198 KEY IDEAS. within worldliness - albeit @ world that is shitting constantly and one where rigid berders have litle meaning for someone who remains an exile. AFTER SAID Jn 1999 the New York Times, in its summary of the century's achieve- ments, declared Edward Said to be ‘one of the most important literary critics alive’. Clearly Said has crossed the apparent divide between academic scholarship and public recognition. This eccolade reflects his impact on the contemporary cultural terrain, but it also demonstrates how relevant the concept of worldliness has become to our considera- tion of creative and intellectual work. His influence can be discerned in all the disciplines of the humanities and social sciences, and In particular, the term ‘Orientalism’ is now linked inex- the work of Edward Said, Nearly a quarter of « century after its publication in 1978, Orientalism remains an important, albeit much debated book. Said has emerged as a controversial figure who is both revered and reviled, but cannot be ignored, TRE EVOLUTION OF ‘ORIENTALISM’ While we have shown the extent 10 which the issue of worldliness underlies Said’s criticism, it is indisputable that Oriensaliom has had 2 gteater impact on contemporary thinking than almost any other book of the last thirty years. It has changed the way we think about cultural and political relations. No longer associated merely with the study of the Orient, it has come to be seen as a generic terma about the manner22 (g661) Somog vroqow pamofle aney 3yneonog yoyoryy pue Toe] sonboe{ ‘eprzing sonboef sjemooroiuy youssy ap jo Goaip amp pure sour semoospp [ersofoo wassaeq suonergye fexSojoporpau ot ‘drys. que ue yons pey sey Aputonbasgns oy YoTY HBL ToD on Kaeso atp Surrosumoou 2exy Jo Wor Sips jo wuaosrujuroz st pros Sumpeax uy ammseold 5 29(roney ‘Kqeoro% (os 2661) 0} Kes 0} paws: 1 S909 ye3.0 24} punoy serou 2 C45 Jo ewe Lore jPwojeo-nue Isseaons @ Jo PND “OU 40 y009 © sem ws ui 20 soueuosas daop e sey {PEM 00g & “usyo1U2}29 Zurpeos Jo soanseayd orp axeys o1 szopeox sty sounuy aafsomeyp mpeg uectorsey [eRtoj0D-380d aut (96 :¢661 yeards) sou aumidiosip arp jo aed queyiodur ue sy 3] 103 wayods uoa9 ‘uayods 9q pur yeads ues (eurSseur op asym wpe e came pawossorq - Sey PIS se YAS OM Aq paseapox KpD—uNp ‘os moosy orp, IP sow AstOTA asunOdsp R ‘sousnyuy punojoud 2 pey sey ay yRyM uo ‘{z09t jopoo-as0d por Sunezdneus se popaton st oy qo “onGeue aunooap ft ~0[69 JO vase omp wt weaq Aiqeuonsanbun sey sousnyjuy sofeuw s,preg axe1U09 femmajno pue jeonyod ferrareut = we yor sip Buperd oj sumpoosud aqgegnuepr Atpeas ® papiioad sey oy ‘ensop a1p awaAuy upp pres UBnowpry "px22 amp jo sonyfod aensqe S9[ © 40p youwos Korn se sone {resoduisi0o Suour wsfemuonns-asod SAM wonoeysnessyp SuymosS orp qaem ruDisisuos sf axa tA JO sou “HP]OM wp uodn aouarsisut preg ‘ienamofy “pordope uaog sey exedqeue STEEN yoryn o1 daaap ayp or dn uayer w99q s9A0u sey SSOUTPHLOM, AMOSHL TVINOT09-isod GNY SISATYNY 3SYNOISIG TVINO109 + siqudoooem, ‘epanyospuyyy 10; ‘Seis suontansaT (rims $352 amp Jo umyoues souur Aaa ova porenoued peq >pom EPES JUL “(1c :0002) ,usyemorig ‘30m poreaqajea s preg Jo woRspa imbued postwar Anuooai ‘padepderp ecame increasingly alliated with versions of post-colonial theory. The xerm ‘post-colonial’ had 2 long history and didn’t really come to prominence until the late 1980s (Ashcroft et cl, 1998: 186-92). in relatively short time, due to the historical influence of the many critics who had studied the works of British Commonwealth writers, post- colonial theory emerged with 2 focus on questions of empire end colony. It would be wrong to assume that this means the concerns of post-colonial theory are restricted only to questions of identity poli Xics, Post-colonial theorists have taken to heart Said’s criticism that ‘students of post-colonial politics have nor, I think, looked enough at the ideas that minimize orthodoxy and authoritarian or patriarchal thought, that take a severe view of the coercive nature of identity poli- tics’ (1993: 264). f Said seems to have jettisoned colonial discourse analysis and his work appears resonant with recent post-colonial theory, itis precisely because such theory is increasingly atmuned to his notion of worldliness. Said rejects the bifurcaved way in which he is often read as a literary critic and theorist who writes books like Orientalism, The World, the Tew and the Critic and Culture and Impericlirm and as a political activist who writes about the Palestinian question. As we have argued throughout this book, such a reading is anathema to Sald, for whom theory has to be grounded in the real world. Because of his ovm worldliness, we cannot separate Seid the literary critic from Said the cultural theorist or political commentator. While it is clear that he views positively « great deal of work which he has inspired, he is equally concerned with the manner in which he has been sisappropristed for what he terms ‘nativist” purposes, Nevertheless, Said has been remarkably consistent in his approach and has responded to his critics on sever Perhaps his major response to critics of Orientalism was the paper published seven years after the book appeared: ‘Orientalism reconsid- exed’ (Said 1985). Here, Said reiterates his argument about imaginative : ‘Orientalism is the line separating Occident from Orient, and this ... i less a fact of nature than itis a fact of human production.” However, this does not mean that ‘there could be no without, on the one hand, the Oxientalists, and on he a i Orientals’ (1985: 2). One ironic demonstration of Said’s Gissrares about the representation of the Orient is the manner i which Orientalism has been portrayed as a defence of Arabs and Iam For Suid, such categories exist as ‘communities of interpretation” wo tauch ike the Orient, entail certain representations, interests and claiwns. Drawing on the legacy of writers before him who have chal. lenged ‘the authority, provenance, and institutions of the science thas represented them to Europe’ (Said 1985: 4), Said constantly advocates the duty of the public intellectual to ‘speak truth to power’ Ten ‘years Jeter, in the “Afterword” to the 1995 printing of Orienalisn, Said cagaged his critics in more poignant end more elaborate. dete reminding his readers that the Occident and the Orient are construc. Sons and involve establishing an other whose “actuality is always subject to the continuous interpretation and re-interpretation of their differences from “us” (Said 1995: 332), Sale's purpose in restating his objections to the reductive readings ‘of the book which characterise him as a mere defender of Islam is to illustrate that such positions are untenable and that such caricatures ‘suppress en important part of his argument. He reminds us thet Islam itself is a comested entity that itis heterogencous and the subject of on-going debate within 1991, the weight of Oriemtalist represent the press and in ‘expert’ statements has been so overwhelming that it would be imagine that this was the true sivwation: sinister, unpredictable ing @ ceascless campaign of hatred against for these stereotypes to go unchal- they appear. His revelation of the pature of contemporary representations of Islam and the Arabs has been one of his most important contributions to contempo- rary cultural ana} Edward Said is 2 public intellectual unlike any other contemporary is oppositional stance, firmly rooted in a notion of the role of tual, has meant that he has crossed borders and boundaries continuously. 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Discussion then turns to Orientalism, the book and the concept for which Edward Said is probably best known throughout the world. The wworldliness which emerges out of the text of his own identity is crucial in his analysis of those Orientalist texts which constructed the Orient and thereby constructed Europe’s dominance over it, In a nutshell, Orientalism demonstrates how power operates in knowledge: the processes by which the West ‘knows’ the Orient have been a way of exerting power over it. Orientalist texts have their own worldliness, their own aflliations, and they are texts which operate to construct the Orient, to become, in a sense ‘more real’ than any Oriental reality, more real than any experience or expression of that experience which ‘Orientals’ themselves might make (see ‘Orientalism’s worldliness’, in 1978: 226-54). The crucial discovery of this work on Orientalism, d in the two other books of the trilogy, The Question of Palestine , is that this process continues into the present in ‘ews, expert knowledge, political commentary about the Middle East are all ways of perpetuating Western, and specifically ‘American, power. re aod Inpcalizn, isessed in Chapter 4, is an extension of this idea of the worldliness of imperial texts. What is crucial shout the cultural productions of the West is the subtle way in which the political realities of imperialism are present in them, In the British novel, for Instance, the issue of empire and imperial dotninance is continually subily and almost ubiquitously inflected. The significance of the world. ‘ness of these texts is that, in their writing by authors who may have Inad no conscious idea of the way in which the empire was represented in them, they demonstrate that there is no empire without its culture. Culture and imperialism also rehearses 2 favourite topic of Said’s: how should the post-colonial world react to the dominance of imperialism? Said’s concentration in this book on Western classics has misled many critics into the belief that he does not have a theory of resistance. But his position is more subtle. Recognising that a ‘rhetoric of blame” is ultimately stultifying, he advocates a process he calls ‘the voyage in’, where post-colonial writers take hold of the dominant modes of literary writing to expose their culture to a world audience. ‘Chapter 5 turns to the issue of Palestine. This might seem to be a distinct interest, represented by a coherent body of commentary and analysis separate from Said’s cultural theory, but ip fact itis constantly inflected in all his writing, His writing demonstrates comprehensively, 5 whi | in works such as Covering Islam (1981; re-issued 1997), the extent to which the representation of Islam in the contemporary Western world replicates the ways in which Orientalists constructed the Orient in the ineteenth century. For Said, the way in which Islam, the Arab world and Palestine are represented is deeply indicative of the power of a dominant culture to construct the world in a particular way under the guise of ‘knowing’ it (1978: 3). Orientalists in academic fields may | now be more subtle and self-critical, but this construction still occurs in various ways — in the media, in ‘expert’ advice, academic seady and i tual commentary ~ and it rests upon 2 deep ground of unexam- {ned assumptions. Such assumptions remain unexamined because they into language itself. For instance, the word ‘Islam’ imputes a ‘and monolithic religious and cultural system, from which itis a 1995), Palestine forces Said to rethink his literary theory, its urgency, its material and political reality Its ability to construct or become focus of his construction of his own identity means that Palestine is present throughout his theory as a reminder of the location of texts in the world. ‘Out of the issue of Palestine grows one of the most important ‘themes in Said’s theory — the role of the intellectual. From the position of a professional literary theorist established in the elite academic envi ronment of Columbia University, Said has been required to adopt the role of spokesperson, called out io talk about political issues for had no specialist qualifications. This confirmed his belief in the value of amateurism, but much more than that it gave kim a vision ' exile in empowering the intellectual to be detached from partisan politics in order to “speak truth to power” (1994). The sense o} the public intellectual needs to speak from the hhim- or herself from orthodox opinion and say things wh locked into partisan and specialist discourses. The final chapter of this book, ‘After Szid’, turns to his impact in the field of critical theory and particularly the foundational status of kis work in the study of post-colonial literatures and theory. if, in this introductory chapter, we have suggested why Said should be read, in way sao? 9ok i ak fron orp azayan Suts2y asm | SVACI Aa ( Sp yb Sse eo ee a vOIys AHM OL| 1992: 75). The consistency of Said’s work has been remarkabl 4 WORLDLINESS The text Edward Said is pethaps most familiar to readers as the author of Orientalism (1978) and as a leading exponent of the growing study of through which his work can be read m significance to contemporary cultural theory. 1m the main, the essays comprising this volume were written before the publication of Orientalism and reveal the emergence of the method- and the concerns which have underpinned all Said’s work. the Tex and the Critic provides the most systematic and Brennan acknowledges, ‘records that broad-ranging but als ‘of motifs that occupy But "this consistency and the wide-ranging scope of his interests have been obscured by two things: the dominance of post-structuralism in textual analysis over the last two decades, a theoretical movement with which2eip st sia jo aasoa ayy “oyesosean sy oa apa 00% Ay nq suomeaods | Treusoy 33x03 ip 02 uomuene ym oor shed yorum. ‘wsyeHoMsuny pune ny sf wepAYD Arexeduau09 won wolgaxd axp “preg 20g ‘siaipo si sionaasueo ffeneauoo 3944 2tp fom Dep. 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(1983: 148). The materiality of the text refers to various things: the ‘ways, for example, in which the text is a monument, a cultural object sought after, fought over, possessed, rejected, or achieved in time. The ‘text's materiality also includes the range ofits authority This question of worldliness, of the writer's own position in the world, gets to the heart of another paradox central to this considera- tion of Edward Said’s work — how do we read texts? For any text,” Said’s included, is constructed out of many available discourses, discourses which writers themselves may be seen as subjects ‘in process’, they may not have bad in mind when they put pen 10 paper. Worldliness begins by asking one of the most contentious ‘questions in politically oriented theory: who addresses us in the text? And this is 2 question we must ask of Edward Said’s work. We may! ‘grant that the ‘author’ in the text is a textual construction without therefore assuming that nobody speaks to text, which may be the tendency in much contemporary the concerned with the materiality of the text's origin, for this material being is embedded in the very materiality of the matters of which it speaks: dispossession, injustice, marginality, subjection, THE WORLDLINESS OF THE TEXT ‘To understand the significance of Said’s theory of worldliness, we need to go back to the structuralist revolution in contemporary theory in the 1950s and 1960s. Before this time crities had more or less assumed sple communications from writers to readers. The French structuralist theorist Roland Barthes, building on developments in linguistics, used the concept of ‘text’ to explain how literary works actually come into being The term ‘text’ is related to ‘texture’ or “extile’. According to Barthes, written texts, from a simple sentence to more complex texts, were woven from a horizontal thread — the linear arrangement of words in a sentence, which he called the ‘syntag: ‘matic’ axis — and a vertical thread ~ the range of possible words that could be used in that arrangement, which he called the ‘paradigmatic axis. For instance, each word in the syntegm "The cat sat on the mat! could be replaced with other words from the paradigm to product “The dog ran on the grass’ — a structurally similar sentence with a very different meaning. Simple as this seems, it would be hard to over-emphasise the impact seructuralism had upon literary analysis. When this principle was applied to more complex texts, @ structuralist analysis could detect in the text a combination of elements which may not hare occurred to the author, and, indeed, which could dispense with the author. Far from being simple communications from authors, texts were seen to be structures constructed from the various elements available from their social and cultural ‘paradigm’. Meaning could be seen to be the result of an interplay of relationships of selection and corobination nade possible by the underlying structure. For instance, the ‘character ‘of Brutus’ is a consequence of the relationships established in the struc- ture rather than the representation of something out there in the ‘world. This had a radical effect on the perception of Authorship. Rather than a creative genius who puts the meaning into the text, a subject sho is the final arbiter of meaning in the text, Barthes posits that the ‘Author is itself a fanction of language. Although pare structuralist analysis had a relatively short period of popularity, the concept of the text it initisted has continued to affect all forms of contemporary theory. Posestructuralism differed from structurale in dat while i accepted the constructedness of texts it denied that a structure could arrive at a final meaning. Roland Barthes himself altered his earlier stracturalist position, and Jacques Derrida, in a celebrated talk in 1968 ‘Structure, sign and play in the human sciences’ ( ed that the problem with a structure is that it organising principle, or centre, and it is precisely the fix this organising principle whic structuraism, the centre, the clear organising principle by meaning can be determined, does not exist because we can never reach a final meaning “To understand the difference between post-structuralism and struc- in 1916 under the title Cours de linguistic général the radical idea that words do not stand for along with all signs, obtained their meaning WORLDLINESS: THE TEXT 17BL LX3L 3HL'SSBNITOTEOM Sunn {jo we ue se axes arp jo wondaosad axp pue ‘xo axp Jo smoys sureuEnD0p {qqeonezoora 20 e2iBojoap, wsosaaq SOUR INP ap AY" 30] ®t yore 2 jo Bappns ax pumaims afar ssouaqrodko weym Jo uorsuoypudde ip pue mourapdrat Lxepuoout st jo wond:asop ayauaps ap u2amsaq souaragtp 2, (OE 16661 PRES) pouRrEne az0M sonON aaneEFoRN, pur eon posseades Aprouaoy ony 2un 3643 oN JO} IR FUEPAO 108 ways suoddey seyss oururexa on Lem 1 wpeoidde pamaoans épyin e wava2q {peau uowsoyy sunopy ve sKepjooyps s.pres wo a1opooue ameusiod y | wog suedmoo parsed wsyemonas-asod yey 2204 fproaad apy 3908 of 4009 arp 0 paar st on amp eM uORduunssE aA IA PIMOUS aM. eR sooade pres 1m “(Of1 *€861 PHS) ow 0 axe jexBorE sey UBM we soop amod reqs 32, wonsonb 5 an, Se yous sua kp woR -oesnessp preg “oq ueo Supreaur paxinyop Aissoqpus jo pue Aarrenaxo1 Jo wept stp Ltomeysnesun oy os 02 SSuBLM Uso 6, PIBs Jo somTPLIOM xa[duzoo axp ae oo} or axey {quo ay, ‘sursjgord suasoud Croatp ® ypRs Sunpm yo wedun orrod arp uy posozoiuy suokire 205 mg -o7qnd eouiomy amp or Loop sou sup aoudionn on 2siy amp Jo 240 sem Psa PPS PreMPA pue ‘S096 ee] atp Woy pliom Supjads-ysysuy oy ur usqemonas-asod jo Apremnded amp ep Aqqeqard wea 244 “paronunsuos Affenrcn sek PEO ap, weep “ison ofp pure pom ofp usasaeq soualey ou sem axotp 2H posodoad ose wasyemyonnsasod ‘onuao 10 “ojdoutad SuasreeBio 53x03 2 yo vonsofer sr ur ‘usqemaonns woy woZoyFP now “{forewAT] suondamsse Suxjopum sep poworpenuoo puessuos orp ‘samy -onns ojduns Buioq roy 2ej “eK MOys Or ,pEINASUEDAP, 94 PIED sg] “uonemdxo poou aykur saspasurorp Rs spuom ‘wonewe[dxo S51 spiow soo of aster Ppa ‘pion Jo vonmASp LeoRp 28 9° Boyes we oF oo ue Buope go aumaonins oxp Jo sous op som sry “uals yp Uy povounos skoupe TN Grom payriSis pu sograts ogy -2qqes sex drysuonepar sep 2p pl>y, 4p anetd e jo aoneyuton aq passe s9A0 sours ‘soensqe pur resmaeuun Kfuiy pu “parses ‘ssajameoo 53643, on ommep ox ‘ousop Burpodwion wyp your sropues Aowopunn © PAS ay Gremiqze wSnorppe ‘ang ‘sognifis 3 adoouoa otp pur “ysq Suz ws pom 2 Mes GograSis aejnoned © uoamaeq Spay ajqnssout 40 yesraeu ou st 240% “Spuoas 19HRO git sen drysuonejos snp amssnes 404 “pf -roBis orp se tony ‘sBeun fentour 10 adaoneo atp pure sofas 10 aBeumt pimos ip ‘surouaj oma jo da apenr ax sults ssigo wog souaragtp if fq Bequeou Aout 20} pues pynoo ‘counsur 103 ‘389, a] plow Yy “suis somo sv3l aay gL20 Key IDEAS When we locate this act of writing in the world, our notion of a) text not only extends beyond its objective location in the book, it extends beyond the material presence of the script. Writing is the complex and generally orderly translation of many different forces into decipherable script, forces which all (on the desize 2o write rather than to speak, to dance, to seu 29). The failure to take this into account in literary criticism iply @ problem for struc. tturalist analyses of the text. In some respects much professional literary criticism has reduced the text to an object and in so doing obscures both the text's and the critic’s real relations with power. It is the exposure of the link between academic textual practice and suck relations of power which underlies Said’s critique of Orientalist discourse. Clearly, in societies with no tradition of literary writing, the desire to write can bécome a highly charged and highly mediated political act, sometimes issuing out of a very conscious tension, Why one form of vwriting and not another? Why at that moment and not another? Why tin any case, there sort of second order representation of an experience which is already there, but it may be produced for something formed in the nriting itself. The real force of Said’s theory of worldliness is that he takes on board Saussure’s view of the meaning of the sign residing in its diller- from other signs, and the structuralist rejection of a simple relationship between the text and the world. But nevertheless, he insists on the fundamentally political importance of that world from which both the text and the critic originate, even if our only access to that world is formed in the writing itself. One of the starting points Said takes for considering the worldiiness of the text isa record released by the mercurial Canadian piani Gould, including an interview in which he explained his reasons for abandoning live performances. Gould’s strategy seemed almost parodic of the complexity of the relationship between the world and the ‘textual object. texts manage to confirm their link with th structuralists would claim tobe the endless. A number of things link che musical and bat princ- pally they share a reproducible material existence on one hand and a Gemonstration of the producer's style on the other. A text, in its actu- economic being as well as a range of implicit connections to other texts. Any simple diametrical opposition asserted on the one hand between speech, bound by situation and reference, and on the other Jhand the text as an interception or suspension of speech’s worldliness, ag, Thus Said takes French phenomenologist Paul Ricoeur to task in the larter’s essay ‘What is a text: explanation and erpretation’, in which he claims that: always enmeshed in circumstance, they are in the world, and hence w criticism is itself bound up in cireum- .deed, for both post-colonisl writer and WORLOLINESS: THE TEXT 21€@ LXBL3HL ‘sSENTIGTUOM Suxeaue yo ,ant29, Jo pur{ 2wor s ompRY oop soyent we op, eoonmecsaad Crempioenxo om Meerans “(zh F€861) aompne A (0 se woneooambo aseaj oxp pue Cuowane asowadl axa ‘lone rofgns raain ay Jo ajgedeo souesoan yoeduioo © :uoneimosoud co jo uaoy sm "onmaudoreT we surensuoD Ayre amd sy Jo ano yparg 02 su998 “uondaoas pue ppoads uaasa3q SPEM FSO PHP ($Z6I~LSB pean ydasof ‘(ga-rygt) suidoH Aaqaeyy presoy se ypns szonim ur weep sonSue pres ‘vourssur 404 -2ury zo%p Jo 240 ue “pom orp ‘phsom agp ane xa“ 03 sxopeos s20%95 snoudSkpur or suoMDIUTED ox ap Buyggsosop 205 payasn euediar nog Jo suonergye uoppry woyo yesup jrundenuos, se pooxsxpun 928 sR ‘peat st pu Suroq onus sounoo ar qo uta, ‘ajoos pur asnyno ‘Cossry jo yromsou orp tAUn PareyFE 9q 01 W998 aq we sou 3x9) oxp ‘ omaesoag YSU, Jo 9ssnoosIp amp 02 >persouoo 2q 01 poumsse Afeuontpes] af jo souguoo mouse aq puotog aze8 foRED amp spuas woneMEY suononpoad s,ax91 orp Jo sroupor2e amp pur uoR, -220] 21f 07 AIqezoxour sn sasesp uoneRETY (9 ‘9661 HOHYRY) <29eId Supper 4 st a0} ed Seppe axon oxp st auayay, suonsanb arp se pq sn peop Apuersuos axa op ASVNINNS ‘suondumsse ype poy Ajfensuosuco jo yomoumey © “pounsse Svzai say| anything relevant in bs or her society cannot WORLDLINESS The critic | The structurelist revolution in contemporary theory had just as great an impact upon the function of the critic as it had upon the text. It | coincided with the rapid expansion of university education after the war, and consequently with the increasing professionalisation of ~ scademic criticism, and it introduced a tendency to assume that theory could only be talked about in the most complex language. In reducing the worldliness of the text to a structural inermess, Said claimed, contemporary theory tended to lift the activity of the critic out of the | world, making it less and less connected to any but the most profes- sional readership. The fimnction of the critic, and, in a broader sense, the public intel- lectual, has exercised Seid throughout his career, from TheVorl, the Tee snd the Critic in 1983 to Representarions of the Inelleceual in 1994, to his sutobiography Out of Place in 1999. The intellectual’s capacity to say spense with the concept of worldliness, for without worldliness the intellectual can have no | world from which, and to which, to speak, The paradox of Edward __ Seid’s location in that world is the source of the considerable paradox which characterises his career. But there is no question that the world, {aad its link to the text and the critic, is crucial to his perception of the “value of intellectual work. His view of the critic's yole is 2 radical attack on the creeping ivory-tower specialisation which has come todur “Sssssiu) (BDSds “spINO ym sousTIedw! ey juequoosip 1 ul s3dooueo Sum }03 jo vomicens eu pue ‘swop9y a si28l90 at sewBop oles 02 29ps0 ‘ur souid rem sed Seq yor anq ponouras Aomnus 0 1ouuED won -enuoo pue Camitqur qoyusa woy wsALD Jo wagy e sf uoRETEBAds ypns 01 saneuzoye ayy “posoddo Spuewepe st wspnYD se|M0°s YT on pur auaos font Areodwmuo> ayn seskiopereyD WHY wSPALD pur Croom jo uonesemads pasnogy Amoureu a10u 949 9K9 St 3] soustsodxo Aepian9 w quopeamnba ayduns ow ypu suopoemy postqepeds Apouranxs paropisuos 3q 01 ato axey wsPAED pue Bupium asnep9q ognd Suypeas amp pur SoRHD woomieg aeIIg dreys AfouraN we O1 OMT PO] S&H 31 ang “xD arp moge Appspard pue djsnowos 277m 01 sORED 105 9jq¥ssod 21 ope seq] 3 pur ‘ssamneai saxo v on se spermoumsa POUOIYE pin Kese ‘suop sey 2} ‘stony Aeanpes autos poy sey soop 1X01 8 eyPA 01 UORTATE siq]2x@1 ap Jo UORDURY ap Jo IMP ssiaMpo Te soreuTUOp aouaHIEd | Azeront 2up Jo suope soadse uo tein jorfaq ayn uO samt so¥eq wSDRED Azeioduzyae0 jo Leaqeson PORUD posyeuowsojord asqeDods ayy, cress) peu sexopesed ajqeyusgun pus seyode 2412) faque Plm ayy da uaR6 BulAey o sofzouro 1 yo wo¥y A2pp08 og or Kes on ssaj pure sso} x yo] seq Luau ArezodusaqUOD {Jo aurureaBord Surpzep ons pur xojduio> (usearout arp “{qeoecost ao pom uouuny yo ynsas sui 52 aq/yeiu, sepvas pu anew yeu; sesu8s )05| 18d 1s0u y cerned uy oun dice 40 aroyptue aoeid ayer yusoop af “aoeid soy ag HORE ny SCoonsyy jo ssomanue yexe amp st Aqjenaxay Saoamp Leesa Jo soueu aatqne poopassp pax pronstes 99 *(61 *don8) ayeraxay, 30 alae ag orm powoma! pey wsALD ‘prs or Bupiosoe Sov6r mp AG ween) yng 798s us ay “nis wapow soy saRefoOs PUR s3U89 JC LOK ‘ses 04 ‘Bas © poxpeos axey 24 2om0e 4 peontD pruopsojoud Suqumy-prewt fenenuoo e 01 peo] BRA usyemonns.asod se yons soyseordde ponsioaxy Azesoduinaos jo sorSojoorp, 21p 04 asecuoo 129.0p ust + ape, atp pur x92, 4p! plio,— sosnodso og Gruen zemaee oq “(68 “4661) sonuoUd pure sso10yp s,au0 Jo speanas xf yeyat ‘2oRSnf puE puod uaasciq soreumDsyp af oy ‘OMS ASTEsrOATEN pue DS|SUOD pum soqif ay mou ‘souias 3 sisosanuy asoyy ‘aoeyd soqe 2F oxy, lg poroaye st pur ‘plzom se[n29s 949 wy UoReDO| SI pM suHBoq oonoead Jyempayam am Jo Layesou orp “sonyea oxeumpn x0 sSurp soy, Jo se sysousyuy afoyp eqn axoqq Kear sfemooyoaUE Gon soy eonpod Simssoud xp of peuySreur panne spam apeur sey Yorys asnuadxs feoosssoyoud Jp RS, © ‘uoResqenads jo den aq uaaq sey pHom onp ur OMRON fue oyeur o1 Samige sono qua wgord eos om “preg 01 Suyps020y WSIOILIND BVINIaS ‘aapos Kxerodurosuo> jo sonyeaz ronyiod ap wos ‘sour pur azour 3f soaouiox YORpM pure ‘iasSAE9 oquTEpLoe sD S¥EGI ASH OEor. by the difficult language of contemporary theory. The ironic conse- quence ofthis is that such criticism works ina direction probably quite (0985: 29) counter to the preferences of many individual theorists: it continues to affirm and enforce the dominant values of elite European culture, the [As JenMohamed puts it, within this paradoxical formulation ‘criticism very purpose for which the stacy of English literature was invented in functions to define that which is simultaneously to be affirmed and the nineteenth century. Criticism which takes no account of the situa- denied’ (1992: 111), Criticism is thus not a scence but an act of polit. tjon of the text in the world is an irrelevant enterprise to formerly fecal and social engagement, which is sometimes paradoxical, colonised peoples, for instance, whose adoption of literary practice has sometimes contradictory, but which never solidifies into dogmatic had less to do with the maintenance of European culture than with the certainty, appropriation of an international voice “The need for criticism to retura to the THE WORLDLINESS OF THE CRITIC ‘There are various ways of approaching literary theory. One of these it safely ensconced in the tmetopelitan academy. But to see it as 2 mode of reflection, study, deliberation, a focus of the involves material and emotional deprivation, cultural exc! excitement of ideas, a thing in itself, with its own ontological status in’ even death, such questions appear self-indulgent and irrelevant. This the world. There is another which sees literary theory as simply ‘secular’ return to the world captures the particular nature of the providing tools for criticism. But there is yet a third which sees theory donship between post-colonial studies and contempo- as existing to support the fimetion of criticism to change things, 's direct exposure of the provide a perspective on a world which is actually there in the expe riences, commitments and sufferings of all people, whatever th: complexities involved in knowing that experience which theory reveals,‘ Criticism for Said is personal, active, entwined with the world implicated in its processes of representation, and committed to the almost disappearing notion that the intellectual, through the operatior ‘of the oppositional, critical spirit, can reveal hypocrisy, uncover tht fale, prepare the ground for change. The etic operates within networks of afation just as much as the text. For in contemporary representations ¢ Palestinians, the issue of worldliness, of his own place in the worlg becomes a crucial feature of the engagement of those texts. It undoubtedly this worldliness which drives his own theory of the inter active operations of text, reader and critic. Whether or not Said is correct in claiming that contemporay critics have abandoned their contemporary constinuency (Le. th modern reader), arguably many readers feel increasingly marginalise sparated from the social and historic] conditions of nn as a Palestinian speaking from the ‘centre’, the elite WORLDLINESS: THE CRITIC 33oe 94nd BHI ssaNrtaTHOM ayp woaq sey ssopoad snp jo ued yeaa Gas e puy nop Aqerace ‘aSpAED yp so; Gopos 2p jo syunxo [eax pue ssouNSuINAND sep LO ypeq sy um zed uw) Axo Lrexay Jo puan arp jo yesrxax = inq ‘uspumnepp pogsedns © wrout 01 S90p smi “pass “austananear, Goes Bes are sony opt, ey wasp paBrowgns axe faqebs jeper pue jeaoneu ‘oxraqdstuiog 20 ‘wonesqentSzeur ‘uotssaxddo ‘eousn{ yo suonsand) ‘sareye weumy Jo oR soya one A[uo 20 anq plioM [rou axp jo woneuasasdas Aue asour jue 2809 2p {quo 20U Buppq se popmea: 5 asmoosp poxSojouyom pee a apo pow arp ut uoneu padojanap Araso sgemouupas pur sistcouose 03 ang Aio{8 feuossod 303 1080 ped © yon ensooqjoru ayy ‘oneal pus uonerfouosa: ‘eoved anaryoe 3 SuoREpUGD ZONING 399 Ot sy sogapos Lreioduroqwos ur somod o3 prin amp Supjeads yo auzod ayy {eh661) pareorpura us9q aaey on sueadde uonysod s.preg ‘adsonat fy ‘seerunsoped om pue joes] woamiag opeq Surmuns-Buo] oop papuo aay aya eogdna aqeiopssuod sem a10KR UDA au EI proove apead 50) aip asuree ano Supyeods ut Suyop 2q 0: sreadde oy se ‘aydoad uso s,auo asureBe 20 “reg, JOE) a4p wr S90p preg se “ruoUUIOAo8 uwo suo sure puns» Sunpea suour sey “(12 +4661) ,suonmas ese uo oq, oF waxy Sug pue suonou asamp ag Aq pour Aso uma geo jo qa osolgo pape ‘pan motp joansuo> sBuroq weeny op AfuO ION “2 reads o1 ‘arserraduny 01 2j9eq amram, 02 zorpme agp Jo A ' soup sounsser jo zawod ay uojseudho pue sods au0 s20p mort, Grg6t) fomoeronayay2 su ue jo apa amp ‘ramod or pan ypods, o2 anq xejduog aoueape 03 you st uosiad e yons jo wonouny aewEpN ap 205 “puiom orp ur peraporjanur arp soxeoo] wstB145 “TensoTfoIMt pouoUeD arp Jo wonoury fey arp | uispED osnesoq peg or ruRsoduT sf “sonmgyssod aapearsoysien S11 29N0DsIp a4 ‘ORD Y3MOd OL HLNL ONDIW2dS -saopeyas peonigod puE [eDos jo sMoM [eoHpes epHSuope ‘dryssejoyps yeorndwa pur TH! sorsty jo Kovoygo ayn on uonepax ur Kzemmonsed ‘suonsod aayeaz05409 se poprefox aq ayrur fqqensiou reqs soprsuoo on ssouBumT § pres £7 2661) ,28ueyp 19Bus xp oreo pu poo8 sous ayp op ue -ppim ose euilop jeonos0otp 40 yeoxBojoapt jo fesuyor oUL (Gz *E861) mopoagy weumy jo sasazorm axp ur psonpoad aSpayows axmzocauct, an seo3 yepos sax fomqe pue ‘aonenmmop “umes jo unio} S940 1a pssoddo Apapransuos pure Supuequs-oyq se ys Jo YUN 3sNU uspBLO, “sreqpounu pue iuoBan axe asodimd pue zsweryp sy as0q 3 9} ‘suonesqemods jeuorssagoxd uoangaq pur ‘sumoy orgnd pur [eUOTF -sjoud aponcag ‘sixes opmyrumof pus opuopeoe usomioq FEEpANOG “ap seston Aqjmnuptos, wspAED “prs 20g “IAC faxoa Is aq 940 (BuBBeyun ssisrod yoryn suo st ay [eos pue jeonyod jo punoss suoyeur yeas ap solo yorypa wsioaun e aonpoad o1 adurone au spouRystoNIS pos pue yeotroasry sy 40 wisieumol se ypns ‘sanua4 isnqor aL0uL 7 Ares gS ‘2oueyeq sp ‘o[4is sep eM Dey ayy, repear isemads vou © oindun stempe Lop asneveq sixoi uMO STy JO ssauTP[EON ‘xp Buyurzquoo jo soefoad s,preg on yejnan st [Aas sep ang “pos0op, +n pur ystinoreure, so ouros of seodde a1 soyeus pm ‘oannodos Beso pue [euoMesraxtoo ‘sajsinospp susas aphas amp ‘(wsyppreday yop among uy se) soura ay Supum jo ype avg sowpeosdde sjosuny pres yomm ur dem op Sumpueszepam soy rnsodunt Ayefmonsed Ssmyp vxo Creqos w jo souaspxo poouesumostoun ‘ues fom 3 ySnow a8uens Gm soANeer [eHOS yp ouNDSGO spperdaioo aqqepranoy sy pur ‘dn anos sey wos! snopasd, 2 aoa aBiq Jo plo spsoud om ur og “aptas Sumas apgessoooe ue o3 wimtas axp st pious ofp on tumiar SRD ap Jo amaeoy [eID Y B1ALS (c5 ¢961) wonven sue 40) ruod Sunes © se 128 Jo [20m ap swam, wusonuD 1 and apiiga se 40 “afgns eaneind sx 2q four orga vex zoud “oqoue tp uy aeep SIuo You Sxo1 Aue asap dep suonengye Jo aBuez ap {q pasunoereyp si pom omp ur Sur=q Jo EE4 Key IDEAS what is it, we might ask, that would make power listen? As Bruce. 7 re-deplyabie experiences in which the fermerty sient native Robbins suggests, it must be, partly, the assumption of power itself, the. territory taken back from the co'rialis. action of a counter-authority (1994: 29), the assumption of a power: (1996: 55), attached to a recogniscble (and even celebrated) public identity which can make ‘power’ listen to ‘truth’, But how is this identity to be The crossing over and the re-inscribing by these post-colonial intellee- located? Paradoxically, the intellectual seems only able to make power ggais is precisely the politics of secular interpretation. For them, the ‘sten’ to ‘truth’ by assuming the authority of the professional, an act’ experience of colonisation renders it impossible to draw clear lines which rans counter to the very secularism Said so vigorously espouses, ‘yetwveen ‘us’ and ‘them’. By their various efforts — historical, interpre- ‘This does not diminish the validity of Said’s desire to speak out. Rather, it demonstrates how very complex and ambivalent the intel: position can be. In Representations ofthe Intellectual, Said poses an important ques hhow far should an intellectual go in getting invelved? Is it possibl join a perty or faction and retain a semblance of independence? Despite once coy @ member of the Palestine National Councl, which hy THE CELEBRATION OF EXILE joined as an act of solidarity (but resigned after disputes with the The eritic’s finction 1s both enhenced and focused by his or her leadership), Said admits to being cautious to surrendering himself tos, capacity to be ‘in the world”. But whet does ‘world’ mean? What kind party or faction. It is this that has allowed him the critical distance 99° of world situates the critic? What kind of worldliness will unleash orig- sgrty and power in Its own right, one not simply grasped es @ belated reactive response to Western imperialism’ (Said 1990: 73). vital for the intellectual. Ideally the intellectual should represent eman..inality and prevent the partisan commodification of ideas? Perhaps the axiodsep v Jo Safeuosstosd Sumpsosun otp URI {mc op sone2oy aed pue amaqno aeyp uoamaaq atm doop orp ‘oanaino poemaes oq feur ays 10 94 apy asnepoq “ammo ot diysuon ‘ax syemooyorur ap wo aBioura soxopesed asodaop axp sderog ‘zootp jronod pur yemumno sty suopis Kpucasiswoo YOR mo 51 — uespaed op poe peoonea arp jo siooy7e SuneUTTGP ome Way Jeouy anoweapua yem2oj[aruy Jo WLIO} © pur us ‘a10ur mp Jo ows ‘peodxe yor ouo st pea arp pue wom arp uoautoq diysuoneas oa] (oy +661) .ysmBue axnonpoad yons wos; Sunyouaq Aes 01 rou cause “Moy pure mous, Yong ‘si07 satdoug pure saoy, Lae Jo sMUDS [ap parerounS “souewsur 205 ‘puro ur 97509 sayiag werpeuol “(g tEg6t) 3 wwoy noneuaye ameiodua Kpeopuo v uoda apinq yom e ose ang, ‘uopmpen jeimano wiaisoyy atp Jo uopemyear axssseur 2 {quo, “pres es nou st jjost seu “odoos yeraasiBeus yrs jo Apms axyum 02 CITY porque dn poxooy aney aySias ay eqn s00q amp {Te 02 s52008 40 392 os orp arya ‘Inquest say “uIsDRLD wIeIsa4 Jo Apmas pavoM -nuour sry aor Saueui9y ZEN Woy s9SKy—L Ysa! B YoRGONY Og auouiiomoduis axneas punoyoid Jo woprpus> 99 oFfe ued OTP '9q2yBfu stonoouuo> aaneiy asorp [yoMod s9xaKoy “Uo}s>4 2» Ayqumuritoo <0 uoneu fq deyioao saxon omg yo Lxpsyeata 2xp jo 3e1te sien otp st ssougpyiom X1ax yep 40g “Plsom aep pe 3Ke3 axp Ho9MGIG {ay amp uy auounsoauy daop wmo sry sdioq yrs. worsuo3 yuoutuamode peanayno pue vonvjorep [euosied woamioq worsuaa ssi, “(Gr 4861) 5922 sum atm ued oie] ur st, suraqno usa wiopouN Jo wou 1M PRION Gy 48 aaneu ® pur Buraq tetany © uoomioq S¥20) 430 a4 key IDEAS HEGEMONY #9 the dominance of one state with ns legislated from above but enacted throughout its polity, by which ich things as anarchy, disorder, irrationality, inferiority, bad taste, and jamoralit understood to mean ‘dominance ‘by here by its institutions’ ‘was colned and popularised in the 18808, The theoretical obli ity are identified, then deposited outside the culture and kept 83: 11) resist this identification between Dylan war aro ramet one isles wy te leg careers aod caer oe he ees Benen alone Chane \was $0 successful in promoting its own interests in society. For Gram: hegemony arises from the power of the ruling class to convince ot! classes that its interests: are the interests of ‘exertad not by force, nor even necessarily by ‘more suite and inclusive power ever the economy, andl over state appara fuses such as education and the media, by which the ruling classi sented as the common is ‘granted. Hegemony is import ‘The notion of hegemony and elevation, the power of culture to legit: mate, characterises Said’s view of cul tendency has always best resto produces a distance which places the individual consciousness at a ‘sensitive nodal point from which the hegemony of culture may be ited. cof history a recognition ofthe importance of social crcumstarce, 3 capacity for making distinctions: these trouble the quas-elsious of being comfortably at home among one's people, supported by known powers and accaptatlo values, protected against the outside wore (92s 18-18) Said’s own work is another question. The laces the intellectual in a paradoxical relation ‘of course, when this culture exerts its hegemonic 12, aver a colonised society that this coercive and is brought to bear most rigorously. It is for this rerhaps, that Said focuses on culture as a hegemonic and satu- to move downward from the height of power and privilege in order trating power rather than a description of a way of life, for this power is diffuse, disseminate, and expand itself in the widest possible range! nowhere more starkly in evidence thn in the administration of (1983: 9). Culture exerts force whether one sees that force Britain's colonies elevating or coercive, influential literary and cultural critic Matthew fuch of the contradictory nature of Said’s view of the interrelation Arnold (182288), is perhaps the most farnous exponent of culture & of exle, intellectual and culture, can perhaps be explained by the fact the highest value. “The great men of culture,’ says Arnold, ‘are thos that for him exile is both an actual anda metaphorical condition: who have had a passion for diffusing, for making prevail, for carrying from one end of society to another, the best knowledge, the best ides” of their time’ He sew the struggle for a correspondence betweet culture and society as being essentially combative, ‘the assertive) achieved and won hegemony of an identifiable set of ideas, which Arnoll honorifically calls culture, over all other ideas in society’ (1983: 10} ‘The battle zo identify culture with society means the acquisition of formidable power, the end result of which is for Arnold the identifice tion of culture with the State; ‘thus the power of culuure is potential nothing less than the power of the State’ (ibid.). Consequently, culture {8 also, for that class, able to identify with the State ‘a system of excle One can detect a certain slippage even here between the act Intellgctval in this metastysieal sanse is restlessness, movement, consterty being unsettled, and unsettling others. You cannot go back to some earl perhaps more stable cendition ef being at home: ena, alas, you ean never fully artive, beat one in your rew home o (9038 and the WORLDLINESS: THE CRITIC 45dy 9141u9 3HL ISseNITaT¥OM, Sem. 9qp ey poxgpoas nave Cowp onepomwsoD9e oR anoge ueip asjoso1 ajayp anoge aiow sfeads uonesremBreur pur Ayeso -~yduied sromp snoxy aoeds oxios no ane 03 a|qe HAA 94Fy PIRS $e oR soqpe sey ‘wusreLodux pue mqercojeo Jo Gress 2 pompyd Avy aeyp sonapos jo Sumssy pre Suumasey oxp Jo wonpowd mp Aerowsd 5} 3p Mo, RA ‘toUDGIMY “sOPNS aT a3RLG—! oF an -oxdde ag spzey prom 11 “osmoosp aueunmop atp acpi poseemsiem pur poreiBruap uaq oxey Yor soarayno 405 “souay{ “oma|NO Jo sus poste ang ~ soreuones Ceaqus pue ‘oruouoos ‘Teonyjod aang, — wage -tadun jo sonsumoererp snorago sour axa ut Kfuo 1oU SSP 1a “wR ‘couequat somod e st aroqy “wsqeuedan uy ump pagydurexs 20%09 ona sf sx9yMoU par woIsuouNp rongod ApounsIp e sey vonoNNRsTOD sn “woddor oop ssrPRUaHEO, 0 9192 SF 14D oMp Ie FaEMPO, yo sssoead spp yaomn 61 3{ 2Ua140) ofp pee wap AA waNse4 sousrytp a uodn pastuasd sj ‘wnpomeng sy ut pres Aq pawns uownap Apuonbop se «romp, am jo uoDnnsuoD K1Oa 2x, p10, poriraized uo0q 20u sey 9px somo, tp zen Susstidins 2q 200 prOys :oger Puceue) ve sau, Joyjo uy yeu aidoad ayy 40 Buuenieos oy} juawoU Feu PARI BNEU seq soqpeo wou, asaxp jo aoyjd pure poous ay 1qeojwoaun pre seam pooy suonemndod ypuang paw offuay axp ‘Bmgsouueyof jo sqmqns ago Ajoarnpoxo souo amp pur suoK MON “Tue ‘Steg ‘uopuOy Fens soogd wn ‘pur siueigeyst plo Sunesojsp se poruasoadax axe HyL w9p20 po amp 02 eon & se uoos axe soqpxo ,stou, 980m “UoRepoU amo0e ump OME Say 91P UT woRUaHE Kiosandys9q 18 poapsoox ane, om xp anogdnonp sajdoad suodseip fq paoey suySiyd pue seururoysp Ay oneurojqosd AqyBry uaeq seq oppo 1o;No, axp jo woRKod om Joy, sou & pamorge pur pareiqn[9> ‘poyepournosse U29q sey IB gadoing, peoeydsp pue paroopsp om ayiay “aIDeLYD 9EUBDONy idoop sn sr ‘sonamoy ‘2qpx9 Jo uoREqD|>9 8 pres 1 Kopered soHpoay ‘emanofuoo jo sayeuse sr oaraeu sty ur pappagwse &idoop peaxqe Jpe onoydeour Jo sopuspum op poreginoe apo femse quINe au of, “204, P| 94 s10}9q aI we FEAR OUMZOPY ‘sadsox DUIOS wy reo) ‘yaro0s apaupe Ayeio} su u) pazuewas 09 feu plnos yeyM Uo ‘seeusNO;DSLOD ‘2n0q ‘uonout arp sospearayqord PL 00 os st oy “TEMBOTaIUT paypS am jo a[dareo sveu Smouoo amp st ouopy seaxoy XjsnoEmo ang “sPIeS PENDS Ur #90590 “teoun seq ayy feuossad pue peuparperm asoym amy t st owsopy (oe +4661 PRS) .msyomnsHo wuxo%s9\ pue wiSRMUNGIOD ‘wuSDFE] JO ‘eB aep op ano} pue paps xaare aun ssoys ‘“Kamo9 SANA [Pprut axp Jo souamsu0o jempajjarur Supeurwop, ax “srojdus0> suiz08 [pom Kop Coro om woy Suounsp pollen atp pee owoq Woy uoReL dos jo dopaquioo op ‘ouopy sopoayy aALD jemayTO ssHeW-O9U [eauan ‘preg uodn aowenyur oypre yromod ysoun amp ur que) i _ saga8one JR jo adaou0o ox Bunjossp moma uape 9q we> Aproydeous Jo Ry MOY 005 02 3|NOYTP st 31 Joy “uoneu 10 autoy jo Aaxandaoax Sonya Rye “Do518q # Se LONEDO|SP tO st Jo BuRI9EPH! qe IozuIOD xp spssino puns o2 opso ur suRLOFIod eRMDOTPANY IAB ITB “egqeyg FH] “s}IOIKP ssmoosyp jerUoTo enUaNYUT ox Aq pomd}uq yo woe ue ose Sf [BD “preg 105 Sem sasaBEns yy rorIoydear Sv3GI A3% g748 KEY IDEAS 4 | summaRY wo ORIENTALISM ctval which provides the to be the site of controversy, adulation and criticism. Safd’s interven- tion is designed to iustrate the manner in which the representation of Gurope’s ‘others’ has bee the eighteenth "century as a feature describes ‘the various disciplines, institutions, processes of investigation ané jes of thought by which Europeans came to ‘know’ the ‘Orient’ over several centuries, and which reached their height during the rise and consolidation of nineteenth-century imperialism. The key to Said’s fnterest in this way of knowing Europe's others is that it effecth demonstrates the link between knowledge and power, for ‘eonstructs’ and dominates Orientals in the process of knowing them. term ‘Oriental’ shows how the process works, for the word lying a range of «| knowledge and an intellectual mastery over that which is named. Since 1 Said's analysis, Orientalism has reveaied itself as 2 model for the many ways in which Europe's strategies for knowing the colonised world became, atthe same time, strategies for dominating that world.Ig WSITWLNSIO * Sugpnppur ‘aseq apppayy, 2p Uo mou am TRANS au sHeaqazoy [eua19 st pue adomng weaning suORIouUOD TWO, ruazedds axq wreydxo 03 paou axp sem Surmnoq oxp ur sea] 38 Lous, pur usureedp pip soundosp osomp oxe8 requ ang “powemoup sound “PUP Is UE!EG sMoyeA ax YoRyA ul sxmourered Bureayuo-Fas 9p sraa adoung-uou jo ,uswarunad, pue UL (E61 #4261 SOTO) Aojodoxpue jemes, jo sumo Aveo axp ut paquosqe surE9q Spetndimy yo oouopee [rjoon pure onuoxpne axa, “Gatopy jemajno pue [Honea ynoge suxsou09 ut poxeoyduun Aydoap oF seas aBenSuey astes3q “iq ‘Gonsry onmBuy jo uondsouco nou wy pazoysa onesepap ipuof ‘uonesoweBop jo sszooud Aq Suifroma saSendury soxpo pue EB somos agp we maxqpH wa ‘ona dows 87006 OOO'9 Ups ‘eid uaye pey ruaedojonsp o8enSue] amp posoddas Croasry spsrnday Psuondsouco Bunspxo aseoaq Lreuonnjosax sem awoTIoIts 5 ouef ron ‘0 eradomg jo nos 29 Jo uopeue ue Joyo 0 pottae san ‘mroaq sofeniuy, yo duos weodosng-opuy axp pur 3wHO oKp HUN Baosgo 2q axe sueossry pur exeSojoryd ‘anBojoups weedoang Immo nou op sog “pms aBenBuey jo uowsuedxo ase, op pus ARTRUUC jo swMRPUTnUe om sem efrewMOpH Jo tneULIONPE ey UE Pureuar ey "yeas pue uney wer sedoap uaxa 24am rexp soSenSe redoing 03 uiip10 ue sof resus 01 pao] szefoyps se odoung Aoyfuonp eyueuropty, Jo pup, ¥ pownmm yswooumouosd ssouol 2 6 sores uw pens eau souo.easoy etsy) spore fo ‘89:28. 0u'scoUa6 ote suopdumsse [eran op Jo amueu 2p 10u “2OUSIPRE §,CPUPY INF anos Lowen aes oly Bunide aroy oF wl Buseteg IROL ‘eean He aqnop ow uy aq > ay “(5g #9681) saENIMOD wepaturEYOWY Jo AOE ¥ agus yeraze agp Aqseapp soas ‘ou smo Jo sareye amp pen pozemenboe 24) Keus ag SpySas 29x2moy ‘uossod Lzoag, yerp Apwu@pytos axeap PIP, (26-781) wmoy 29uIy weLOIsEY pus eBojoqyd yuory [eRUINIME >yp “20ueIsu) 204 "LA paasaoor Jo says op pounsse Appomb sz enuanguy kq paresowo8 aoypnford pue Aesreaq ‘uorndo “pies asmnoosp ayp jo anoles axp sexs yong -pouonsenbum sea YOReAP- 2 - sadosng jo some soden pow Sowers a9 (NH UE BANTED © A asdorns Jo soy xy aBuryp 01 Sou IQ IoUNaVES & an = Payumo ou soma pu smaoney ‘soBouom [HCHO Jo HOHE Lo aney itog og 1 NOMppE we bad aLDpOR JO hoes ormnp poe sisoge ap sm, suuo oar pur wPet BH Fe Buog yo sme HUN oe Jo aovel & satel Senn ee WSIIVLNAIYO 40 SNISINO 3HL “aAnoUnSIp [PuONEU Jo anSsE ay punoe parynos weyp swuouIse we poSurg pae jan adomg anoge ‘skew amersodat ut ‘sean waste, 2Sz0e S301 A3y Og52 KEY IDEAS the ‘Semitic’ languages and societies, and those of South Asa, for thegonspired to produce a passion for the study of Oriental cultures thet societies were most relevant to the development and spread of tigaw the birth of entirely new discipline al and human sciences, Indo-European languages, although, as Said suggests, they tended {uch as ethnology, anthropology, palaeontology and philology, and the divide between a ‘good’ Orient in classical india, and 2 ‘bad? Orient {ransformation or formalisation of existing ones such as history and present-day Asia and North Africa (1978: 99), gcography. Far from being a monolith, the variety of intlle The identification of the Indo-European group of languages was iplines Orientalism encompassed, its ‘over-devermination have incalculable consequences in world history. Not only did it disrhifierent cultural histor linguistic history, and give rise to a century afferent intellectual styles of Orientalism were developed. quickly generated theories.about rack, But despite the complexity and variety of Orientalist disciplines, as language and race became conflated. Tl the invest Jndo-European group of languages, at ilferent times called parame ‘Japhesic’ languages (after Noah’s son Jepheth, distinguished from tf pinnacle of historical development. This sis lose ‘Semitic’ and ‘Hamitic’ languages that derived from his other sci/yniversally proceeded to confirm the iginary’, ‘exotic Shem and Ham), or ‘Indo-German’, began to be called ‘Arian’ fro) and mysterious’ nature of Oriental societies and, more often than not, their supposed origin round Lake Aries in Asia, The term ‘Arya the degeneration of the ‘non-European’ branches of the Indo-European gained widespread authority in 1819 from the efforts of Germ: family of languages. In this respect, Orientalism, despite the plethora Philosopher Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829) (Poliakov 1974: 193 of disciplines it fostered, could be seen to be what Michel Foucault ‘This term came to symbolise an idea close to the hearts of Europe ails a ‘discourse’: a coherent and strongly bounded arca of social ~ that & separate language indicated a separate racil/natiols Inowledge; @ system of statements by which the world could be origin, Schlegel’s rhetoric in galvanising German youth with the my! known (see box p. 14). of an Aryan race, early in the nineteenth century, began a process ty There are certain unwritten (and somerimes unconscious) rules that Jed eventually to the Holoceust of the Second World War. Thus & define what can and cannot be said within a discourse, and the concept that had the potential to unite peoples of wide cultuy dscourse of Orientalism had meny such rules that operated within the disparity — the Indo-European community of languages ~ peoples; area of convention, habit, expectation and assumption. In any attempt diverse as Indian: nd Anglo-Saxons, became & to guin knowledge about the world, what is known is overwhelmingly ‘racial polarisation as it fed'deeply ingraing determined by the w: ‘known; the rules of di “the kind of knowledge that can be gained fro the strength, and academic discipline when these rules span a European racial pretensions, in the nineteenth century, as European cont of the Orient required an intellectual rationale for its cultural a : economic dominance, But the discourse was what we might call ‘ove. eige can be produced, that intellectual habit of speaking and thinking determined’: that is, many different factors all contributed to’ te becomes a discourse such as Orientalism. This argument for the discur- development of this particular ideological construction et this time| history, of which the emerging imperialism of European states was one (albeit a significant one). These tributaries of influence also varia from country to comtry: for example, the industrial dominance # Britain and the political economy of its colonial possessions; the pot revolutionary sense of national destiny in France; the centuriesai i spice leet lasiene Eaten blood in Germany. All thet Ctamples of the machinery of cultural domination, a metonymy of the ORIENTALISM 53og weinvinaivo yup jo vonrangnd am aiopg. gp yemajno aspemyy yP[aqy 3eyM Jo ssoooud op wt OTN v pooueape *(9EE #$661) Jem “m MTeyS am, ‘sompoforpe seaddesrp soueape 03 sSpapsoury Sum sood jo ona jeaonqnan vse wR panaog Auetg snp f ‘psepul (87 “8 2ypeg Beret seo oep Jo poypiaun yp — snaeIs WrANTEARS O [eILOUEN gr MoU e, sveTRURS e3 Sntp pu “Sxonoxd Ga sem ‘sue oy “UORUDIT JO PUR e st Jo wyBnow w2q wayO axow, sey more Bye yf -pauTRUEM st (yy 4 aq “SUN anfsmNOEIP quoxyoo uTes00 uNPLA paresado soudesD JE Aaoysea v yom ur Lean oop Jo siskpeure ssopusjar pur pods S53} ta0y ssuioa 00g =p jo smod em uoused ota saqpan uonsnasuo> Gnuopr roMsopea GRY Ue Jo OF Suuaa-xaystp, ap wosy soBroua 21 40} ‘OSINGOSTp IsGLIO, jo WSITVLNII¥O 40 SSANITOTYOM AHL ?,ANILS30 ONIHSINAd ATANDINA, ¥ -varazop suaso47 amp, Jo ,Stauxeojam, a4 poy yuo et uo pu jonuo> yeriadum jo ssoD0xd vac! Ay 4656 KEY IDEAS had faded from popular usage, but in the late 1970s it took onjple to adopt influences such as positivism, Marxism and Darwinism renewed and vigorous life. The disciplines of modern Oriental despite their sophistication, are inescapably imbued with the trai representations of the nature of the Orient (especially the Middle Eageen associated tr and the assumptions that underlie the discourse of Orientalism. Whigrie Seid laments the sometimes indiscriminate manner in which Oriencalagferent people. hhas been appropriated, there is litle doube that it has had 2 hugast, mainly Japan and China, wh on socal theory in general. By 1995, Orientals had become parca ish and the French, it conjures up different images. It f book’ that had ‘superseded! its author more than could hai not only adjacent to Europe; ‘itis also the place of Europe's greatest been expected (1995: 300). One might add that it is 2 continualand richest end oldest colonies, the source of its civilvations and growing book, in that the analysis of the strategies of Orientalism hjanguages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most iscpline, a style of and 2 corporate institution TeSiec Aan selec duce Oriel emerged in ee eighteenth century and has since assembled an archive of knowledge that “Yas served to perpetuate and reinforce Western representations of it. “Orientalism is'the discipline by which the Oric Orientalism is divided into three main parts. In the first part Said esa syste lishes the expansive and amorphous capacity of Orientalism, It di has been in existence for over two centuries and og distinction’ STRUCTURE ‘based upon an ontological and 2) between the Orient and tne Ocedent Th “The second part of the book is an exposition o tures and restructures’, Here, Said sets out to establish how the philological, historical and creative writers in the nineteenth the established legecies of British and ity and domination over Orientalism were adopted and adapted By the United States, For Sa Particularly nowhere is this better reflected than in the manner in which these leg lant upon and justified by the textual establishment of the Orient cles are manifested in American foreign policy. The book is a comple ‘st emerges out of the academic and imaginative definitions of articulation of how the absorptive capacity of Orientalism has bie Orienalism,6 WSITWLNBIHO ap parses ssmoosp asipauuO jo susumpsyduoae yee ap amevaq Aen ana poyiom a “(EF ‘S/61) LEB, IY oq, ‘quoti9) omens xp pu (on, 9 op ‘adoxmg) amen 3p ods ap pmouiod amonns asoyss {ayes Jo WOR Pop; Sem GISTUELLO, JOE “IWOHEO amp aT0ge As 10 aoueHAK asmpin pyro Aaxp 2eqm ur patersuen suds ROE JOIPENA ANG 40 PRADA. | 2p paeboy “uuagaRLy AMS se ons sistem aaneUBe pyZomod wg | UD 2p moge WYEnow uodn si asoduat or ueBaq ‘soxenge fue 94 Ye ur MEME wep sem Dey peOND om amg “(Ze 85 suo ssfuons Spuaredde ‘ropoue dq ompro ou jo uopeudaxdiy Synumps sna jo report Kron oep sess Ava Uy FO YORE, “SGU ‘ur adiBg jo woseaty spuosjoden, axp ur ang Xxoporpso ansBuy Jo wo WSITVINATaO 40 3d098 BHA -dnusip §s0uof wen (BM 30u *USEUHO wropout jo sFuruseq ‘tp vo shoo} sty ur uaes 2q wes omaeN pronyod sx uO sTeyduED SH ‘pera pury oF soueuop pur aBpapocoy mov Aqztopp Krox suourop ypoods snogeg jo sosnuud mL “(Ze #8461) at mo a f9suas vu ‘RSTXO 3 pu I MoU aM SDUIS “*" af Z9A0 GLrOWANe D404, by sueumuop o2 st [2dABq se] Sana e yous jo aBpopmouy yons axry 8 op 01 2490 Bug ang ‘sinSt20 may Wo UoRETEAD e Suploamns tou zuraur anoyieg 203 aBpaymouny “(Ze -gv6t) ae saxo ae {oj 90 ee se19g 248g Jo aon axB MOU BNA, “eH PaTe|Dop 1 adiGq jo uonedrooo suresug jo 2ounjep s,moeg Hayy Sug %q porensuowp Adee 5 yorya ‘comod ‘waaaaeq ur acp 7 sopisaa wuoumBie s pres 50 2100 OG] 2 FEL J Pow aif wy UEwny a4 yo 14919 pve ‘Sueg yo emims eauosoiyd oy: inoge nuondosuca pub tacos oe spr ot ake ae uo ‘ng "sears tp ana FOP THEO LOND a oun wens os oe» oes yo wonsonb ajdars © oa vouswouoyd weedoing xejdat00 params? pur seisese4s' ou Z6useq selnoitied pur Gh hop soumu oh ‘puny avo ofp wo “szeadde su “sumdomng EAVel le Ueswiegsousejip ay © un isde prcus Saioe fq uso ae fox uprys £q soudosip snones amp Jo SuoponsI0> ren | -Ruadoid Bulag 3 uons uonsend jo spun vieve> pes persia tat reivo ‘e7e Yeu SEU 4930) © so sito eum Inoge Kan Assesonueo ap Jo Ypnus jo aounos ay ca Spuanbosucs pe yo uueaq 9p 02 aGBiz BuIOD om YORIOS sm BEA (PUM Sy PER TRO 3eq “eaHIO Hm HH osuSs © wy, REE Jemyro snp jo 3no parexauad sem 24 asmevaq ‘TUALIC axp Jo aBpapnornk® -9q wBrur sayy pur aseg qpog Jo Aayear arp aay suruaarap 07 s0Med ‘ayn pey opys 2uo ang “paseg sem wuarag axp pun Sumeap (Te YORU ostp Gouig jesmourpuy ap possoxdxo pure Supyeur oyp Set ‘us9q ey 199A PUE 38ey OUT Pliom oIp Jo OBL OL “(GE “SLEL)RI ssaicuy oF sowed sey Uoiym dnous ves 05 2Bu0jeq useswa1ig a 25%9[ Lonmuacardas jo sapias morsoa amp eousr ose ayer stsKqeue sopyy, 2p 2 (Gueadosng jeuonouroun, pwr ,jeuones, a4 Woss sseLAAHOUAPuorssassod reruoyoo a9} peYy yorym “Kereusse8 se Gans sounUNED Uy nO e Bunsosse ‘ jeaonous, puv aagmaui, se saspasmiomp Jo mots [edna sem drgsie|oyps [eu910 aAlSUAIU ISOUK ap Jo YORUE TEM [eOAOL ap adope suzy toga “dazex> 105 ‘se) sonfosurotp 998 of 28100 fvea paszwojon 2tp YE ERPEM ASMDSTp Yep sowOI94 3f ‘SAaSHE pue Kiepos ay upp powerous8 st ay ginorp| PID “Tee Zang axp jo uoNInnsUoS snoRIqure ApesuoUTUs, axp Seas svaai aax 2KEY IDEAS ies fas in @ COUT of law), something ane studies anc desicts (as in and the emergence of Western imnperialism. The Englishman in India or ‘curriculum, something one disciplines (asin a schoo! or cmetninBaypt in the latter nineteenth century took an interest in those coun- lustrates (28 in zoological manual), The pcint is that in each case th gies that was founded on their status as British colonies. This may scem ais contained and represented by dominating frameworks. ‘quite different, suggests Said, ‘from saying thet all academic Knowledge (i973 4 bout India and Egypt is somehow tinged and impresced with, violated i fact —and yet that is whar Jom soying in this stedy ; by, the gross pol ‘The creation of the Orient as the ‘other’ is necessary so that th of Orientalisin’ (1978: 11). The reason Said can say this is because of Cccident can define itself and strengthen its own identity by invokin, he conviction of the worldiness of the discourse: ‘no production of : i ‘fmowledge in the human sciences can ever ignore o disclaim its representation has been reinforced not ouly bj author's involvement as a human subject in his own circumstances’ academic disciplines such as anthropology, history and linguistics by. “The idea that academic knowledge is ‘tinged’, “impressed also by the ‘Darwinian theses on survival and natural selection’ (1974) with', or ‘violated by’ political and military force is not to suggest, as 227). Hence, from an Orientalist perspective, the study of the Oriey Dennis Porter supposes (1983), thet the hegemonic effect of has been always from an Occidental or Western point of view. To th. Orientalist discourse does not operate by ‘consent’. Rather, it is to ‘Westerner, according to Said, " suggest that the apparently morally neutral pursuit of knowledge is, sn | the colonialist context, deeply inflected with the ideological assump- fr hime. for the sake of his eutue 97a, ‘This encoding and comparison of the Orient with the West ultimate ‘ensures that the Oriental culture and perspective is viewed as a devis tion, a perversion, and thus is accorded an inferior status. ‘An essential feature of the discourse of Orientalism is the objectf. cation of both the Orient and the Oriental. They are treated as object that can be scrutinised and understood, and this objectification 3° confirmed in the very term ‘Orient’, which covers a geographical ara and a range of populations many times larger and znany times mon diverse than Europe. Such objectification entails the assumption tha the Orient is essentially monolithic, with an unchanging history, whib ‘the Occident is dynamic, with an active history. In addition, the Ories and the Orientals are seex to be passive, non-participatory subjects a srudy. 7 2 ‘This construction, however, has 2 distinctly political dimension i that Western knowledge inevitably entails political significance. Thi” was nowhere better exemplified than in the rise of Oriental studis. a tions of imperialism. ‘Knowledge’ is always a matter of representation, | aad representation @ process of giving concrete form to ideological - concepts, of making certain signifiers stand for signifieds. The power gat underlies thece representations cannot be divorced from the oper- ations of political force, even though itis a diferent kind of power, ore subtle, more penetrating and less visible. ‘A power imbalance exists, then, not only in the most obvious char- scteristics of imperialism, in its "brute political, economic, and military wat also, and most hegemonically, in cultural the culeural sphere that the dominant hegemonic project of Orientalist studies, used to propagate the aims of imperi- alism, can be discerned. Said’s methodology therefore is embedded in what he terms ‘textualism’, which allows him to envisage the Orient as creation, In Orientalist discourse, the affiliations of the text ORIENTALISM 6619 WsiTLNatwe e Sunnynruco ‘sone pumose 9px © waesp seq (yorys] wondaouce, 2 se x sosuopeRyD preg “souRIsseL 10} woOS ou soxea, ‘Kaper Jo [2x9] Laoaa ae sazezado yorgn Sumpouior se ‘somod jo uondzouca Eameanoy “(172 #€86t) SeD08 wx suonepar somod aBueyS or Sartg cc pono) tre soiesado sowod fem 21p (pps PAIBUEDSe] Ax0N $39 aerp asuas Busou] © sf a[neonog TAIN sey preg uIaygoad aqy ° Gaps ‘uxepou: soqsapun y[ns weep s9ou05 pasoddo Jo onoapeIp [eau aR spreurume #59] 20 220u, ymrano4 ‘preg sles“ uoneurwop porerpouun, st aiod yetp wonou apn amp prose oy Sauk apa “(122 €861) oo Jo Ypnur os 20 sara ayEsais pare ‘semonsed ur amweonog “Tes0ueS pare sos sry UES auouRTEIEOD [eoRYfod jo y>R] B se eS yf TEGO} rymronog tava Aden sureaoq preg ‘ipueoduy asopy -armedap jo stujod remaodury aze axarp “mmeonog on gap zeap v seq pres HOLY ajronog sorudosddesen 2q ep som ap GIO paSiouo Wyo | sour sey (2661 PEERY $9661 SunOX) souErsHax Jo Axo=uA OU Sey PRS “osmoonp waasoyy Jo sisCere SupUassIp sm [e 40] ‘Tey UORESMOOE aH, BONVISIS3Y 40 NOILS3ND 3HL GNY LINVONOS “GIVS -ssoddo 03 pax uopsanb 03 ‘iamod 02 wpa yeods o2 asap ,2e{no2s, x agseqduro or pu ‘sssnoostp IS7TETIO jo wonipea stp wy pareordux as01 jo wonsod yeawSopoayp, axp Jo 5008 Senge arp 351893 08 st feRyDaT[aNT 2tp Jo one yo wmouresed ap 29H, “sg Aq auoui, amp sonnsuos serp aemoonp senuooomg © 51 ‘sosegd _Pazyweuryap OY tt | onsnes “spun, *,sepmime, 03 poonpar ‘pasemosewe Aqeradsou0o, “fu voffiar op eth pamsus SsnUDDS [eDOs asolf] ‘soONNDE FOS ot i possed sem wsqenua1io jo spuew amp Yetp URDU Te POM pLOIAS WB sn ssoweDs [UPos owp Jo souruRUOP aq “(O87 :SUsI) ous [ap Aqequosse sum oiny oxp sous “- yams gery we 01 ystaal © Woy, ye sprug-nte swnded v yo souasFue, om Aq a[gusod opeut Saxe o8az] von sem sup germ sonBre peg “seousps [PDOs Op UT se TA a soBeur zemedod uesuowy unpya soepd jenuso e 4dnoo0 01 autco “away qey op ‘oseyd sup uy ‘amoos sujeunoz ‘sopour pexouad amp ar wr “us jo semen om ‘soSeens SuseUOO 4 eBueyp ruonbosuoo ap pue sosod jo anuos om jo Sunsgs om ado ‘seins pauup op q a8ms prom 2ip uo upenag pure some Jo wamearidsip arp pea spuodsaxioo wsrpeusLio jo aseyd 389%e] a4, Suryeads moss poargryord axe saapos amp SeMBLO ap rep LOA UHC ap Jo Layeos om aqHDSEP pue (puanbasuor “($6 *816' w jou on.noe pur snes snowrious popzoooe ome sasjesmama sixon 4p “Cuyqeaz onoxe pure wueisip 2 pu “Coeumuy wane ‘Gpreruany & ex9770 fox asqeuaug op sours “isqEMINI 2p Aq poyeoron sf LOA at [me uo] pazopunz sqaueHO ap ‘ypnan avp uosaudas or “Gmalis 0 poy }pan wsqweHI orp uoym smma00 yey Apostaad st REL “(C6 #8461) ‘bs ~ syxai — sj00q rey Jo S509 21p Uo pooaszpim 2q GE ent sSut—q “U2E 8161) seemoneued PoRLD ProRdaxs Jo anyea yeasS amp UT‘SIER Hany YR m ssour oneuDgod pue ‘opquompasdan “Suuress, -Soqfoiut jo 2[o2 peanyqod-opos axp ur seopy aanerporpne pue CUOKANE A em uoRdunsse om sem PSSLIAES aoe aogq uF (919IRLHSI) yo soundaove jeonuoun pue Supqunpum ur ‘Sunfump per uy 49RO Muess9y wsqosow ysrueds pue aya) ut (BL/1-691) DHILOA 2xp Suxdpmas ur ‘uoneussozdas ut panjosur st yeys 02 aanisuas, 2q € Sydosoryd younsy seq yeup swsoSBns py *,apnamae fenaxoa,e SED pres 5 Peg 10} soMsue ay “wIsENALIO) Jo souEUTIOD amp Suny UF AAU Aya or sAuMOUTE Pom Teas axp 02 puodsaiios sy00q Ut PUIG O16 9501 18. ponuguoo soB.m off “se[oqps sot wnop oN 02 Kapedeo axp SEY? Yons suoneuossidoz zemp jonfoq ou (ZL 28/61) «woRTIUosodos © yory ‘ustpRUHE Jo wonmpeN pl, aq inoge poussDued st 2 32K BAI st PRIA BRU, aA sopsoq sSunp sompO Aurea aeas8 e YALA UaAOM, eSpopmowy qons Supnposd ux peedua szejoyos reapurpun jo 20[ a ‘poppoquro ‘poumasoiu aze stoneacosardat Jo sossoox9 st ausumoop o A[aisur uonUaIU s.preg 10% St 31 EL “(CLz #BL61) aIqssod saxo sy uoREMUDsoAdad ON v soy “PES wopsus ioziadas,sjoua jo samod ayp ur 221225 (es “e\qeuonsanb spar asnesoq ‘poronnsuoo sj apopsomy yom URPUN ar oy susatem pur suxjoyps jo suomesous8 jo aSpaymoun pareyramere rcmoos Surpumisieptm on jepas st woneTosoudas Jo Ons OGL Swacl AaM 998 KEY iDEAS ‘unique territory in which Foucault has imprisoned himself and other. with him’ (1983: 245), Said’s intention, on the contrary, is not to by trapped but to articulate the potential to resist and recreate. This j ‘implicit in Orientalism, which stresses the relationship between and knowledge. Seer MICHEL FOUCAULT (1926-84) lly taken to be permanent truths abs ‘and society, changs in the course of history, Reterring to: ‘archaeology’, ne showed how épistemés or di the manner in'whick the werid is experienced sgiven epoch. He explored the shifting pattorns af power within s the ways in which power relates to the rather than simply exerted by dominant people and institutions. For Said, the power of the Orientalists {in power. Hence, for him, resistance is twofold: to know the Orie outside the discourse of Orientalism, and to represent and present ths knowledge to the Orientalists — to write back to them, The reason fof” this is that none of the Orientalists he writes about appear to hai’ intended an ‘Oriental’ as a reader. ‘The discourse of Orientalism, itt internal consistency and rigorous procedures, were all designed fot | readers and consumers in the metropolitan West’ (1995; 336). He therefore finds particular pleasure in listening into their pronounce: ments and making his uninvited interventions into their discussioss © (1995: 336). However, what Said is writing back is not an Orient that only an Oriental has the capacity to tel Intion of the fallacy of authenticity. For there is no ‘real’ Orient becaus ce, itis important to note that Said’s non-coercive : that runs counter to the deployment of discourse analysis within Griewalino. Despite his obvious debt to Foucault methodologically, he arrived at a notion of ‘which was deliberately anti-Foucault’ (Selusinszky 1987: 137). ht opens up gaps in i she Or geographical spaces with indigenous, rad high debatable idea, that nzogredhict spaces equal (Said 1978: 920) knowledge is sintains distance and allows for authorial creativity. Thus, despite {ecusations of his misappropriation of Foucault (Young 1990; Ciiford 988; Ahmad 1992), Said is adamant that the theoretical inconsistency of Orientalism is the way it was designed to be: T didn't want Foucaulr’s © method, or anybody's y thod to override what I was trying to put forward’ (Salusinsaiey 1987: 137). But even more explicit than this, he vel coercive knowledge at the end of the book ‘This Saidian strategy of resistance is premised upon intellectuals who exercise their critical consciousness, not simply to reject imperial discourse but to intervene crit which lnawledge is made possi > of critical consciousness lies in dominant culture as well as ‘the sovereignty of the systematic method’ ithin the intrinsic conditions on 3: 182). For Said, the locstion wing the hegemonic nature of "ga: 673). By adopting such a perspective, Said argues, itis possible for the critic to deal with a text in two ways — by describing not only ‘what isin the text but also what is invisible. His idea of the contempo- rary critical consciousness is one that asserts the ro such a consciousness detaches itself from the dominan for agency, for Jeure, adopts ‘responsible adversarial position and then begins to ‘account for, and rationally to discover and know, the force of statements in texts’ 1182: 713). The development of this critical consciousness is central te Said’s strategy of resistance, CRITIQUES OF ORIENTALISM ‘Tp maintain a view of Orientalism as a discourse is to give it a focus fis coverage. Placing the beginnings of Orientalism as late as Napoleon's invasion of Egypt rather than in the cighteenth-century upsurge of interest in the Indo-European languages ORIENTALISM 69Lk WSITLNSI¥D 2yuowsp oy |e wBYS parsoAUE u99q Sey GIy 2M Ie cu | ruodumuo ynoqe saqear preg wep ap Afomnoe soe ons -wourap syoene yng “uonseas st Jo eraisty pepzersun pure Amuarxe 1 pies Jo same jeorxopered axp wodn funy ome asRIED OM | : cuoxoud wooq sey — 958g feuonm gsm] Jo Aatzo%pne atp — uononnsuoo ay jo Aayorane axp [aun panes 2qp 20g Sunsoronu st pur “Gowos gr wt siasury preg oda sppene oq 30ND yan, wromod pue wana jo woRenouodinuT ata jo apdurexs jo amos Jo Laypsoy axp stuosardas ose a ‘uonysod s preg so anby sy pue preg usamaag saBueyaxo op uwoneyeaas sot 20j Sunsaxonur asout st pur ‘uoneruosoidossres uo AppSim soqaa awoumdee 5 29punsqy -(0§-6+ 26861) -AmuEumy Jo sop808 9 ‘a Tfe pre poo8 20) parstqus tpeap, waxy Suowe joxp> * suroU! 0 29/099 aig wi sajdn.os ye preostp o1 axjosas atoxp ur aanjosqe wow Jo puey 2, a1easD 03 [emBatfeuut (pamusrun) sompoue jo SutSuoy aya sesdpemt uo um yo serum possoze, agnor osogn reg SUay AApUEXATY Jo wonsenre qenods aqBisur e243 asoqin, auoawos sj nsyosoU amp IROgE seq otpn suo pure pesuog ydasof uo viodxo ue “prey Soy asl ayp. Jo afdurexa ue pasnpoxd seasyeazo4g 01 sosuodso4 ie oop ay Supe Sapumeoly pIcaps Séoruxeaey eamol $ oRED pur jerapayjarm mI Jo somos arp saUI099q = sonppsurarp spay asqENUa|I JO. ssa asodxa 01 120y Jo [eap 3e023 spuadxe wip 1x93 -ApLos arp ‘Xfereuayn “sone s1 Jo suondurnsse Areundosip xp sopnys enanuos ar rexp ypns 51 ‘S50 pee ‘osuneiods> 5 are susonun asayp jo Kaeur garg uodn Aporpne Kreandestp Jo su0R sored par | -dumsse (1oa asorp 01 yoeg Supp st aan ap aeIp st sup 105 woseDd aR - Jo aeq 7YON at sureapun op saBeue at yep aunposge os Aaroxane tue oy une fey ueo suoU Ing “SULE UMO JOA UT pyeA oz WME 40 Ie Sour pue ‘Buyeaxar pur sia ze SMIERED 2¢p Jo “sou 208 | {7 Xtear 204 “jes uoneuasoadas jo aunaeu oxp uodn ‘paapur ‘pu ‘49 6 | mpoue 19K soplaord 21 ‘98eq pexBoouasids uno sy jo Guoyme @@ nese spene Areundpsp qpeo se ‘raxamoy] “yemooyprr aqgnd _noews, 9p 10} area. ut SoM eysA jeOAAL O% P9pUR aNey HETEUELIO) 02 “pruodso: jo szeak Gausmy,"sti0108 & 51 a4 soameArosuOD peuOrssajoud sdreuopinjosas-nue st ay sispereyy Teuosssozoad 02 !amneonoy sasnsyut o Moyo foreurUNLNSIpuE pue aaMoYeRM st oy sIsHOOKA esa] 02 fKjzejoqosum st 2y szejoyps oa Ssausoarp saxeguco oy isnusps pos 01 Sqeouroasngum sf a4 sun}soRsTy Of sSMfeue asLIETORS, jo U0} Pye plnom pres wey jo LireurSreur pu agnqeidsoowun oun wrguos @ puss 9A suuspALD poresouss ancy soxeptmog auqdosp 205 pred ‘emp pSipaid su pur aoasn|uy Suyeoaou Jo ape aua8im ,400q 24, -omi099q seq ,"BALN, pue woes x pads opupese woomoq yu paronasuoo seip Suoins aoy sn smoys fam op jo aye sup nq SupSesedsp pur Lrowipentioo wade Seer ‘om anoveure ue a [29 0}, Aaeauf os sazzad preg moavopts fenao9[fa107 A wpeordde 2eip jo uonensuowep © Som nature, Ue S| wT]OsUITQ ear yBnop odoos up jouotBeu ‘10g soraew a29lqns sy Jo sonmeos swung ofp wow yeanax si pur uoRneD spremor douopuer sy UILE “suyuoo Lreundpsp sit ‘uonesqepads Greuossnpoxo pe ,jexSopoap, Koreproe ai up fom JenaoaqparUT Jo amen poxseRstos amp Inoge Amp spreg waguoo 0: popusa Aiqermesuy seq swsDBLD amp jo omIeU ang "089g sey Joog 2xp Jo oouONGUT xp prmoyoud moy Texas SUID ‘gu asamp jo o8tex pue modia ayy Crrasoy yo soox8ap SuyCrea tag Jee suoysenb yexonas wo sosuodsai ayerousd ox sonupuon pur pore] nye a) ARS Komapoura wsyoaais9 ‘suosear sono Kuen pue asamp ZO -uousezoitn rearayno xo xamod pue 2ourunuop sospeqdum ‘epsed st snupe Appear fom 4208 84 HoH ‘asnoosp Jo xdaou> 2¢p Jo 980 5,preg ‘SHOMUDHLIMY "SIA HO, 39 Jo anes: aqnzesomuoour ay, “pase ME ey woamioq sopsepuNOg aqA mop yea Apfenave ayBrur dysze joyes saxperuot9 vera Suryzay peasdsapun amp 20 ‘soy up 04 sored i soma wayseg swoodsou ouos UH TIP se[oyDs IsTENUEIC, kaeut 1oure Binjooy Suons ayy uonuocx on se] 3y pure Aseg axp uy sod fuofoo autoys e rou sem Kaeo sous “ploy aip uo Dedan 2Iqe Joppuco s1oKR pue ssqEAUELO Jo JoouDS UEUAIDD ap suo AVPBzE] aH =MOsp ayp Uw soMod ueodoing jo WoRensuoMap s,pres sims 1oN2q sva01 43% OL72 Key IDEAS terror of US racial and political xenophobia, What is interesting is how : bate in general and inte'preposterous situation of an Oriental responding subtly suck stereotypes enter into put academic discourse in particular. Although Alexander's attack does not represent a widespread attitude to the book itself, it provides an ila ‘inating glimpse of the ways in which stereotypes of ‘self and ‘other tend to polarise in cultural discourse “again secks to illustrate the endurin “contemporary manifestation and its polemical and © ments. It needs to be emphasised thet academic Orien AREA STUDIES. “The aritiques mounted from within the centre, mainly from the Orientalist as well as the Area Studies domain, elicited a great deal of ‘comment, much of it positive and instructive, a fair amount hostile and in some cases abusive (Said 1985: 1). The hostility that Said refers ta was exemplified best in the works of Dennis Porter and Bernard Lewis. While Porter rejected Said’s thesis on the grounds that it wa both an ahistorical and an inconsistent narrative (1983), Lewi mounted one of the most vitriolic attacks on Said. This is not surprising perhaps, given Said’s treatment of Lewis's work on islam a an explicit example of contemporary Orientalism: aggressively logical, despite his various attempts at subtlety and irony, ang ‘underwritten by a zealotry covered with a veneer of urbanity that ha: very Little in common with the “science” and learning Lewis purport: +o be upholding” (1985: 13), This should come as no sup Seid, to anyone familiar with the of Orientalism: surprising, he claims, that most of the criticism from special Orientalists ‘turns out to be, like Lewis's, no more than banal descrip tion of a barony violated by a crude trespasser’ (1995: 346). Lewis, in return, described Orientalism as a ‘false? thesis tha bordered on the ‘absurd’, Further, he argued that it revealed ‘a disqul zing lack of knowledge of what scholars do and what scholarship is 1982, 1982a). Lewis questioned Said’s professional qualifice terms of what degrees he possessed) and his ability to speak d Islam, his knowledge of Arab history and of Orientalist disciplines. Lewis, as a representative of ‘specialist’ academic scholarship, Saidi’ ‘amateurism’ is an unforgivable failure rather than a liberating srength, Critically, Lewis substantially ignored the specific critics | levelled by Said at Orientalist practices. Orientalist scholars like Lewis and Daniel Pipes, according to Sti continue to reproduce such representations in their attacks on hiss _ ipecause they ‘derive from what to the nineteenth-cennury mind is the to Orientalism’s fsseverations’. Said reserves his greatest scorn for contemporary COrientalists such as Lewis, ‘For unrestrained ant intellectuals, unen- cambered by critical self-consci sublime confidence of Bernard Lewis’ (1 pot the whole y academy, an responses to them have both tended to narrow down the field of contestation unnecessarily, UCAULT CONNECTION: METHODOLOGICAL SMS. “The issue of Said’s use of Foucault has been the focus of various, even very opposed, criticisms of Orientalism. Dennis Porter, for instance, argues that the employment of the notion of discourse raises over- whelming methodological problems, not the least of which is the manner in which Said deals with the questions of truth and ideology. (On the one hand, says Porter, Said argues that all knowledge is tainted because the Orient, after On the ther, Sd areal Orient that is THE appears to be suggesting that there might Jnowable and that there is a corresponding truth about it that can be "ideology is never resolved within Said’s work. Indeed, this assumption of an implied ‘real’ Orient is one of the most frequent criticisms of the book despite Said’s repeated disclaimers correct that there isno knowable Orient, Porter argu tothe manner in which Said bas atterapted to bring rogether two differing theoretical positions in Gramsci and Foucault. Sai’s perceived misappro priaton of Foucault can be traced to the manner in which he seeks to accommodate such diverse figures as Alexander the Grest, Karl Marxand | Jammy Carver withina single discourse. Sacha claim, for Porter, ‘seems to nvokesitwithreferenceto On the contrary, itis claimed rake nonsense of history atthe sam imperfal power/- knowledge’ (1983: ORIENTALISM 73ge StWLNaIND aso axe apey yong “fos se ERY jo GPM", 1p 40} sploy sy, “Guorpne Peapod pur exams pour’ seq rep 9u0 st woReussadda | “fay “oneauasardassra e ‘asuos oumos or ‘st uoneacasouder Ty foneiuesoadoisna pue uonsiuasezdes woamaog ur] ofp SBOP IGA {oy “osu seanoostp jo woRoN ap GEM st ugord spew KsEaI “599 Jo Kapnog fron, ou suonsend | i erp anzen Kioasiy Jo puny siau e tpt sjosuary Sunenuye yo pomooe prs sod v ypns 107 smorfe 38Hp uoRIod apy atA O2 2seNBED cypyixa 0} [aap UF ‘AwouoMS ona oyeur Ob ojgystod rou sy at Aqazay OURS |inoysp ou | we] RUBUO Jo ssnoOmD ye MAELIOGE eB 0 Pu O43 Ut moipenoiyy & “imonoy yBno.tp “padope seq. pres ayn 2508308 oi aujod 91 "G91 +7661) ,unp Sioa sKewye st uoneuasaadessax pa Ug snoey -russardax ussaueg ou amp, 2p 35983ns or Apduns st uontod 5PRS |e pres yureBe ose sy dn sums apy -wwsyeUIEUE jo asmoostp a ut yeq sondie peamy “equny “fuopmussaidasrar 20 suoneuaseud) “wopgren wiossoy pontun v Jo UNE & pres asmema|gozd s22NL2M 950Hf JO yo ursae(se sy uasrpeD[1Q raMpaqy Inoge worsTsUoOUY (909 2erp st uoRIUOD mea §.xoLI0g “mepsry fo SIOIfAg U>AEG 8 SOULE] “uoutop on sured re sy 9p4 “24g arp Jo aasswayo [eqOT (eagery Jo soussme7) "gy pur spar, s,0}0q o92e99 :ppes Aq, on poszaja2 uy ye] op jo wamax roweS ox sumrar oy 3eyA HEA ayo eB sso axe stomp sty anosd oF sasn at{ TI HOM om? OH, sosenaxcuos peumpy “(Zg61) sua] ‘oH HOEY “AOR sosmoemn( peORONSTY AULD_TP 7e sem auOroUTP ur soaesuuarp ssoucdks ay ooq sy uy peunry Zefry {q porous us9q sey SOMIN qUEOA UF UOR mm sooqos oFMOMRBoY-syEMOD IEP BTA UUSTEMEG UNAUA Te. sod uepjnesnoy paajpe s)pReS Uo sypene snoxoFis wou! stp JO FLO —_slensuoWp or amyerng jaxen URPE sopdiuexo sven 198104 “SUONET “soursssaz Tepos uado jo S9sM005F ramod pue s¥peAouy KfIpoo 30U PFOA JEEP USL) aKp puE WP ue sive se vuoio suns 2q2 up annsoyo aq pur ayeindo eo 2mN008P yp uooadeq endoqerp jenmxe © Japisuos or ojgsod 24 PROM ¥ oquoweley © soy Aueap Lox sags (Jg61) [onueD anod-oPe pry) -woppeN wes oR UNALN sFunLM oaneeoye oq Kew asoKp Jo ssmoostp © se espuy my amyesmy YSN Jo ouydDsIp axa Jo puodsg ‘snowFouoy iow pur snosuaorsyey ase SO BITEAUIG arp 0 sis suorsunr owp pur sasioxen ay soxopered Auear a8 ‘wonssod sry Jo souppearqure aq, "9a129 jem & se Suneusey oF PIS sooqeus reuse Mjosrooud sx sy zpuejouzoy e soqjasoraNp 105 on.su09 Kawa op mop SoRRUDPEfemaRo Se SaaasuI— INST SENG “sof 30M s.pres jo aseaq amp 07 agfks OF suonsonb s prow wed auo Uy (6c. $8861) 20H ¥ Jo YoogerOK ap a-TEs2D oy Ban {4 [par] sanen © onansuoo ‘uonemais eqoys ayezoay © ur ‘2s89] 20 fen 2p ISNA, gpssorppe AjfesoUss sour sosmoosp asarp axe (seni eqs UF puE) aoUarpNe POM wy OL, “COLT REL) SINE ay JassNOsP 424 20 sy ionsUoD JOYA WrepOoUE Aue s9op seOmosaE TEU? 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Remove them or them, and the empire is no more. Empire follows art and not vi as Englishmen suppose’ (in Said 1994a: 65). The role of cul keeping imperialism intact cannot be overestimated, because wre that the assumption of the ‘divine right’ of sometimes overweening assumptions) *deological The struggle for domination, as Fouca systematic and hidden. There is an unceas classes, nations, power centres and regions seeking to dominate and Aisplace one another, but what makes the struggle more than a random9 visiviuaemi sv sunLing pes posooad eo ouagno yBiq jo suononpoad onowsoe orp YORAM 2800 amp #1 Reg poiqhon pur poreupsey seme sey ep Sun 2uQ -assaa Jo Caoayp sty 01 jentao st uonsexoxuy snp ‘pours aay ous se ‘courissex jo soap ou Suuey wos] 15 ‘paepul “s9Ra!0s pasfuojoo ut soumsso1 jo uoneedo ox pue amano ueadosng ump wisyeadua jo onezado orp tpog jo uontumuexs s preg sasqroioereyo aeIp oueTss JO asmozsip Liorerseit0> ayp pur amy jertediay oxp jo Surddeyraxo on st ‘uoRestuojo> jo auemious at wo. stones pue ane aze 1amod revoduxy ippn subuioSeSus jo sopout snones ayp seq 398 20 “Ox9}] ue svewerseyy jo So uaLahe Oude ay) tunoOSp aginvelgo 0 a106) yuan Buoy © 107 ax0¥g wong aany se0:08 Jyons ang “preog 9q sapere apip seq Suspueusop s2010n poxomodino Aywou jo cousBioue uappns ready seep st ruted ¢pres “(9 =>pE6) pres) a8. pue Aq aoesoduar ye aaa fey, “woutasour smug 2xp 20 sitouraxou se9 “Supiom “iuownou eroqy amp se ypns “suowanous sqeaxozox AfeI08 4 poBuajpeyoun pourewo2 suosoqs pur Gojosps pepoduar ‘soajosusoep sojodonats 2tp unpea mp wey otp sy Supsosoauy Semone “2youoq PIne> PHiom 2 yoRyn woy sonqer Susy pue pooyzar osm 03 ss2008 sey Gopos sepnonsed e wep soyfaq orp sureureur eep Grorpmie SusrpuesBBe-yos sep jo 1omod snormbign pue punosoad oxp sf 31 (zg #¢661) xovenedied sx pur msrqeuiodan jo umnors op usemaeg pasodionm Sioqne SunetiSt10 ‘yor BuzspuesSie-yas jo sunfax Lzoveognsnt e, Sindopassp q eapt snp saunasgo yerp aonoesd arp pure f2oueuTuop ot aYBLt ayp nok seats fos fo Sowa xax0 axe or Spmroddo pat samod ap wep eopt Srp suusqeyoduyy jo smedse popes Afeyeumur ang q00x9yTp Ar2A om somadeo pemuor “(2g £661) POsTUO|OD orp 1940 soNEMIOP onoRPE (03 s9pso ut ooeld 361g ofp UT palonnsuos sex 21 qo waK “eopr snp souoxos pue uowsfus Jo eapy s.wsqeuodus jo donned Sugasnl yes atp &q paunoapar st asyeriodan ip soy -iampmy dows uo exp soe uondwapas jo vapt amp up “preg sles Ssonbuco xia1-2204 JO cans 2p wo poses are om JL “(18 #€661 PRES) POPE amp wl JoTPG UPI ue pur ftapy ue ang oussaad jeauoUNAUDs e OU fat fo yoeG aA 2 Kap UY “Aquo eapt axp st, “pesto 03 Suxpzoose ‘ssa001d feroduur otf suroapoz sey “usyeuadust jo wowstur arp sogsn{ yep (post Aammeuny jo ssour oaprend om oum ures oop a st a ‘amr sdeyiod 10 “yBaorp was2) surorsgy asoqp jo ssouoxnnupid Joismuys asoumye oxp st 24 pue ‘souEKL -odxa fea, fue weep soypes (wase2Uo1IG 02 sosso0oad sy ut septs Lzon sap eouy Sumow}, jo des v's wip) wsTNEBY Jo LoMpen v Jo no ouioo StROLY s,pesuoD ‘suondumsse SusTeIo) sit BEM oye ‘uy opem ayqainout sex usyerodar sep Jeqq sty wsyepoday-pue coe sea ay yBnowpye 105 Soadsox spp uy Supeumsey st peso ydosof (S1 #5981) pres pure auBnorp waeq seq FHP 3994 aA, TPES smoutluouls se ‘osemyd 5 ploury aowiepy Ur “Poxtooue> oq 0} PuHeD FPA ypRp ‘myo weodommg Aq porroddns pae ur wasard sem asus Sup Jo wpnyy “9p 07 voneFiygo pur wyBis sow Jo asuas Suyyoduuoo © (pin porezodo sisqeuodur “(og sepee1 pres) uM om [Ty PINON per qsySeg am amomun “" ee pue sm wo toReuTEOP yooeq oym sotdood pur soqsoxpzioy axe asoup reyp ‘sn sosmbar etpuy osne32q, eIpuy uy ouom YSN OMB 2eKR pores oH “(EL-—90S1) TEN UES mgof saqdosoryd ysysing 24] | usieqieg UF aso], suoneE 950% apt C2 axp an 244 amp Ajuo zou aey suoned yerredua 2p wonow ip st smyy “uorssm Sumsypap orp Jo stonow paowopuros Ajonsseeur Inq ‘paoid ajdings ou sy azoup wromp sdoay sexy “24a pre 2 2007 “Cuno = cau osow sou op Kou ‘pasoauyar (puerstion ‘sastidiarue omeuroxsks ae oxp emp 81 “preg 02 Burpaoooe ‘qezy ayp 40 ystueds otp x0 wELHOY ap woy somduo wademg wrpour ap soqsmBunsp aya, “(OE svagi aay 9B@B KEY IDEAS very little regard to the violence and injustices of the political institu- tions of the society within which they are conceived. The ideas about inferior races (‘niggers’) or colonial expansion held by writers such as did their really important w has a deep investment in the political characte by heroes or radicals all the g y ‘whose function is to keep things going, keep things in being’ (1976: 34). The conservative and anonymous nature of cultural formations explains something of the uncontested and very complicated interrela- tionship between culture and political ideology. In time, ‘culture comes to be associated, often aggressively, with the nation or the states thi differentiates “us” from “them”, mate dominant cultural and political ideologies focused on the nation or the empire. This is precisely the way Orientalists and Orientalist discourse work to consolidate the imperial dominance of Europe, Cultuze is both a function of and a source of identity, and chis explains the return to some form of cultural traditionalism in post- colonial societies, often in the form of religious or national imperial hegemony (see p. Gauri Viswanathan’s well good example of ne of the most s. The continuing such resistance is that 2 decolonising culture, by becoming monist in its rhetoric, often identifying strongly with reli- gious oF national fundamentalism, may tend to take over the hegemonic function of imperial culture. By ‘culture’ Said means: * all those practices, like the arts of description, communication and Fepresentation, which have relative autonomy from the economic, social and political realms, and which offen exist in aesthetic forms, one of whose principal aims is pleasure (1993: xii), that includes a refining and elevating element, each society's reservoir of the best that has been known and thought, as Matthew Arnold put it in the 1860s (1993: xii). Said’s view of culture here appears to be somewhat different from Raymond Williams's definition of culture as ‘a whole way of life’ (195: difficult to see how 2 community’ separated from its economic, social and political practices, all of which help constitute However, it is at the objects of study of the human sciences are cultural ideas and systems, in which they shaze very litle with, say, the natural sciences Said’s conception of culture sometimes seems contradictory because his own preferences scem inexorably and paradoxically drawn existing in a realm beyon Said refers to Raymond but one who demonstrates a limit ature is mainly about England. This works of literature are autonomous, vworldliness references in his feeling that English liter- associated with the idea that 's concept of the text's rate and consolidate the practice of empi culture nor imperialism is inert, and so the conn: 2s historical experiences are dynamic and complex’ In its most general sense, imperialism refe ‘empire, and as such as been an aspect of the formation of an periods of history in cuttur AS IMPERIALISM 89ig WSIIV/usem1 sy 3unLINg sp “sseooud peuodu Sunexajaooe amp jo fem ayn uy pues Aposes Koxp ‘2smuoj09 pure amo o3 01 ajdoad asueo you op syoxou Ynowpyy ; apeeret ox JO 2smeo oMp uy Senepres-sos “wilasos0s weutiox tpog seadde 07 opeur st p1oqpne Jo voREpHOSMOD A, pue Sve wt s0UDIsHKS OU Seq JOIBOUE Duo o} s|>xou BemsouT0D ‘panog “(06 £661) amoy 1 soMod ayqereduroo Jo Suppoy ox wun peosge aFopatd pue zomod jo Suapjoy axp poudqe srstjenon “samod ysarig Jo ypeD: seaS10K0 aFeA xP JO sola postreqors » paidanse Xmas (pUsaUU-pR dep Jo As[pA0N YsASEG | PAR, (68 #€661) souiorsion svassoxo Jo mora Suuasemun ue s908 sopra “pit pue sonqea yst Seg jo Aaresxoarun soumemos pue AxqenuaD ap jo uordumese we qin Suory “pliom orp pue purefiug anoge sapmcie ple suomdzoxed soxopa aangennos ‘ur ayedoned syosou no © Jo WoROU ssURATA wo SupmoL0g (gs :s66t) ,2oejd ur sso] 10 axow aarduxa a dooy, 1 nq ‘eopr snp anoge suonsonb Yee 03 ou st ‘axoKEOYR-TY “HOR axaqmas[a punoy 100 fen. © ur foaou axp ur poremonze pur poreuogey> sem easteradwar YSU jo zamod poops sfpenunuo> pue ojgemp amp ‘my “pondspun {Aqqena.ai sem Komtao yptroarautu op Suump jpaow ysySaq axa jo oouew -fwop pue ast oyp ‘suonnansur jeraparjarur padoyaaap AqqBiy Suour pey sory 2qryis 03 ‘onuaoO|Suy Ayeroed sem UH] sap ‘az0ursoKpINY G8 ‘€661) so1po wes mom aiqomuRAI ox usqeUOduT puL = astos peoug ayp ur amano arp 40 — [aAou stp erp 04 casiesraduat 01 Souspuar arp Bur{tzapun uonesiguo dasoo © ‘oipo o1p wo ‘pur ‘puey 2uo axp UO JasoN amp Jo aannapsuoo Aapompne oaneireu jo suzoned ap woomtoq aous8LOAtI09 [euapppoe wiosy 29 up 298 [eqs om, 4 02 astz SupasS sosqnduar arp Apnas rae af mows am se jano! ueadommg ous axmip, sada anor ‘ul ‘omneoaq saramn> yeuodun jo sisMjene s,preg 02 souezodu, 01 291 (z¢ “€661) af pasnse1d oy se pue a pastioqur 2% ‘unsoy Can ath ut 34844 pogriosur st, awoumSse s_per40c) ‘apiiog & jo ano aBessoux © ay, oaow otp jo ano pang 30% ‘urursopos, moyputos se vaserrodu putyog ,e2Pt, 2xf UO UNOUEW wpm at sung fo sie4y Spero UE 9uO oip. MTT soBesseg 2UIdW3 ONY 1ZAON BHL aamayno jo Aaqesraarun axp an0qe puroroqa peordsopyn pie snopeunn arp. a2ess ou wor wy euLxopit zo Tee} ‘drysuontyox amp sy ade * {a0 sum, aumsip © uo syuouTopes jo Sunueyduay o¢p, st pA woy rounssp sssoord v “(g 2¢661) Aroreio WES & mypodonou: Supeaymop © jo sopmme exp pus “Goamp ‘sonsed mp, fn] 204 wstjerroduy “amano jo sHaYS aanse axp soxyon ApEyHods ep ago st Saxomoy “wsqeodiy so wopTugsp SPIES ‘swoneU Butmog “Biou [psoas 40 90 z240 woReumOp sak PopuaAN? Sey] HORT 940 YOM Sv301 434 06@ KEY IDEAS operation of the novels without any recourse to a mete-narrative of empire fs an excellent demonstration of the worldliness of the texts and their affiations to a range of social and cultural realities. For this svorld-liness, this locatedness of the novels, is itsf the demonstration of the pervasiveness of imperialism. CONTRAPUNTAL READING Because the underlying ‘structure of attitude and reference’ examined by Said bes no existence outside the novels themselves, they must be read in a particular way to illuminate this structure. Consequently, Said’s most innovative contribution to identifying the nature of the ‘dense interrelationship between European culture and the imperial enterprise is his formulation of a mode of reading thet he calls ‘contra- puntal’. This method is particularly relevant to reading novels, since the novel had a unique relationship with the imperial process, but contrapuntal reading is not limited to novels. CONTRAPUNTAL READING This is 2 form of ‘reading back’ {com the perspective of the colonised, to show how tbe submerced but crucial prasonce of the empire emerges in canonical texts. As we begin t6'reas, not univocelly but contrapuntal, swith a simultanoous awareress both of the metropolitan history and of those other subjected ard concealed histories against which the domi= nant sigeourse acts (198: $8), we obtain a very diferent sense of what ie ‘going on in the text “We read a text contrapuntally, for example, ‘when we read it with an ‘understanding of what is involved when an author shows, for instance, ‘hat 2 colonial sugar plantation is seen as important to the process of maintaining a particular style of life in England’ (1993: 78). Contrapuntality emerges out of the tension and complexity of Said’s own identity, that text of self that he is continually writing, because it involves a continual dialogue between the different and sometimes apparently contradictory dimensions of his own woridliness "The idea for contrapuntal reading came from Said’s admiration for the Canadian virtuoso pianist Glenn Gould, a person who ‘exemplified contrapuntal performance’ (Robbins et al. 1994: 21) in his ability to elaborate intricately 2 particular musical theme. Contrapuntal reading fs @ technique of theme and variation by which a counterpoint is fesablished berween the imperial narrative and the post-colonial perspective, 2 ‘counter-narrative’ that keeps penetrating beneath the surface of individual texts to elaborate she ubigutous presence of ‘imperialism in canonical culture. As Sed points out, jasscal music, various themee play off one sg2 being given to any particular one: yet ized interplay (1960: 50-60) Contrapuntal reading takes both (or all) dimensions of this polyphony {nté account, rather than the dominant one, in order to discover what a univocal reading might conceal about the political worldliness of the ‘canonical text. Sach a reading aims particularly to reveal the pervasive constitative power of imperialisin to those texts, since the empire ‘functions for rach of de European insteenthcenary a cof, i only margin ally visible, presence in fiction’ (1993: 75). ite the process of makin thit code visible that becomes the business of contrapuntal ra which reads the texts of the canon ‘as a polyphonic accompaniment to the expansion of Europe’ (1993: 71). Approaching the constitative nature of imperialism polyphonically in this way involves taking into account the perspectives of both imperial anti-imperial resist- ance. This avoids a ‘rhetoric of blame’ by revealing the intertwined and ing histories of metropolitan and formerly colonised societies 1993: 19). Once we discern the ‘massively Knotted and complex Listories of special but nevertheless overlapping and interconnected experiences — of women, of Westerners, of Blacks, of national states and cultures’ (1993: 36), we can avoid the reductive and essentilising division of categories of social life, and consequently avoid the thetoric of blame that emerges from such reductiveness. Cultural experience and cultural forms are ‘radically, quintessentially hybrid’ claims Said (1993; 68), and although it has been the practice in Western philosophy ‘to isolate the aesthetic and cultural realms from the worldly domain, ‘it CULTURE AS IMPERIALISM 939 WSIviszew Sv auNLIND uodun ap jo sSuprupdiopun porpdesBoo8 jemse axp ‘suremcop jer -ydesBoo$ ‘spuey ‘soizonrzioy, aze sa2eds, jemajno pur [eos Suysuopup, ‘pestseqdurezos0 9q routes souicatziar pastuojoo arp uodn aourespax STL ‘ea :c861) irom wou, souRuTIuOP TEmy|NS Jo woRs9sFe a 0} wounsed reponse sf uonmou sul “ssmoosp peorydos ond pur Suzuue pouowsy uonsy wonsogy wt Korea jo Sun rey pur Buiddeur peonosoorp ap ‘uonow porydeaSoa8 xp s10u o2 palsy ‘neq ‘soastoq preg ‘ssejoqos Czesoyy pue suerzo3sTy [earayn wsoWy ‘FI Sy Jo 3901 105 2f toy paypxo u99q sey 9y 20uIS 20M s;preg uy RopKopered suqEHOL IHR Aoqeas peoot ® ‘wontiuesaxdar sy sono a[S8nans ava pur KydexBoo® x20] ‘ut ponsoaur dqseay ssouoaiouoo © t SRL (QE ‘9261 SSaUEI2.DUCD 9Igt “oqum youre we suey eR AFF JO SULLY pur seoUatIOdso oyoods aie ‘oj suonoensqe ou dre wisrferadur pue waeRIOION “(9E jeteduut jo suoneiodo arp woxy payperep aq 1ommea exe auosod osoym pue “wiseruofoo Jo sar arp se opgsBeT ova SaBzep 53 Gorey axopou asoqm pom stp jo azed v, toss souroo aq¢3e%p wt “aOR od [ERED uno sty jo ,ssoUTPTLOM, jeopxopered axp ‘Soop UaI}O 0s 94, se ‘sossauns ay ‘MapAsO3U Sp] “OZ. 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