BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 01
BCT/01/01/02

Engineering Properties of Soil

Origins of soils from rocks
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earths crust:
Igneous rocks
crystalline bodies of cooled magma
e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry
Sedimentary rocks
Layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies of water (seas,
lakes etc. e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate
Metamorphic rocks
formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions (e.g.
marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist,
gneiss).

Weathering of rocks
Physical Weathering
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earths surface, including the
actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice; cause disintegration and
wearing. The products are mainly coarse soils (silts, sands and gravels). Physical
weathering produces Very Coarse soils and Gravels consisting of broken rock particles,
but Sands and Silts will be mainly consists of mineral grains.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by
decomposition and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine
soils with separate mineral grains, such as Clays and Clay-Silts. The type of clay mineral
depends on the parent rock and on local drainage. Some minerals, such as quartz, are
resistant to the chemical weathering and remain unchanged.
Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small amount produced by
man). The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that
formed it;
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BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 01
BCT/01/01/02

breakdown
of
parent
rock:
weathering,
decomposition,
erosion.
transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace,
subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge
due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater

Basic characteristics of soil

Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock fragments, etc.) with water and air in the
voids between grains. The water and air contents are readily changed by changes in
conditions and location: soils can be perfectly dry (have no water content) or be fully
saturated (have no air content) or be partly saturated (with both air and water present).

Soil as an engineering material

The term "soil" means different things to different people. To an engineer it is a material
that can be:
built on: foundations to buildings, bridges.
built in: tunnels, culverts, basements.
built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams.
supported: retaining walls, quays.
Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different purposes.
Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: strength, stiffness,
permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress,
the water content and unit weight.

Size range of grains

Figure 1 Soil Classification

The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a
controlling dimension of over 200mm down to clay particles less than 0.002mm (2m).
In the British Soil Classification System, soils are classified into named Basic Soil Type
groups according to size, and the groups further divided into coarse, medium and fine
sub-groups:
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QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 01
BCT/01/01/02

Table 1 Soil Classification

BOULDERS
Very coarse
COBBLES
soils
coarse

Coarse
soils

> 200 mm
60 - 200 mm
20 - 60 mm

medium 6 - 20 mm
G
GRAVEL fine
2 - 6 mm
coarse

0.6 - 2.0 mm

medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm

S
SAND fine
0.06 - 0.2 mm
coarse
Fine
soils

M
SILT

0.02 - 0.06 mm

medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm

fine

C CLAY

0.002 - 0.006 mm
< 0.002 mm

Clay is sticky and plastic-like to handle when wet. The individual particles are extremely
small and can only be seen with the aid of an electron microscope. Silt is smooth and
slippery to the touch when wet, and the individual particles are much smaller than those
of sand. These individual particles can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. Sand is
gritty to the touch and the individual grains or particles can be seen with the naked eye.
Soil is said to be well-graded if it is composed of a wide spectrum of grain sizes. Wellgraded soils typically have the best engineering properties.
The best soils are well-graded soils containing gravel and sand (coarse materials have the
greatest shear strength), but also silts to fill in the large void spaces and clay to add
cohesion.

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BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 01
BCT/01/01/02

Volume-weight properties

Figure 2 Soil Structure

The volume-weight properties of a soil define its state. Measures of the amount of void
space, amount of water and the weight of a unit volume of soil are required in
engineering analysis and design.
Soil comprises three constituent phases:
Solid: rock fragments, mineral grains or flakes, organic matter.
Liquid: water, with some dissolved compounds (e.g. salts).
Gas: air or water vapour.
In natural soils the three phases are intermixed. To aid analysis it is convenient to
consider a soil model in which the three phases are seen as separate, but still in their
correct proportions.

Volumes of solid, water and air: the soil model

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BTEC HND in QS & CE

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Figure 3 - Volume
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components: Total
volume,
V = Vs + Vw + Va
Since the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids present is taken
as the reference quantity. Thus, the following relational volumetric quantities may be
defined:

Typical void ratios might be 0.3 (e.g. for a dense, well graded granular soil) or 1.5 (e.g.
for a soft clay).
The volume of water in a soil can only vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume
of voids; this can be expressed as a ratio:

For a perfectly dry soil:

Sr = 0
For a saturated soil:
Sr = 1
Note: In clay soils as the amount water increases the volume and therefore the volume of
voids will also increase, and so the degree of saturation may remain at Sr = 1 while the
actual volume of water is increasing.
Grain specific gravity

(w = density of water = 1.00Mg/m)

[Range of Gs for common soils: 2.64-2.72]
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BTEC HND in QS & CE

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The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water
content, or sometimes the moisture content.

Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material.

There are two basic measures of density or unit weight applied to soils: Dry density is a
measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume. Bulk density is a measure of the
amount of solid + water per unit volume.

The preferred units of density are:

Mg/m, kg/m or g/ml.
/ d = Ms + M w/ Ms = 1 + w
d = / ( 1 + w )
Dry density = Bulk density / ( 1 + water content )

Soil Tests
Sieve Analysis
When working with soils for engineering purposes, it is always necessary to properly
classify the soil. These types of soils can then be correlated to their engineering
properties. One of the main descriptors of soil used for engineering purposes is the
distribution of grain sizes in the soil mass. The most common method of obtaining
information regarding this distribution is analysis using sieves.
Procedure

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BTEC HND in QS & CE

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(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the
analysis.
(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of
sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200
sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each
sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the
bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
Table 2 Sieve Analysis test results

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BTEC HND in QS & CE

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Figure 4 Graph of percentage passing vs Sieve size

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BTEC HND in QS & CE

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Atterberg Limits

Figure 5 Stages of soil consistancy

The properties of a fine grained soil are considerably influenced by its water
content. At a particular water content, the physical state of a fined grained
soil is termed Consistency of soil. Depending on the water content, a soil
may exist in liquid, plastic, semi solid or solid state as shown in the figure.
The three water contents at which the transition takes place are significant in
reflecting the properties of the soil.
The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending
on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and
liquid. In each state the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and thus so are its
engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a
change in the soil's behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt
and clay, and it can distinguish between different types of silts and clays. These limits
were created by Albert Atterberg, a Swedish Chemist. They were later refined by Arthur
Casagrande.
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil starts to exhibit plastic behavior. A
thread of soil is at its plastic limit when it is rolled to a diameter of 3 mm and crumbles.
Liquid limit
The liquid limit (LL) is the water content where a soil changes from liquid to plastic
behavior. The liquid limit test of Atterberg's involved mixing a pat of clay in a little
round-bottomed porcelain bowl of 10-12cm diameter. Soil is placed into the metal cup
portion of the device and a groove is made down its center with a standardized tool. The
cup is repeatedly dropped 10mm onto a hard rubber base until the groove is closed for 13
mm ( inch). The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the
groove to close is defined as the liquid limit.

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QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 01
BCT/01/01/02

Soil Compaction
Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil.
Proper compaction of soil is very important as settlement is possible in case of improper
compaction.
Why Compact?
Main reasons to compact soil:
-

Increases load-bearing capacity

Prevents soil settlement

Provides stability

Reduces water seepage, swelling and contraction

The different types of effort are found in the two principle types of compaction force:
static and vibratory.
Static force is simply the deadweight of the machine, applying downward force on the
soil surface, compressing the soil particles. The only way to change the effective
compaction force is by adding or subtracting the weight of the machine. Static
compaction is confined to upper soil layers and is limited to any appreciable depth.
Kneading and pressure are two examples of static compaction.
Vibratory force uses a mechanism, usually engine-driven, to create a downward force in
addition to the machine's static weight. The vibrating mechanism is usually a rotating
eccentric weight or piston/spring combination (in rammers). The compactors deliver a
rapid sequence of blows (impacts) to the surface, thereby affecting the top layers as well
as deeper layers. Vibration moves through the material, setting particles in motion and
moving them closer together for the highest density possible. Based on the materials
being compacted, a certain amount of force must be used to overcome the cohesive
nature of particular particles.
Every soil type behaves differently with respect to maximum density and optimum
moisture. Therefore, each soil type has its own unique requirements and controls both in
the field and for testing purposes. A well graded gravelly soil will achieve good
compaction.
Effect of Moisture
.
The response of soil to moisture is very important, as the soil must carry the load yearround. Rain, for example, may transform soil into a plastic state or even into a liquid. In
this state, soil has very little or no load-bearing ability.
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Moisture vs. Soil Density

.

Moisture content of the soil is vital to proper compaction. Moisture acts as a lubricant
within soil, sliding the particles together. Too little moisture means inadequate
compaction - the particles cannot move past each other to achieve density. Too much
moisture leaves water-filled voids and subsequently weakens the load-bearing ability.
The highest density for most soils is at a certain water content for a given compaction
effort. The drier the soil, the more resistant it is to compaction. In a water-saturated state
the voids between particles are partially filled with water, creating an apparent cohesion
that binds them together. This cohesion increases as the particle size decreases (as in
clay-type soils).

Figure 6 Dry Density vs Moisture

Dry density can be calculated from the formula

d = / ( 1+ w)

Soil Density Tests

To determine if proper soil compaction is achieved for any specific construction

application, several methods were developed. The most prominent by far is soil density.
Types of Tests

Tests to determine optimum moisture content are done in the laboratory. The most
common is the Proctor Test, or Modified Proctor Test. A particular soil needs to have an
ideal (or optimum) amount of moisture to achieve maximum density. This is important
not only for durability, but will save money because less compaction effort is needed to
achieve the desired results.
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BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 01
BCT/01/01/02

Proctor Test (ASTM D1557-91)

The Proctor test determines the maximum density of a soil needed for a specific job site.
The test first determines the maximum density achievable for the materials and uses this
figure as a reference. Secondly, it tests the effects of moisture on soil density. The soil
reference value is expressed as a percentage of density. These values are determined
before any compaction takes place to develop the compaction specifications.
In this test a small soil sample is taken from the jobsite. A standard weight is dropped
several times on the soil. The material weighed and then oven dried for 12 hours in order
to evaluate water content.

Figure 7 Proctor Apparatus

Field Tests

It is important to know and control the soil density during compaction. Following is a
common field tests to determine on the spot if compaction densities are being reached.
Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556-90)

A small hole (6" x 6" deep) is dug in the compacted material to

be tested. The soil is removed and weighed, then dried and
weighed again to determine its moisture content. A soil's
moisture is figured as a percentage. The specific volume of the
hole is determined by filling it with calibrated dry sand from a
jar and cone device. The dry weight of the soil removed is
divided by the volume of sand needed to fill the hole. This
gives us the density of the compacted soil in lbs per cubic foot.
This density is compared to the maximum Proctor density
obtained earlier, which gives us the relative density of the soil
that was just compacted.

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BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 01
BCT/01/01/02

Figure 8 Sand Cone Apparatus

Suggested References
Alarm, S.(2002). Soil Engineering in theory and Practice.4th ed., New Delhi: CBS
Publishers & Distributors, PP. 14-46.
Review Tasks
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Describe soil classification.

Define the terms porosity, void ratio, water content, dry density, bulk density.
Describe the soil tests that are commonly used to determine properties of soil.
Why is proper compaction important in filling lands for construction purposes?
What types of soil are preferred for filling?

Glossary
Voids or Pores
The space between soil particles is referred to as "voids" or "pores". This is the area
where water can reside in the soil. Therefore, the composition of a soil has a significant
effect on the amount of water it can hold.
Porosity
The ratio of the volume occupied by air or water to the total volume of a porous material
(soil, rock, etc.). Porosity of a soil affects how much water it can hold.
Permeability
The ability of water to flow through a soil is referred to as the soil's permeability.
Water table
Below a certain depth, water fills all the pores in the soil. This is known as the saturated
zone. The top of the saturated zone is called the water table. The water table rises and
falls with seasonal changes in precipitation.

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BCT/01/01/02

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