Linear verse Nonlinear

iA

iA (t )
+
0

v A (t )

vA

(a)

(b)

iA

Diode
One port
Switch
0

(c)

iA

vA

vA

(d)

(a)Block diagram representation of a one-port network

(b,c,d) Possible i-v characteristics of the one port network

Diode - nonlinear
iD
+

iD

Diode - On

vD

V0

I D I S (e

Diode - Off
nVT

Circuit symbol for the diode

Diode Physics Model

vD

1)

i-v characteristic of the diode

IDEAL i-v -------Diode Circuit Model ??

Diode Clipping or Rectification

+

iD

vD

v1

Fwd Bias Ron << R

Rev Bias Roff >> R

vo

vI

Rectifier circuit

vI

V
t

Input waveform

Output waveform

Amplifier Ideal - linear

vO

The magic
in ElectroniciO Devices
iI

Av
1

vI(t)

vO(t)

vI

Slope Defines Gain

A voltage amplifier fed with

a signal a signal vI(t) and
connected to a load
resistance RL

Transfer characteristic of a
linear voltage amplifier with
voltage gain Av

Amplifierideal with Clipping

Vo
iI
vI(t)

Output peaks
clipped due to saturation
Supply limiited

iO
vO(t)

L+

2
Output
waveform

L
Av

L
Av

L-

v
Vin
I

Input
waveform

An Amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for

output saturation

Amplifierwith Distortion
v0

Vo/Vin Characteristic of all Amplifers

t

L+

Slope = Av
v0(t)

Vo

vI

L iI
vI(t)

iO

VI

vi(t)

vO(t)

Low Distortion Bias point

t

Shifting Bias point increases Distortion

An amplifier characteristics with considerable nonlinearity

Non-Amplifier Biased to
Reduce Distortion
Careful Two types of Opamps
Dual Supply and Single Supply
V+
+
vi(t)

VI

vI

vO = VO+vo(t)

To obtain linear operation the

amplifier is biased as shown and
the signal amplitude is kept small

Amplifier Ideal circuit model

ii

RO

RO

vi

Rs

+
Ri

Avovi

Circuit model for the

voltage amplifier
Rin low i.e. 50 or 106
Ro low 100 or << less
Gain Parameter
Linear Gain and
linear Impedances

vO

vS

+
vi

+
Ri

io

Avovi

RL

vO

The voltage amplifier with input

signal source and load. Where
it is desirable that Rs << Ri
and assumed here.
vo Avo vi

RL
RL Ro

The voltage gain is given by

Av

vo
RL
Ri
Avo
vs
RL Ro RS Ri

Amplifier Ideal mutistage

circuit model
Source

Stage 1

100K

Stage 2

1K

1K

vs

vi2

Low Rout Thevenin

+
100K

vi3
+

10K

100vi2

10vi1

Load

10

+
1M

vi1

Stage 3

vL

1vi3

High Rin

Three stage amplifier Typical of most opamps

100

Amplifier Concerns
Signal source Output impedance vs. Amplifier Input impedance
Amplifier Output impedance vs. Follow on stage Input Impedance
Bandwidth (BW) Does it support the Signal information BW

Amplifiermutistage analysis
The fraction of source signal appearing at the input terminal of
the amplifier is obtained the using the voltage divider rule at
the input as follows
vi1
1M

0.909
vs 1M 100k

The voltage gain of the first stage is obtained by considering

the input resistance of the second stage to be the load of the
1 st stage ; that is
vi 2
100k
Av1
10
9.9
vi1
100k 1k

Amplifiermutistage analysis
Similarly, the voltage gain of the is obtained by considering the
input resistance of the third stage to be the load of the sec
ond stage
Av 3

vL
100
100
90.9
vi 3
100 10

Finally the voltage gain of the output stage is as follow

Av 3

vi 3
10k
1
0.909
vi 2
10k 1k

The total gain of the three stage in cascade can now be found
from
Av

vL
Av1 Av 2 Av 3 818
vi1

Symbol for Bipolar Junction

MOSFET Transistors
Nonlinear Devices
C

ID
iC +

iB
vCE

VDS

B
+
vBE
-

iE

BJT

MOSFET

Plotting Gain vs. Frequency

Typical Amplifier Frequency

Response -BW
20 log |T()|
BW 3dB to 3dB points or power point to 1/2 power point

Bandwidth

Typical magnitude response of an amplifier. T() is the

amplifier transfer function that is, the ratio of the output
Vo() to the input Vi()

Low Pass RC Filter

R

+
C

Vi(s)

Vo(s)

T (s)

Vo ( s )
Vi ( s )

T (s)

1 / sC
R 1 / sC

1
1 sCR

Replacing the capacitor

C by its impedance
1/sC , we can use the
voltage devider rule to
obtain
the
transfer
function T(s),

Low Pass RC Filter

For physical frequencies we substitute s = j
(Laplace Operator)
T ( j )

1
1 jCR

Thus the magnitude response I T(j)I is given by

T ( j )

1
1 (CR) 2

The phase response () is ATAN (imaginary/Real)

( ) tan 1 (CR)

RC Filter Mag & Phase

The figure below shows the magnitude and phase response using a
logarithmic frequency axis with the frequency normalized with respect to 0 =
1/CR and using a decibel scale for the magnitude axis .
20 LogT ( s ) 20 Log

1
1 (CR)2

(CR) 2 1 20 Log1 0dB

20 Log 1 (CR)2 10 Log[1 (CR)2 ]

(CR) 2 1 20 Log (CR)

|T|dB
5.70
0.01

10

(log scale)
0

3dB

20db/Dec

-450

-10

5.70

-20

-900

-30
1

100

(log scale)
0

High Pass RC Filter

R

+
C

Vi(s)

Vo(s)

Replacing the capacitor C

by its impedance 1/sC ,
we find the voltagetransfer
function T(s),
T (s)

Vo ( s )
Vi ( s )

f1 = 1/2pRC
0 dB

R
RCs
T ( s)

R 1 / sC
RCs 1
T ( s 0) 0
T ( s inf) 1

Neum
20 Log (CR)

Amplifer Combined with RC

Filters
|T|(dB)

Ideal Amp
C

vo
C

A capacitive coupled amplifier and its frequency response

|T|(dB)

Ideal Amp
R

vo

A direct coupled amplifier and its frequency response

Low Pass RC Transient Response

tf

tr

t comparable to T

P
0.9P

t << T

0.1P
t

T
Ideal Amp

To P
R

vo
C

t >>T
0
T

Pulse response of RC low-pass network

High Pass RC Transient Response

T

P
T

comparable to T

>>T

Ideal Amp
C

>>T

vo
0

t
P

Pulse response of RC high-pass networks

Thevenins/Norton theorem
R1

RTH

+
R2

Vi(s)
-

VTH

Vo(s)
-

VTH VOC
ISC

VOC
IN
R TH

R N R TH R1 || R2

IN

RN

Tuned load frequency response

Ideal Amp

|T|(dB)

vi

vo

Center frequency

A tuned or band pass amplifier and its frequency response

Human Body Model