxylapatite (this is the osseous tissue that gives bones their rigidity). It has
relatively high compressive strength but poor tensile strength of 104-121 MPa, meaning it
resists pushing forces well, but not pulling forces. While bone is essentially brittle, it does
have a significant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefly by collagen. All bones consist of
living and dead cells embedded in the mineralized organic matrix that makes up the osseous
tissue.
Individual bone structure
Bone is not a uniformly solid material, but rather has some spaces between its hard elements.
Compact bone or (Cortical bone)
The hard outer layer of bones is composed of compact bone tissue, so-called due to its
minimal gaps and spaces. This tissue gives bones their smooth, white, and solid appearance,
and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult skeleton. Compact bone may also be
referred to as dense bone.
Trabecular bone
Filling the interior of the bone is the trabecular bone tissue (an open cell porousnetwork also
called cancellous or spongy bone), which is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like
elements that make the overall organ lighter and allowing room for blood vessels and
marrow. Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has nearly
ten times the surface area of compact bone. If for any reason there is an alteration in the strain
to which the cancellous subjected there is a rearrangement of the trabeculae. Although adult
bone exists in both cancellous and compact forms, there is no microscopic difference between
the two.
Cellular structure
There are several types of cells constituting the bone;

Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells that descend from osteoprogenitor

cells. They are located on the surface of osteoid seams and make a protein mixture
known as osteoid, which mineralizes to become bone. The osteiod seam is a narrow
region of newly formed organic matrix, not yet mineralized, located on the surface of

a bone. Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I collagen. Osteoblasts also

manufacture hormones, such as prostaglandins, to act on the bone itself. They robustly
produce alkaline phosphatase, anenzyme that has a role in the mineralisation of bone,
as well as many matrix proteins. Osteoblasts are the immature bone cells.

Bone lining cells are essentially inactive osteoblasts. They cover all of the available
bone surface and function as a barrier for certain ions.

Osteocytes originate from osteoblasts that have migrated into and become trapped and
surrounded by bone matrix that they themselves produce. The spaces they occupy are
known as lacunae. Osteocytes have many processes that reach out to meet osteoblasts
and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication. Their functions
include to varying degrees: formation of bone, matrix maintenance and
calcium homeostasis. They have also been shown to act as mechano-sensory receptors
regulating the bones response to stress and mechanical load. They are mature bone
cells.

Osteoclasts are the cells responsible for bone resorption (remodeling of bone to
reduce its volume). Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells located on bone
surfaces in what are called Howships lacunae or resorption pits. These lacunae, or
resorption pits, are left behind after the breakdown of the bone surface. Because the
osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped
withphagocytic-like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages. Osteoclasts
mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival, active enzymes, such
as tartrate resistant acid phosphatase, are secreted against the mineral substrate.

Molecular structure
Matrix
The majority of bone is made of the bone matrix. It has inorganic and organic parts. Bone is
formed by the hardening of this matrix entrapping the cells. When these cells become
entrapped from osteoblasts they become osteocytes.
Inorganic
The inorganic is mainly crystalline mineral salts and calcium, which is present in the form
of hydroxyapatite. The matrix is initially laid down as unmineralised osteoid (manufactured
by osteoblasts). Mineralisation involves osteoblasts secreting vesicles containing alkaline
phosphatase. This cleaves the phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and
phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for crystals to grow on.
Organic
The organic part of matrix is mainly composed of Type I collagen. This is synthesised
intracellularly as tropocollagen and then exported, forming fibrils. The organic part is also
composed of various growth factors, the functions of which are not fully known. Factors
present includeglycosaminoglycans, osteocalcin, osteonectin, bone sialo protein, osteopontin
and Cell Attachment Factor. One of the main things that distinguishes the matrix of a bone
from that of another cell is that the matrix in bone is hard.

Woven or lamellar
Two types of bone can be identified microscopically according to the pattern of collagen
forming the osteoid (collagenous support tissue of type I collagen embedded in
glycosaminoglycan gel
1) woven bone characterised by haphazard organisation of collagen fibers and is
mechanically weak, and
2) lamellar bone which has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets (lamellae) and
is mechanically strong.
Woven bone is produced when osteoblasts produce osteoid rapidly which occurs initially in
all fetalbones (but is later replaced by more resilient lamellar bone). In adults woven bone is
created afterfractures or in Pagets disease. Woven bone is weaker, with a smaller number of
randomly oriented collagen fibers, but forms quickly; it is for this appearance of the fibrous
matrix that the bone is termedwoven. It is soon replaced by lamellar bone, which is highly
organized in concentric sheets with a much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding
tissue. Lamellar bone, which makes its first appearance in the fetus during the third trimester,
[3]
is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer
(these parallel columns are called osteons). In cross-section, the fibers run in opposite
directions in alternating layers, much like in plywood, assisting in the bones ability to
resist torsion forces. After a fracture, woven bone forms initially and is gradually replaced by
lamellar bone during a process known as bony substitution.
These terms are histologic, in that a microscope is necessary to differentiate between the two.
Types
There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid.

Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much greater in length
than width. They are comprised mostly of compact bone and lesser amounts
of marrow, which is located within the medullary cavity, and spongy bone. Most
bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The
exceptions are those of the wrist, ankleand kneecap.

Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone
surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones, as are
thesesamoid bones.

Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones
sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as
is thesternum.

Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of
compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are
irregular and complicated. The bones of the spinehips are irregular bones.and

Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon
further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage
of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and
the pisiform.Compared to woven bone , lamellar bone formation takes place more
slowly. The orderly deposition of collagen fibers restricts the formation of osteoid to
about 1 to 2 m per day.

Lamellar bone requires a relatively flat surface to lay the collagen fibers in parallel or
concentric layers.
Formation
The formation of bone during the fetal stage of development occurs by two
processes: Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
Intramembranous ossification
Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull;
the bone is formed from mesenchyme tissue. The steps in intramembranous ossification are:
1. Development of ossification center
2. Calcification
3. Formation of trabeculae
4. Development of periosteum
Endochondral ossification
Endochondral ossification, on the other hand, occurs in long bones, such as limbs; the bone is
formed from cartilage. The steps in endochondral ossification are:
1. Development of cartilage model
2. Growth of cartilage model
3. Development of the primary ossification center
4. Development of the secondary ossification center
5. Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate
Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called primary ossification
centers. They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their
primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of
long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs
after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat
bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of
cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). When the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of

age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together
(epiphyseal closure).
Bone marrow
Bone marrow can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue. In newborns, all
such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow, but as the child ages it is mostly replaced
by yellow, or fatty marrow. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the marrow bones of the
femur, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones.
Remodeling
Remodeling or bone turnover is the process of resorption followed by replacement of bone
with little change in shape and occurs throughout a persons life. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts,
coupled together via paracrine cell signalling, are referred to as bone remodeling units.
Purpose
The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair micro-damaged bones
(from everyday stress) but also to shape and sculpture the skeleton during growth.
Calcium balance
The process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic
circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation
actively fixes circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream,
resorption actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes
occur in tandem at site-specific locations.
Repair
Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in the bone
thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolffs law). It has been hypothesized that this is
a result of bones piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical
potentials under stress.[4]
Paracrine cell signalling
The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of chemical factors
which either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodelling cells, controlling the rate
at which bone is made, destroyed or changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signalling
to control the activity of each other.
Osteoblast stimulation
Osteoblasts can be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased secretion of osteoid
and by inhibiting the ability of osteoclasts to break down osseous tissue.
Bone building through increased secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the secretion of growth
hormone by the pituitary, thyroid hormone and the sex hormones (estrogens and androgens).

These hormones also promote increased secretion of osteoprotegerin.[5] Osteoblasts can also
be induced to secrete a number of cytokines that promote reabsorbtion of bone by stimulating
osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone
and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-ligand
and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorbtion of bone by
osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion ofmacrophage colony-stimulating
factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts,
and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin.
Osteoclast inhibition
The rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin.
Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in thethyroid gland, and can bind to receptors
on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts
and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation.
Experimental Analysis
Materials Required
PARTICULARS
Rib Bone
Beaker
Test Tube
Evaporating Dish
Ring Stand
Bunsen Burner
Test Tube Holder
Filter Paper
PH Paper
Dil. Nitric Acid
1% Ammonium Hydroxide
1% Silver Nitrate
1% Ammonium Chloride
Acetic Acid
1% Potassium Thiocyanate
Distilled Water

QUANTITY
2 Pieces
150 ml
7 nos
1 no
1 no
1 no
2 nos

200 ml
100 ml
25 ml
50 ml
100 ml
25 ml
As Reqd

Report of Project
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION

A strip of bone was burnt in evaporating dish

Yellowish white precipitate was obtained

2 gms of bone as was weighed

To it dilute nitric acid was added

On adding Nitric acid the ash sparingly dissolved

It was diluted with water and the ash was completely dissolved

The above solution was filtered and the residue (left on the filter paper) was discarded

Ammonium hydroxide was added to the filtrate (left on the beaker)

The pH was made to 8.6

Whitish brown precipitate of Magnesium ammonium phosphate was obtained

The solution was made basic. The basicity was checked with the help of pH paper

The solution was filtered and the residue was isolated

The filtrate was separated into two test tubes

White precipitate of Silver chloride was obtained

Silver nitrate was added to one of the test tubes

White residue of calcium

To the other test tube ammonium chloride and ammonium carbonate was added
simultaneously and boiled

Carbonate was obtained

To the solution left, dilute HCL was added followed by Potassium thiocyanate

Red colour solution marking the presence of Iron was obtained

Result
Extrapolation from the above observations
Constituents of bone ash identified were:
1. I. Calcium
2. II. Phosphate
3. III. Chloride

4. IV. Magnesium
5. V. Iron
Apart from this Calcium and Phosphate which is found maximum in bone was estimated
from the precipitate got. This was done by weighing the precipitate

Weight of Calcium carbonate:-

1.7 g

Weight of Mg (NH4) PO4 :-

1.1 g

Weight of Ca in 2g of sample:-

0.68 g

Weight of Phosphorous:-

% of Ca:-

% of Phosphorous:-

0.24 g
34%
12%

Disorders
There are many disorders of the skeleton. One of the more prominent is osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bone, leading to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis,
the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the
amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by
the World Health Organization (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard
deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old sex-matched healthy person average) as
measured by DXA; the term established osteoporosis includes the presence of a fragility
fracture.[6] Osteoporosis is most common in women after the menopause, when it is
called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may develop in men and premenopausal women in
the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result
of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is called steroidor glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP).
Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle advice and medication, and preventing falls in
people with known or suspected osteoporosis is an established way to prevent fractures.
Osteoporosis can be treated with bisphosphonates and various other medical treatments.
Other
Other disorders of bone include:

Bone fracture

Osteomyelitis

Osteosarcoma

Osteogenesis imperfecta

Osteochondritis Dissecans

Bone Metastases

Neurofibromatosis type I

Osteology
The study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology. It is frequently used
in anthropology, archeology and forensic science for a variety of tasks. This can include
determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of the individual the bones were taken
from. Preparing fleshed bones for these types of studies can involve maceration boiling
fleshed bones to remove large particles, then hand-cleaning.
Typically anthropologists and archeologists study bone tools made by Homo sapiens
and Homo neanderthalensis. Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile points or
artistic pigments, and can be made from endoskeletal or external bones such as antler or tusk.
Alternatives to bony endoskeletons
There are several evolutionary alternatives to mammillary bone; though they have some
similar functions, they are not completely functionally analogous to bone.

Exoskeletons offer support, protection and levers for movement similar to

endoskeletal bone. Different types of exoskeletons include shells,carapaces
(consisting of calcium compounds or silica) and chitinous exoskeletons.

A true endoskeleton (that is, protective tissue derived from mesoderm) is also present
in Echinoderms. Poriferaspicules and a spongin fiber network.(sponges) possess
simple endoskeletons that consist of calcareous or siliceous

Exposed bone
Bone penetrating the skin and being exposed to the outside can be both a natural process in
some animals, and due to injury:

A deers antlers are composed of bone.

Instead of teeth, the extinct predatory fish Dunkleosteus had sharp edges of hard
exposed bone along its jaws.

A compound fracture occurs when the edges of a broken bone puncture the skin.

Though not strictly speaking exposed, a birds beak is primarily bone covered in a
layer of keratin over a vascular layer containing blood vessels and nerve endings.

Terminology
Several terms are used to refer to features and components of bones throughout the body:
Bone feature
articular
process
articulation
canal
condyle
crest
eminence
epicondyle
facet
foramen
fossa
fovea
Labyrinth
line
malleolus
meatus
process
ramus
sinus
spine
suture
trochanter
tubercle
tuberosity

Definition
A projection that contacts an adjacent bone.
The region where adjacent bones contact each other a joint.
A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for notable nerves or blood
vessels.
A large, rounded articular process.
A prominent ridge.
A relatively small projection or bump.
A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint.
A small, flattened articular surface.
An opening through a bone.
A broad, shallow depressed area.
A small pit on the head of a bone.
A cavity within a bone.
A long, thin projection, often with a rough surface. Also known as a ridge.
One of two specific protuberances of bones in the ankle.
A short canal.
A relatively large projection or prominent bump.(gen.)
An arm-like branch off the body of a bone.
A cavity within a cranial bone.
A relatively long, thin projection or bump.
Articulation between cranial bones.
One of two specific tuberosities located on the femur.
A projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally smaller than a
tuberosity.
A projection or bump with a roughened surface.

Bibliography

Otto, Towle, Crider

Biology Investigations

Concise Inorganic Chemistry

J.D.Lee

Wikipedia

NCERT Biology and chemistry Textbook

The Journal of Biological Chemistry

Chemistry Project Report on Adsorption

Declaration
I, ____________ student of ___________________ is doing project report
entitled Adsorption being submitted to ___________________is an original
piece of work done by me.
(Signature)
Chemistry Project Report, Project Report on Adsorption, Chemical Adsorption,
Physical Adsorption, Introduction towards Adsorption, Causes of Adsorption,
Classification of Adsorption, Factors on which adsorption depend, Types of
Adsorption, Freundlich's adsorption isotherm, Application of adsorption

Project Report Adsorption

The situation existing at the surface of Liquid or a solid is different from
them in interior. For example, a molecule in the interior of a liquid is
completely surrounded by other molecules on all sides and hence the
intermolecular forces of attraction are exerted equally in all directions.
however, a molecule at the surface of a liquid is surrounded by large
number of particles in the liquid phase and fewer number of particles in
vapour phase i.e. in the space above the liquid surface. As a result these
molecules lying at the surface, experiences some net inward forces of
attraction which cause surface tension. Similar inward forces of attraction
exist at the surface of a solid.
Because of the unbalanced inward forces of attraction of free valances at
the surface, liquid and solids have the property to attract and retain the

molecules of a gas or dissolved substance on the their surfaces with which

they come in contact.

Adsorption - Definition
Definition of Adsorption : The phenomenon of attracting and retaining the
molecules of a substance on the surface of a Liquid or a solid resulting in
the higher concentration of the molecules on the surface is called
Adsorption.
The substance thus adsorbed on surface is called Adsorbate and the
substance on which it is adsorbed is called Adsorbent.

Causes of Adsorption
Adsorption arises at the surface of solids as a result of presence of
unbalanced forces at the surface. These forces develop either during the
crystallization of solids or by virtue of the presence of unpaired e- in dorbital.

Characteristics of Adsorption
1. It is specific and selective in nature.
2. It is accompanied by decrease in the free energy of the system. When G
becomes zero, Adsorption equilibrium is established.
3. Adsorption is spontaneous process therefore change in free energy (G)
for the process is negative.
According to Gibb's Helmhotz equation :
G = H - TS
G = -Ve ; H = -Ve
( it is exothermic process)
And S is -Ve because adhering of gas molecules to the surface lowers the
randomness.

Factors on which adsorption depend

1. Surface area of Adsorbent :
Greater the surface Area of Adsorbent, greater is the volume of gas adsorb

2. Nature of gas being Adsorb :

Higher the critical temperature of gas, greater is the among of that gas
adsorbed.
3. Temperature :
Adsorption decreases with increase in temperature and vice - versa.
4. Pressure :
Adsorption of a gas increase with increase of pressure because on
applying pressure gas molecules comes close to each other.

Types of Adsorption
1. Physical Adsorption :
When a gas is bled on the surface of a solid by Vander wall's forces without
resulting in to formation of any chemical bond between the Adsorbate and
Adsorbent. It is called physical adsorption or vender wall's adsorption or
also known as physicosorption.
2. Chemical Adsorption :
When a gas is held on the surface of solid by forces similar to those of a
chemical bond, the type of adsorption is called chemical adsorption or
chemisorptions. It is also known as Longmuir adsorption.

Freundlich's adsorption isotherm

A graph between the amount adsorbed by an adsorbent and the equilibrium
pressure of the adsorbate at a constant temperature is called the
Adsorption isotherm.
At low value of p, the graph is nearly straight and sloping this is
represented by follow equation :
or

= constant x p1 ------------------ (a)

At higher pressure becomes independent of the values of p. in this range of

pressure :

p0 or

= constant x p0 ------------------ (b)

in the intermediate range of pressure, will depend on p raised to the powers

between 1 and 0. i.e. fractions. For a small range of pressure values, we
can write :
------------------- (c)
Adsorption Isobars :
A graph drawn between the amount adsorbed () and temperature 't' at a
constant equilibrium pressure of adsorbate gas is known as Adsorption
isobars.
(i) Physical Adsorption isobar (ii) Chemical Adsorption isobar.

Application of Adsorption
1. In preserving vacuum : In Dewar flasks activated charcoal is placed
between the walls of the flask so that any gas which enter in to the annular
space either due to glass imperfection or diffusion through glass is
adsorbed.
2. In gas masks : All gas masks are devices containing suitable adsorbent
so that the poiseness gases present in the atmosphere are preferentially
absorbed and the air for breathing is purified.
3. In clarification of sugar : Sugar is decolorized by treating sugar
solution with charcoal powder. The later adsorbs the undesirable colours
present.
4. In softening of hard water : The use of ion exchangers for softening of
hard water is based upon the principle of competing adsorption just as in
chromatography.
5. In removing moisture from air in the storage of delicate
instruments : Such instruments which may be harmed by contact with the
moist air, are kept out of contact with moisture using silica gel.
6. In Adsorption indicator : Varous dyes, which owe their use to
adsorption, have been introduced as indicator particularly in precipitation

titration. For example, KBr is easily titrated with AgNo3 using eosin as
indicator.

Abstract
To find the variation of conductance with temperature in electrolytes
Theory
Conductance: The property of ease of flow of electric current through a
body is called conductance.
Resistance: The obstacle offered to the flow of electric current is called
resistance.
Electrolysis: The operation in which electricity causes a chemical reaction
is called electrolysis.
Ohm's Law: This law states that the current flowing through a resistance is
directly proportional to the potential difference applied across it's ends, at
constant temperature and pressure.
V=IxR
Faraday's Laws:
First Law: The mass of a substance produced or consumed in electrolysis
is directly proportional to the quantity of charge passing through it.
mQ
or, m = Z I t
where, Z is electrochemical equivalent; I is current; t is time in seconds; Q
is charge.
Second Law: The mass of substance produced in electrolysis directly
proportional to its equivalent mass.
W1 / E1 = W2 / E2 = W3 / E3...

Third Law: The mass of a substance produced in electrolysis is directly

proportional to the number of electrons per mole needed to cause desired
change in oxidation state.
Conductivity
When voltage is applied to the electrodes immersed into an electrolyte
solution, ions of electrolyte move, and thus, electric current flows through
the electrolytic solution. The electrolytic solution and the metal conductors
exhibit resistance to the passage of the current; both of which obey Ohm's
law.
The reciprocal of resistance is called electrical conductance. The unit of
electrical conductance is Siemens (S) or ohm-1 or mho.
If a solution is placed between two parallel electrodes having cross
sectional area A and distance L apart then the resistance is given by
R=1/C
(called 'rho') is known as resistivity. Its reciprocal gives the conductivity of
the solution, which is denoted by (called 'kappa'). Its unit is
Siemens/meter.
=1/R*L/A
L / A is a fixed quantity for a cell and is called the 'cell constant'.
Factors Affecting Electrical Conductivity
The factors which affect the electrical conductivity of the solutions are:
Inter-ionic attraction: It depends on solute- solute interactions.
Solvation of ions: It depends on solute-solvent interactions.
Viscosity of the solvent: It depends on solvent-solvent interactions.
Apparatus
Glass beaker, CuSO4 solution, Cu electrodes, ZnSO4 solution, Zn
electrodes, rheostat, battery eliminator, water, burner, thermometer, flask,
ammeter, voltmeter
Procedure

The electrolyte chosen is ZnSO4 and the electrodes are of Zn.

Readings for the measurement of conductance are taken at intervals of 3
degree Celcius.
Proper precautions are taken to avoid evaporation and to keep other
factors constant.
The vessel and electrodes are removed and the vessel is cleaned and filled
with ZnSO4 solution.
The electrodes are refitted in their original place so that the distance
between them does not change.
Current is passed and when the voltmeter and ammeter show steady
readings, they are noted.
The current is switched off.
It is seen that while the ammeter reading returns at once to 0 position. The
voltmeter needle pauses for a while at a particular reading which is noted
down.
This reading indicates the back EMF in the electrolyte.
Similarly, more sets of reading are taken, and resistance is calculated.
Thus, the value of conductance is calculated.
The switched on circuit readings in voltmeter and ammeter are taken.
The current through the electrolyte is changed by adjusting the rheostat
and more sets of readings are taken.
Thus, the mean value of resistance is calculated.
Above steps are repeated for CuSO4 as electrolyte with electrodes made
of Cu.
Physical Constants
For the purpose of accuracy and convenience, some important aspects of
the electrolyte process are kept constant in the experiment as their
variation might affect the conductivity of the electrolyte. They are:

Voltage
Nature of electrodes
Size of electrodes
Separation between the electrodes
Concentration of the electrolytes
Nature of the electrolytes
Resistance in the circuit
Observation Set 1
For ZnSO4 electrolyte with Zn electrodes

Observation Set 2
For CuSO4 electrolyte

Result
The relevant graph shows that the 1 / Resistance of an electrolyte
increases at a steady rate as the temperature increases.
Conclusion
On heating a solution, it is known that viscosity gradually decreases, with
decrease in viscosity, the speed and movement of the ions increases. In
other words, the conductance of the electrolyte increases with increases in
temperature. Hence, the result of the experiment agrees with reasoning

Variation of Conductance with Temperature in Electrolytes Name: Deen Dayal School: Mother
Divine Public School Roll No: 6229 Index Certificate.. 3
Acknowledgements. 4
Aim 5
Apparatus 6 Important
Terms.. 7
Conductivity.. 8 Factors Affecting Electrical
Conductivity.. 9 Procedure.. 10
Physical Constants 11 Observation Set
1.. 12 11.
Graph of Observation Set
1. 13 12.
Observation Set
2.. 14 13.
Graph of Observation Set
2. 15 14. Result 16 15.
Conclusion.. 17 16.
Precautions. 18 17.
Bibliography 19 Certificate This is to certify that Deen
Dayal student of Class XII A, Mother Divine Public School has completed the project titled Variation
of Conductance with Temperature in Electrolytes during the academic year 2008-2009 towards
partial fulfillment of credit for the Chemistry practical evaluation of AISSCE 2009, and submitted
satisfactory report, as compiled in the following pages, under my supervision. Mrs Janet Garrison
Department of Chemistry Mother Divine Public School Acknowledgements There are times when
silence speaks so much more loudly than words of praise to only as good as belittle a person,

whose words do not express, but only put a veneer over true feelings, which are of gratitude at
this point of time. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry mentor Mrs Janet
Garrison, for her vital support, guidance and encouragement without which this project would
not have come forth. I would also like to express my gratitude to the staff of the Department of
Chemistry at South Park Elementary for their support during the making of this project. Aim To
find the variation of conductance with temperature in electrolytes Apparatus Glass beaker, CuSO4
solution, Cu electrodes, ZnSO4 solution, Zn electrodes, rheostat, battery eliminator, water, burner,
thermometer, flask, ammeter, voltmeter Important Terms * Conductance: The property of ease
of flow of electric current through a body is called conductance. * Resistance: The obstacle
offered to the flow of electric current is called resistance. * Electrolysis: The operation in which
electricity causes a chemical reaction is called electrolysis. * Ohms Law: This law states that the
current flowing through a resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference applied
across its ends, at constant temperature and pressure. V = I x R * Faradays Laws: o First Law:
The mass of a substance produced or consumed in electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of charge passing through it. m (X Q or, m = Z x I x t where, Z is electrochemical
equivalent; I is current; t is time in seconds; Q is charge. o Second Law: The mass of
substance produced in electrolysis directly proportional to its equivalent mass. W1 / E1 = W2 /
E2 = W3 / E3 o Third Law: The mass of a substance produced in electrolysis is directly
proportional to the number of electrons per mole needed to cause desired change in oxidation
state. Conductivity When voltage is applied to the electrodes immersed into an electrolyte solution,
ions of electrolyte move, and thus, electric current flows through the electrolytic solution. The
electrolytic solution and the metal conductors exhibit resistance to the passage of the current;
both of which obey Ohms law. The reciprocal of resistance is called electrical conductance. The
unit of electrical conductance is Siemens (S) or ohm-1 or mho. If a solution is placed between two
parallel electrodes having cross sectional area A and distance L apart then the resistance is given
by R = 1 / C p (called rho) is known as resistivity. Its reciprocal gives the conductivity of the
solution, which is denoted by k (called kappa). Its unit is Siemens/meter. K = 1 / R * L / A L/ A is
a fixed quantity for a cell and is called the cell constant. Factors Affecting Electrical Conductivity
The factors which affect the electrical conductivity of the solutions are: * Inter-ionic attraction:
It depends on solute- solute interactions. * Solvation of ions: It depends on solute-solvent
interactions. * Viscosity of the solvent: It depends on solvent-solvent interactions. Procedure 1.
The electrolyte chosen is ZnSO4 and the electrodes are of Zn. Readings for the measurement of
conductance are taken at intervals of 3 DC. Proper precautions are taken to avoid evaporation and
to keep other factors constant. The vessel and electrodes are removed and the vessel is cleaned
and filled with ZnSO4 solution. The electrodes are refitted in their original place so that the
distance between them does not change. Current is passed and when the voltmeter and ammeter
show steady readings, they are noted. The current is switched off. It is seen that while the
ammeter reading returns at once to 0 position. The voltmeter needle pauses for a while at a
particular reading which is noted down. This reading indicates the back EMF in the electrolyte.
Similarly, more sets of reading are taken, and resistance is calculated. Thus, the value of
conductance is calculated. The switched on circuit readings in voltmeter and ammeter are taken.
The current through the electrolyte is changed by adjusting the rheostat and more sets of readings
are taken. Thus, the mean value of resistance is calculated. Above steps are repeated for CuSO4
as electrolyte with electrodes made of Cu. Physical Constants For the purpose of accuracy and
convenience, some important aspects of the electrolyte process are kept constant in the
experiment as their variation might affect the conductivity of the electrolyte. They are: * Voltage
* Nature of electrodes * Size of electrodes * Separation between the electrodes *
Concentration of the electrolytes * Nature of the electrolytes * Resistance in the circuit
Observation Set 1 For ZnSO4 electrolyte with Zn electrodes S No Temperature Reading of Ammeter
Reading of Voltmeter Resistance Conductance I V R = V /1 C = 1 / R 1 23 [ DC 100 mA 1.0 V 10 Q
0.100 Q-1 2 26 [ DC 100 mA 0.95 V 9.5 Q 0.105 Q-1 3 29 [ DC 110 mA 0.89 V 8.09 Q 0.120 Q-1
4 32 [ DC 110 mA 0.84 V 7.63 Q 0.130 Q-1 5 35 [ DC 120 mA 0.80 V 6.66 Q 0.150 Q-1 6 38 [ DC
125 mA 0.75 V 6.00 Q 0.160 Q-1 7 41 [ DC 130 mA 0.71 V 7.6 Q 0.180 Q-1 8 44 [ DC 130 mA
0.65 V 5.00 Q 0.200 Q-1 Graph of Observation Set 1 Zinc Sulphate Electrolyte 0.1 0.05
Temperature (in degree Celsius) Observation Set 2 For CuSO4 electrolyte S No Temperature
Reading of Ammeter Reading of Voltmeter Resistance Conductance I V R = V /1 C = 1/R 1 25 C
75 mA 1.4 V 18.67 Q 0.053 Q-1 2 28 C 75 mA 1.35 V 18.00 Q 0.055 Q-1 3 31 C 75 mA 1.3 V
17.33 Q 0.057 Q-1 4 34 C 75 mA 1.25 V 16.67 Q 0.060 Q-1 5 36 C 80 mA 1.2 V 15.00 Q
0.066 Q-1 6 38 C 80 mA 1.15 V 14.38 Q 0.069 Q-1 7 42 C 80 mA 1.10 V 13.75 Q 0.072 Q-1 8

44 C 85 mA 1.10 V 12.94 Q 0.075 Q-1 9 47 C 85 mA 1.05 V 12.35 Q 0.080 Q-1 10 49 C 90

mA 1.10 V 11.11 Q 0.090 Q-1 11 53 C 90 mA 1.90 V 10.00 Q 0.100 Q-1 Graph of Observation
Set 2 0.06 o .c O 0.04 TO O 0.02 o O Result The relevant graph shows that the 1 / Resistance of
an electrolyte increases at a steady rate as the temperature increases. Conclusion On heating a
solution, it is known that viscosity gradually decreases, with decrease in viscosity, the speed and
movement of the ions increases. In other words, the conductance of the electrolyte increases with
increases in temperature. Hence, the result of the experiment agrees with reasoning. Precautions
* Variation of resistance due to one of the factors should be kept constant. * The electrodes
used in each case should always be kept parallel to each other. * The solution should be kept
undisturbed throughout the experiment. * For each observation, three readings are taken and
the mean value is considered. Bibliography *
Chemistry (Part I) Textbook for Class XII;
National Council of Educational Research and Training *
Concepts of Physics 2 by H C Verma;
Bharti Bhawan (Publishers & Distributors
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