— Sta lnc UNISA Mechanical Engineering Design IT Study guide 1 of 1 Chapters 1 to 9 MEE231-VMECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN II MEE231VEnse PO Box 382, UNISA, 0003 Copyright © Unisa 2005 In tems ofthe Copyright Act 98 of 1978 no part of ths matenal may be reproduced, be stored 2a etneval system, be transmied or used m any form or be published, redisvibuled or screened by ‘any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recorting oF otherwrse) without the pror writen ‘permission of Unisa, However permission fous mn tse ways any materal i ts werk tha © ‘derived trom other sources must be obtained from the ongmnal sources. Printed n South Area by UnisaMECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN IL STUDY GUIDE 1 MEE231VE COMPILED BY: T. VAN WYK MODERATED BY: D. ION UeC Prayer es YP 10. i. 12. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN IT MEE231VE CONTENTS THE DESIGN PROCESS MATERIAL SELECTION ROD CONNECTIONS RIVETED JOINTS. CIRCULAR SHAFTS KEYS, SPLINES AND COUPLINGS PLAIN BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION SPUR GEARS FASTENERS AND BOLTED CONNECTIONS ANNEXURE A: LIST OF SYMBOLS ANNEXURE B: VISCOSITY GRAPHS ANNEXURE C: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF A SELECTION OF STEELS PAGE 122 19 42 nr 91 109 126 144 162 169 171 MEE231VE 1 ContentsCOURSE OBJECTIVE: TO MASTER THE PROCESS OF COMBINING YOUR IMAGINATION, CREATIVITY, AS WELL AS KNOWLEDGE OF VARIOUS OTHER TOPICS IN ORDER TO FIND A SOLUTION TO A PROBLEM. MEE231VE ifPRESCRIBED BOOK JG. Drotsky & J.P Terblanche. Mechanical Engineering Design. 1" Edition Publishers: Tech books. ISBN: 06201-789-22 MEE231 VE. iii Prescribed BookCHAPTER 1 THE DESIGN PROCESS CONTENTS PAGE 1.1. INTRODUCTION 3 1.2. THE DESIGN PROCESS STEPS 5 MEE231VE “I ” ChapterlOBJECTIVE: To be able to conduct a simple design without calculations, MEE231VE. 2 Chapter1.14. INTRODUCTION THE MEANING OF DESIGN To design means to formulate a plan, usmg a systematic method, for the satisfaction of a human need. This also means that you should design something to be reliable and easily maintamable. The design, and the material used for it should also be readily available. A design problem can either be well defined, for example, a gear 1s giving trouble, redesign it so it can work better, or it can require considerable thought and effort m order to state the problem clearly, for example: many people are killed in aeroplane accidents. A second type of design situation 1s characterised by the fact that neither the need nor the problem has been identified. Examples of these are clothing design, computer-aided design, machine design, ete. In contrast to mathematical problems, design problems have no unique answers. A good answer today may tum out to be a bad answer tomorrow In our day-to-day living, most people are involved with design in one way or the other, The problem of designing a family excursion can be considered. The children would like to go on a picnic, dad would like to make a braat and mum would prefer to go to a restaurant. As these needs and desires are related to ume and money, vanous solutions may be found. Of these there may be one or more optimal solutions, but the solution chosen will include the menu, the transportation method if needed, name of venue, if necessary, etc. It 1s not difficult to see that there many complex factors involved in finding a solution to a problem. There are also many constrants, such as time and money, which must be taken into account. MEE231VE ChapterlWHAT IS MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN (MACHINE DESIGN)? Mechamal design means the design of things and systems of a mechanical nature (machines, products, structures, ete.) Most engineering courses are based on science. One of the most important aims of design subjects 1s to teach the student how to utilise all the theoretical knowledge learned in other subjects in a logical and systematic way to solve a particular problem. In most other subjects, when a problem 1s encountered, you immediately start to solve st. Design differs from other subjects 1n that knowledge and understanding of various topics are required and combined to produce a solution to a problem. In Engineering Design the necessity of understanding exactly the nature of the problem or project will be emphasised. Design involves more than science only, as indicated in the figure below THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE Experiential traning Strength of Materials Thermodynamics SKILL Creativity Imagination Fluid Mechanics Inventiveness Economics Law Figure 1.1 Design 1s the one subject in which the student will be encouraged to use his/her imagination and creativity This 1s a very important part of design and can only be improved by exercise. ‘MEE231VE Chapter!The design process therefore entails the establishment of a concept, using creative skills, ‘This concept 1s then divided into smaller components that can be solved using the knowledge gained in relevant subjects as shown above. Some of these smaller components may require additional knowledge of other subyects such as Electronics, of which you may not have sufficient know-how It 1s very important for you to recognise your own limitations and know when to request assistance from persons with the necessary additional skills. In practice more than one person will be involved in a design project, therefore teamwork will be of utmost importance. Design processes are not limited to staff in a design office. For example, a maintenance engineer recognising a problem may suggest a solution to such a problem and this could constitute the most important part of the whole design process. If you have an idea for solving the problem, you are already half way there. Dunng the execution of a certain design one should not expect the same results from the various groups of students, which 1s generally the case in other subjects, There can be as many varying results as there are students in a class, as the basic concepts of their designs may differ. The results of a design may vary from poor to excellent, It 1s sometimes difficult to predict the effectiveness of a design and this can only be determined after the design has been implemented in practice for some time. 1.2. THE DESIGN PROCESS STEPS The engineenng design process consists of six steps or stages. If you implement through these steps when doing a design, the chance of you forgetting something important will defimtely decrease. At the end of every stage a decision must be made whether continuation to the next stage 1s justified or whether a return to the previous stage 1s necessary This 1s dependent on whether the objectives of the previous stage have been met or not, A design process seldom advances from one stage to the next without going back to previous stages to eliminate shortcomings. Thus should not be considered as a waste of time or a failure but as a built-n mechanism to ensure that the design 1s improved as the process continues. MEE231VE Chapter!DESIGN PROCESS STEPS ‘STEP 1; IDENTIFICATION PROBLEM STEP 2: GATHERING OF INFORMATION STEP 4: PRELIMENARY IDEAS EVALUATION OF IDEAS IMPLEMENTATION OF THE DESIGN hb | MEE231VE ~6- Chapter]1.21 Step Identification of the problem Generally problems remain unresolved when actions are taken without ensuring that the problem or the origin of the problem 1s understood. Initially the actual problem may not be obvious and only symptoms are apparent to the staff involved. At this stage one should keep an open mind and attempt to see not only the problem but also to understand its relationship with its environment, Sometimes a small adjustment ot alteration outside the problem area may eliminate or alleviate a symptom that was thought to be a problem, thereby preventing mayor undertaking. Once a problem 1s understood, 1t must be formulated in writing. Objectives to be met, specific requirements, unacceptable conditions and factors to be considered when the eventual performance of the designed object 1s to be evaluated, must be noted and written down, An example of a typical problem 1s that of a production manager of a canning plant who complains that he produces large quantities of waste which 1s building up on the production floor as he has no effective means of getting rid of 1. This problem needs to be analysed and discussed im order to determine what the real problem 1s and what to do about it. MEE231VE CChapterla) Statement of the problem The problem should be stated clearly in one sentence. If this 1s not possible, then the problem 18 not understood clearly The statement of the problem consists of three basic components. ‘These are explained in the example below’ ‘Inthe first part of the sentence the ‘what needs to be done’ should be addressed, The purpose of this proyect is to design a conveyor belt with supporting structure Second the standard, code or principles on which the design will be based must be stated. According to the SABS 0162 Structural steel code ‘Finally the goal to be achieved or ‘why the design needs to be done’ 1s answered. So that the removal of 0,1 m’/sec of waste products from the canning plant can be maintained. (b) The sub-problems Some design projects will be too large to be handled by a single person. It 1s possible to divide projects into smaller sub-projects that will be easier to comprehend and solve. Sub- problems also assist to focus attention on specific problems at hand. Each sub-problem should be a complete project. The sub-problems for the problem above are: ‘Sub-problem 1. Design a conveyor belt with a total travel of 25m that can handle 0,1 m/sec of waste products from the canmng plant. ‘Sub problem 2: Design a structure for the conveyor belt with an inlet 2.5 m above ground level and outlet 3.5 m above ground level. MEE231VE : ~~ Chapterl(©) Delimitations In the problem statement and sub-problems the designer states exactly what will be done, It 1s also very umportant that the designer specifies what he does not intend to do. The delimtations for our example could be: The design will not mcorporate: 1. A variable speed for the conveyor 2. A mean whereby the structure can be moved from one place to another. (@ Assumptions The factors that will be taken for granted and that will not be incorporated into the design must also be clearly stated, for example: 1 the existing floor will be able to carry the structure. 2. the need for waste removal will stay constant at 0,1 m'/see 1.2.2. Step 2: Gathering of information In most subjects enough information 1s normally given in a problem to enable one to solve the problem without requiring additional information. In design and defimtely m real world situations this 1s not the case and therefore the gathering of relevant information 1s not always that obvious. The first important source of information 1s people. Information can be gathered from the people who will be volved with the final product, people who were previously involved in a similar project and representatives from various supply companies, Another important source 1s written material. This normally includes catalogues, reports, experimental data and design magazines. You can also look at similar designs made by other MEE231 VE. Chapter!engineers. By studying what they did and what mistakes were made, you can ensure that you do not make the same design. When collecting data you might find that your imital problem statement was not complete. Do not hesitate to alter the problem statement to elimmate uncertainties. This process of amending previous stages 1s very important and eliminates the possibility of mayor changes in your design at the final stage because of an initial misconception. 1.2.3 Step 3: Preliminary ideas ‘This 1s where your imagination and creativity plays a mayor role, Try to think of a number of different ways in which to solve your problem, Make sketches of your different ideas and vwnite down their advantages and disadvantages. Do not limit yourself by considering only traditional designs. If you work in a group, brainstorming sessions can be scheduled at which everyone involved can have a chance to explain his/her ideas and all the ideas can be discussed in detail so that the best ideas can be selected. No negative comments should be allowed. These ideas, with sketches, should be written down for future references. 1.2.4 Step 4: Evaluation of ideas Select the best ideas or combine some of the ideas from the previous stage, to create new possibilities. Preliminary calculations and a discussion with the end user of your design will now help to eliminate some of the ideas. Factors such as cost and availability of matenals, use of standard components and manufacturing techniques required should also be considered to lift out the best idea on which your design will be based. MEE231VE =10- ‘Chapter!12.5 Step Analysis ‘At this stage the physical sizes and dimensions of various components must be calculated. The most important tool 1s calculations based on the theory of various engineering subjects. This knowledge will be ganed from the following Chapters in this course. As your theoretical and practical knowledge improves, your engineering intuition will also improve. Before you calculate an unknown value, try to estimate the value. If the calculated answer 1s not of the same order or magnitude as your estimation, you should check your reasoning and calculations. Be entical of your answers. There are also other means for determining unknown values. These include experiments, testing of models and testing of prototypes. Sophisticated tools for analysis are also available on the computer and include the finite element method, heat transfer and fluid flow analysis using finite volume method, 1.2.6 Step 6: Implementation of the design The graphical representation of your design started off with rough sketches and will now advance to detailed working drawings. These drawings will commumeate your final design to your customer and to the people involved in the manufacturing process. Documentation on starting up procedures, mechanics, adjustments, maintenance requirements and other relevant information should also be compiled. Time and money will normally put mayor restrictions on your design, tempting you to take shortcuts. Try to avoid this and adhere to the steps outlined above as they have proved themselves to produce the best results. MEE231VE “I Chapter!CHAPTER 2 MATERIAL SELECTION CONTENTS PAGE 2.1. INTRODUCTION 13 2.2. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESS 13 2.2.1 Cost, availability and mass 13 2.2.2 Strength 4 2.2.3 Factor of safety (n) 15 2.2.4 Stiffness of a material 16 2.2.5 Fatigue 16 2.2.6 High temperature applications 16 2.2.7 Weldability 17 2.2.8 Corrosion 7 2.3 DESIGN MATERIALS 18 MEE231VE -12- ~~ Chapter 2OBJECTIVE: To obtain a knowledge of the charactenistics of various materials and their behaviour under specific working conditions. 2.1. INTRODUCTION The selection of the correct materials 1s one of the most cnitical decisions in the design process. It 1s also one of the most difficult decisions because of the large vanety of materials available. 2.2. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESS Only the baste considerations for material selection will be considered in this chapter. The following books can be studied on this subject: 1, Machine Design for Engineering Technicians - V.R, Hamilton 2. Mechanical Engineering Design (4" Edition) - J.B, Shigley and L.D Mitchell 2.2.1 Cost, availability and mass Cost, availability and mass will always be important factors, especially in those cases where there are no special material requirements. If you plan to manufacture and sell the product that you are designing, it 1s necessary to consider using the most cost effective material as well as material that 1s readily available. As the product needs to be transported at a cost per kilogram, rt 1s also necessary to look at using matenal with a low mass. It1s also advisable to select the most basic matenal for a specific application m order to avoid undesirable phenomena normally associated with sophisticated special purpose materials, Example: When you design a pallet for transportation of heavy components from a supplier to a customer, you need a material that 1s light (as you pay transportation fees per kilogram), MEE231VE =13- Chapter 2strong (because it must carry heavy components) and mexpensive. The best choice would be aluminium as it 1s light and strong although i 1s more expensive than other metals. It 1s not always possible to find a material that has all the night properties. When designing a container to carry nuts and bolts in, 1t makes more sense to use a light ‘matenal, such as plastic, otherwise you may pay more 1n transportation for the container than for its contents. It 1s also not necessary to use a material as strong as steel for this container as it 1s not necessary for it to be very strong. 2.2.2 Strength Strength and rigidity are factors that will influence the sizes of the various components 1n a design STRESS. ° STRESS A Su Su Sy Sy € STRAIN 0,002 (@) The stress-stram (b)__ The stress-strain diagram for ductile materials diagram for brittle matenals Figure 2.1 Typical tension test graphs for these types of materials are shown in figures 2.1(a) and (b). The ultimate (tensile) strength (Sy or Sy) in both cases corresponds to point A as indicated in the figures. For a ductile material, figure 2.1(a), the tensile yield strength (Sy) corresponds to MEE231VE 14. Chapter 2point B. For a compression test the corresponding value 1s termed the compression yield strength (Syc). Matensals are normally classified as being either ductile or brittle. Materials with a percentage elongation of less than 10 % or with a Brinell hardness larger than 300, are classified as being brittle. In the case of a bnittle material, figure 2.1(b), where there 1s no apparent yield point, a 0,1 % or 0,2 % offset on the strain axis results in a stress value termed the proof strength or offset yreld strength, Sy (tenston) or Sye (compression). If a material 1s subjected to torsion the corresponding value 1s termed the torsional yield strength (Sy). High strength materials are available with some steels having an ultimate tensile strength of 1550 MPa and more. A stee! should never be used in its maximum strength condition, Le. as quenched, but should be tempered back sufficiently to obtan the necessary toughness required. 2.2.3 Factor of safety (n) Components are often misused or accidentally subjected to stresses greater than the design stress. Most materials have internal flaws, which will gradually propagate if the induced stresses are too large. A factor of safety 1s used to reduce the possibility of unexpected failure of a component, due to one of the above-mentioned and other factors. The allowable working stress (6) of a component can be based on the ultimate strength: o=Se 21 s ‘The more favoured method 1s to base the allowable working stress on the yield strength and to apply one of the theontes of elastic failure, oat 22 s Where S represents the yield strength m tension, compression or shear, depending on the specific case. MEE231VE -15- Chapter 22.2.4 Stiffness of a material If the extension or compression in a member due to a load disappears on removal of the load, then the material 1s said to be elastic, Most metals are clastic over a limited range of stress known as the elastic range. Most elastic materials obey Hooke’s law: ‘the strain 1s directly proportional to the applied stress’ ‘Thus: stress strain = constant, E Sek e The stiffness of a material 1s determined by its clastic modulus. Since most steels have approximately the same elastic modulus, they have approximately the same stiffness and there will be no gain in stiffness when substituting an inexpensive low carbon steel with an expensive alloy steel. ‘The elastic moduli of plastics are much smaller than steel, hence much thicker sections are required to carry, for instance, the same load m bending, The weight of the plastic required can however be reduced by placing a light core (e.g. honey comb) between two polymer plates. Carbon fibre layers could further strengthen this. 22.5 Fatigue ‘A metal subjected to repeated loading fails at a stress level below the ultimate tensile stress. The term "fatigue failure" 1s applied to such a fracture. The fatigue strength 1s measured by the number of repetitions of stress before fracture occurs. 2.2.6 High temperature applications Two main considerations apply for high temperature applications, namely high temperature strength and oxidation resistance. Most steels are suitable for use up to 350 °C. Above this temperature a loss in yield strength and elastic properties will occur and creep becomes significant. For use above 350 °C molybdenum can be added as alloying element to impart MEE231VE, -16- Chapter 2improved creep resistance, while temperature exceeding 500 °C, chromium as alloying element 1s required to provide oxidation resistance It 1s an important consideration that the operating temperature of quenched and tempered steels should be at least 50 °C lower than the tempering temperature, 2.2.7 Weldability Weldability of the matenal can m some cases be an important selection criterion. For steels the weldability 1s determined by the carbon equivalent (CE) for which the formula 1s as follows: %Mn , %Cr+V+Mo , %Cu+Ni 5 15 CE=%C+ 23 Asa general guide the following applies: CE<0,41 No special precautions required CE. 0,41-0,45 Low hydrogen electrodes or pre-heat CE> 0,45 Low hydrogen electrodes and pre-heat CE>08 Special procedures required 2.28 Corrosion Many forms of corrosion are active under different conditions, such as: Atmospheric corrosion in air, natural water and the soil (referred to as rusting in ordinary steels). Stress corrosion cracking 18 confined to specific alloy/environment combinations, e.g. brasses in ammonia, austenitic stainless steels in chlonde contammg media, high strength aluminium in humid aur and carbon steel in concentrated caustic, MEE231VE, -17- Chapter 2Pitting 1s a localised attack, mostly on the passive matenals, e.g. stanless steels and aluminum, Intergranular corrosion often takes place along sensitised grain boundaries and an important case in hand 1s some welded austenitic and fernitic stainless steels in slightly corrosive media. Galvanic corrosion can occur where materials with substantial difference m corrosion tendencies are coupled m suitable media, Crevice corrosion ~ in many respects similar to pitting, DESIGN MATERIALS The South African Institute of Steel Construction drew up a handbook to provide current practical information to assist 1n the use of steel in design and construction. In this handbook up to date information 1s given on steel, steel products and sections available in South Africa, Throughout the Machine Design MEE231VE notes, standard sizes and dimensions are given where needed for calculation purposes. Any student who wants more knowledge on the available products and their dimensions 1s referred to the handbook above. The particulars of this handbook are as follows: South African Steel Construction Handbook (Limit States Design). 1992. Second Edition. Compiled and Published by the South African Institute of Steel Construction. CTP Book Printers, Cape Town. ISBN 0 620 16464 6. MEE231VE -18- Chapter 2CHAPTER 3 ROD CONNECTIONS, CONTENTS PAGE 3.1. INTRODUCTION 20 3.2. THE KNUCKLE JOINT 20 3.3. THE COTTERED JOINT 30 3.4 SELF-STUDY 40 MEE231VE -19- Chapter 3OBJECTIVE Using jomts with some freedom of movement in order to aid the servicing, disassembling etc, of machine parts. 3.1. INTRODUCTION ‘What 1s a rod connection and what 1s it used for? In order to make it easter to remove, service or disassemble certain machine parts, they can be connected using the knuckle joint or the cottered jot. Sometimes these connections are designed to be the weakest link in an assembly This helps prevent failure or damage to more expensive components, as this connection will fail first. In this course we will look at two different connections. The first, called a knuckle joint, 1s an example of a connector where freedom of movement 1s possible. The second connection, called a cottered jomnt, 1s a rigid connection where no freedom 1s allowed. 3.2. THE KNUCKLE JOINT What 1s a knuckle joint? The knuckle jomt 15 used to connect two bars that require a small axial movement in one plane, The joint consists of 3 parts, that 1s: The single eye forged with rod A The double eye o fork forged with rod B The pin which connects the two parts A and B MEE231VE -20- Chapter3The following symbols apply" F Axtal load 4 Diameter of the solid rods $s Double shear factor (use 1,75 unless otherwise stated) 4; Pin diameter 4; Outside diameter of eye- and fork ends ds Diameter of pin head t Thickness of eye end t1 Thickness of holed part of fork ends ty Thickness of solid part of fork ends (curved portion) ts; Thickness of pn head dy Mean diameter of taper pin Figure 3.1: Knuckle joint MEE231VE -21- Chapter 3Where do we use knuckle jomts? Knuckle jomts are to be found in the te bars of a roof truss, links of a suspension bridge and the valve mechanisms of reciprocating engines. Tie bars of a roof truss. Figure 3.2: Knuckle jotnt on a roof truss. ‘What forces work in on knuckle joints? There are many different forces working 1n on a knuckle joint. Any one of these forces or a combination thereof can result in the failure of the joint. The following 1s a list of all these stresses and the relevant symbols: Su Ultumate tensile stress (pulling stress) Sic Ultumate compressive stress (pushing stress) Ss Ultimate shear stress S, Yield stress o Allowable tensile stress 6- Allowable compressive stress Allowable shear stress F Axtal load MEE231VE -22- Chapter 3How do you design a knuckle joint? In order to design a joint, 1e. to determine its dimensions, one should take into account the stresses that the jomt 1s likely to encounter. To help with this issue, the following set of formulas was developed: To calculate the factor of safety ela Double shearing of the pin: dy xsxt ‘Tearing of the single eye: F=(d,-d,)txo, Crushing between eye end and pin F=d,xtxo, ‘Tearing of double fork end: F=(4,-4))ty x0, x2 Crushing between pin and double fork end: F=2xd,xt, x0, 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 MEE231VE, -23- Chapter 3‘Tearmg of curved section (solid part) of fork: F=2xbxt,xo, 38 The following standard ratios are applicable. These can be used as a control to check whether your answers are correct, or where it 1s not really practical to calculate a specific size, for example the thickness of the pinhead. d= rod diameter (this should be calculated with formulas) a= 07d b= 12d 4; = d_ (recommended but not compulsory) 4 = 24 4 = sd dy = 0,15d (mean diameter with a taper of | 5) t 1d t= O,75d b= 06d b = 0,2d to 0,34 MEE231VE “2A Chapter 3EXAMPLE 3.1 A knuckle joint 1s used to connect two bars with a tensile load of 120 KN (dead load). The single eye and fork end are made of a medium carbon steel with a carbon content of 0,3 % (normalised). ‘The pin 1s made of mild steel and a double shear factor of 2 may be assumed. Design a suitable joint and compare the calculated dimensions with the standard ratio dimensions. Assume a factor of safety of 3 and the following ultimate stresses: For medium carbon steel: Sy = 480 MPa, Ss. = For mild steel: ‘Su: = 430 MPa, Sx, = 340 MPa and S,< = 430 MPa. Solution How do I start to solve a problem? You start by following a set of ground rules and working through a problem systematically These rules can be applied in all the chapters of this course. The ground rules are the following: 1 Draw up a list of all the information given to you in the problem statement 2. Draw up alist of what 1s asked of you. 3 Find a formula to calculate one of the values in 2 above, using the information given to you. 4, Repeat steps 2 to 4. MEE231VE -25- Chapter 3‘The given information in this example 1s as follows: Eye and fork~> carbon steel Pin—> mild steel Fo = 120kN S = 2 (double shear factor) s = 3 (factor of safety) Sw = 480 MPa Su = 380 MPa (Carbon steel Sy = 480 MPa Su = 430 MPa Su = 340 MPa ld steel Su = 430 MPa The following dimensions must be calculated in order to design a suitable joint. d, di, dh, t th. Investigate the given information and the given formulas and determine what you can calculate first. In this case, the tensile and compressive stresses as well as the shear stress can be calculated for both the fork and eye end and the connecting pin. As stated before, you cannot start designing a joint (calculate dimensions) if you do not know with what stresses it should be able to cope. MEE231VE -26- Chapter 3For fork and eye end 30} ~3 = 143.3 MPp ‘Use the formulas given as well as the calculated stresses and determine the dimensions. To determine the rod diameter (d) use formula 3.2 for rearing of the solid rod F x xa? xo, 4 _ Fed o,xm gx,[120%10° x4 160%10° x x =30,9 mm say 32mm, @ MEE231VE -27- Chapter 3To determine the pin diameter (41) use formula 3.3 for double shear of the pin 2 xtx2 Fx4 mxtx2 2 ___120x10°x4 * x 1133x105 x2 =26 mm a= To calculate the thickness of the eye end (t) use the formula for crushing between eye and pin (formula 3.5) F=d,xtxo, FE “dy xo, 120x10* 0.026 x 143,3%10° 2,2 mm say 33 mn t To calculate the thickness of the cover straps (ty) consider formula 3 7 for crushing of the pin by the fork end F=2xd,xt,xo, 2xd, 12010" 2x 0,026 143,3x10° t, =16. mm. say17 mm, MEE231VE -28- Chapter 3To calculate do use formula 3.6 for tearmg of double fork end F=2(d; -d,)xt, xo, 120%10 = 2(4, ~ 0,026) x 0,017 x160%10° dy 48mm ‘The second part of the question asked you to calculate the dimensions using the formulas for standard ratios. Use a formula as a starting point and work with the standard ratios from there. Try using a different formula than that used above. This will help test all the calculations. Tearing of single eye F=(d; -d,)xtxo, 120% 10° = (d, — 0,026) 0,033 x160x10° 4d, = 48,7 mm d, =49 mm d =32 mm and d; = 32 mm (4; = da) t =11 x32 =35,2 (t= 11d) t, =0,75 x32 =24 mm (t= 0,75d) d)=2x32 = 64 mm (4; = 2d) MEE231VE -29- Chapter 33.3. THE COTTERED JOINT What 1s a cottered joint? This type of yout features a rigid fixing in both planes of a two dimensional set-up (no movement allowed in any direction) ny Y 7 ZA Socket ) (q) cottered joint with enlarged socket (b) socket not enlarged If the load i a rod alternates between tension and compression, usually the end of one rod 18 turned either cylindrically or tapered and fits into a socket on the other rod, the two being connected together by a cotter. The cotter 1s a tapered plate whose width 1s several times its thickness. The ends of cotters should be bevelled so that they do not spread under the hammer blows when driven into position. MEE231VE -30- Chapter 3To force the two ends together it 1s necessary to taper the cotter on one side, the taper being 1 mm to 4 mm per 100 mm. The clearance in the rod 1s on the opposite side to the clearance in the socket, the clearance being approximately 3 mm. The following symbols apply F — Axtal load d Diameter of solid rods dy Inner diameter of socket (diameter of enlarged or not enlarged pierced rod) 4 Outer diameter of socket (not enlarged portion) 4; Outer diameter of the socket (enlarged portion) dy Diameter of collar b Mean breadth of the cotter t Width of the cotter ty Width of the collar bi Width of the enlarged socket bo Mean edge distance of pierce on rod end. The locking effect of this type of connection 1s obtaned by driving the cotter into the pierced rod- and socket ends of the rods to be connected. A clearance of approximately 3 mm (refer to the figure) will ensure a positive locking action, of the cotter and will also ensure that the entire load path 1s via the cotter. ‘How do you design a cottered joint? The same stresses as listed atove for knuckle jomts also apply to the cottered yomts. The formulas used for cottered jounts are the following: ‘MEE231VE 31- Chapter 3Tearing of the solid rod 39 310 Tearing of the socket weakened by the cotter hole F=(2(G 421-4, 4) xt} x0, 311 Double shearing of the cotter F=2(bxt)xt 312 Crushing of the cotter against the pierced rod F=d,xtxo, 3.13 Crushing of the cotter against the socket. For enlarged sockets use formula 3 15, if the socket 1s not enlarged, use formula 3 16. F=(d,-d,)xtxo, 314 F=(d,-d,)xtxo, 315 Shearing of the socket end F=2(d, -d,)xb,xt For enlarged ends 316 F =2%d,—d,)xb xt For ends not enlarged 3.17 MEE231VE -32- Chapter 3Shearing of the pierced rod end F=2xd, xb, xt Circular shear of the collar over the solid shaft Fanxd,xt)xt Crushing between collar and socket end F=2(a}-d?)xo, 318 3.19 The following standard ratios may be used for controlling and drawing purposes: b= 13d b= 0,754 b = 075d dy = 1,21d & = 175d = 242d d= Sd t = 03d t= 08d b = Od 1 = 34 MEE231VE “33- Chapter 3Example 3.2 Design an enlarged socket cottered jomt. The mean width and thickness of the cotter are 80 mm and 20 mm respectively The jomt conneets two circular rods subjected to cyclic push and pull. The allowable safe stresses are as follows: 0; = 46 MPa, t = 40 MPa and <= 90 MPa. Determine the: 1. Safe load 2. Diameter of the pierced rod 3 Outside diameter of the enlarged socket 4, Diameter of the rods. 5 Diameter of the socket end and 6. Diameter of the rod end shoulder. Solution Make a list of all the mformation given to you. bo = 80mm = 0,08 m i. = 20mm = 002m 6, = 46 MPa += 40 MPa 0. = 90 MPa (@) For safe load (F) consider double shearmng of the cotter. (Use a formula where the given data can be substituted to calculate the asked value). F=2(bxt)xt = 2x 0,08 x 0,02 x 40 x 10° = 128 KN MEE231VE -34- Chapter 3(b) — Tocalculate the diameter of the pieced rod end (d:), consider formula 3 10 for tearing of the enlarged pierced rod end. F=((Gxd})-(, x0) x0, 128 x10° axa) -@, x 0,02)} x 46 x 10° 128 = (36,13d? - 0,32d,)x10° 0 = 36,13d} - 0,32d, - 0,128 4, -~btvb? = 4a ' 2a 4, =73,6mm say74 mm _—— as (©) To calculate the outside diameter of the socket (dz) consider formula 3 11 for tearing of the socket end FG ~d})]~[d, -4,)xt)} To calculate the diameter of the socket (ds) consider formula 3.15 for crushing of cotter against the socket (ds -d,)xtxo, 10010? = (d, -0,055)x 0,013%140x10° dy = 0109 mm 4, = 10 mm MEE231VE -38- Chapter 3(©) To calculate the width of the enlarged socket consider formula 3 17 for shearmg of the socket end. 2d, -d,) xb, xt 100 10° = 2(0,110 - 0,055)x 77 10° xb b, =118mm b, =12 mm, MEE231VE =39- ‘Chapter 33.4 SELF-STUDY Two 15 mm diameter steel rods are connected by means of a knuckle joint. ‘The stresses in the stee! are to be limited as follows: = 70 MPa, += 55 MPa and a; = 80 MPa. Calculate: (a) The diameter of the pin (b) Thickness of the eye (©) Outside diameter of the eye and (d) Thickness of the fork end. Assume a double shear factor of 2. [4i= 12 mm, t= 13 mm, d)= 26 mm, t= 11,25 mm] A connecting link has to withstand a load of 100 KN. Design a knuckle joint suitable for the link. Factor of safety = 6. Ultmate tensile stress = 400 MPa Ultumate shear stress = 420 MPa Ultimate compressive stress = 800 MPa [d= 44 mm; d, =56 mm; 36 mm] Design a cottered joint to join two steel bars subjected to a cyclic load of 100 KN by making use of the following working stresses: 61 = 69 MPa, t = 55 MPa and o; = 83 MPa. Owing to the short span of the bars, buckling need not be investigated. [d = 43 mm, di = 59 mm, t = 21 mm, d = 76 mm, b = 44 mm, b; = 16 mm, d3= 117 mm, b= 16 mm, t)= 10 mm, dy=71 mm] MEE231VE_ -40- 7 Chapter 34, Two rods subjected to a pull of 80 KN are connected by a knuckle joint. If the ulumate tensile stress 18 440 MPa, the ultimate shear stress 1s 400 MPa, the ultmate compressive stress 1s 800 MPa and the factor of safety 1s 5, determine the diameter of the rods and design the jomt, [d = 34 mm, d; = 25 mm, t; = 36 mm, y = 18 mm, t; = 20 mm, 4; = 50 mm, = 17 mm] 5 A cottered joint 1s required to connect two circular rods subjected to compressive and tensile loads. The dimensions of the cotter are width 76 mm, thickness 16 mm. The following safe stresses are allowed: Shear 38MPa, Tensile 44MPa, Compressive 90 MPa. Calculate from first pnnerples: (@) the safe load (b) the diameters of the rods at their extremities (©) the diameter of the pierced rod () the outside diameter of the shoulder on the rod end (©) __ the diameter of the shoulder on the socket end. [F = 92,4 KN, d= 52 mm, d)= 64 mm, d= 85 mm, d3= 74 mm] 6. A cottered jomt 1s to be designed to withstand a cyclic loading of 50 KN. Design the joint assuming the following working stresses: o:= 110 MPa, o. = 170 MPa and t = 60 MPa. [d = 25 mm, d; = 31 mm, t = 10 mm, d) = 41 mm, b = 42 mm, b; = 14 mm, d3= 61 mm, b= 14 mm, t= 9 mm, dy= 37 mm] MEE231VE Al. Chapter 341 4.2. 43 44 CHAPTER 4 RIVETED JOINTS CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF RIVETS AND RIVETED JOINTS METHODS OF FAILURE SELF-STUDY PAGE 43 43 47 69 MEE231VE -a2- Chapter 4OBJECTIVE ‘To master the use of fastening techniques where no movement 1s allowed. 4.1 INTRODUCTION Whats a riveted joint and what is it used for? Riveting 1s one of the oldest methods of fastening and jommg. Even though welding and other modern, more advanced methods are now used more frequently, it 18 still very important as an assembly technique. ‘Any material that can be cold worked can be made into rivets, but low- and medium carbon steels are used about 95% of the tume. Other popular rivet materials are brass and copper alloys, alumimum and aluminium alloys, high-alloy and stamless steels and precious metals such as silver alloys used for electrical contacts and jewellery Its possible to produce these jomnts in large quantities at high speed and at much lower cost than threaded fasteners, that 1s bolts and screws. ‘The tensile and fatigue strength of riveted Joints are lower than those of threaded fasteners and severe vibrations and cyclic loading may loosen nveted jomts. 4.2. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF RIVETS AND RIVETED JOINTS In order to understand the calculation on rivets and riveted joints, it 1s necessary for you to know the different types of rivets and for what they are used. MEE231VE ~ 43 Chapter 4What different types of rivets do you get? The following 1s a list of the different types of rivets used most commonly" 1 2. Solid nvets Semu-tubular rivets, where the ends split and fold against the plates to hold them in place Full tubular rivets, used for thinner plates Bifurcated nvets Compression types. These are used in the food industry as they feature a good fit into counterbored holes in order to prevent food from collecting mn crevices. (E=a+ Semr-tubular Compression Male Figure 4.1: Rivet types ‘What different types of rivet heads do you get? ‘There are many different types of rivet heads used for their esthetical value or their functionality Some are round or button heads, cone heads and countersunk heads. Round or button heads are most commonly used. Countersunk heads are weaker than the other types but are used where a smooth surface 1s required. WW WY ‘i ' 1! t Round or Cone Countersunk Button head head head Figure 4.2: Rivet heads MEE231VE -44- ‘Chapter 4What types of riveted joints do you get? There are 3 different types of riveted joints, that is: 1 The lap jomt where the two plates to be jomted are simply laid over each other and riveted together. My a Ka 3 Figure 4.3: Lap joint 2. The butt jomnt where the plates to be joned are placed end to end and joined with the aid of one or two cover straps te Figure 4.4: Butt jomt MEE231VE -45- Chapter 43 The lozenge jomnt. This omnt 1s popularly used in applications such as towbars and features a balanced strength throughout the joint at the various rivet rows by means of a combination of the tear strength in the plate and the shear strength in the nvets. The more nvets used, the stronger the ont will be. Figure 4.5: Lozenge jot What different types of rivet row arrangements do you get? The arrangement of the nvet rows in a jomnt 1s also very important. Consecutive mivet rows can either be arranged in a cham- or a zig-zag pattern. The advantage of the zig-zag arrangement 1s that rivet rows can be spaced closer to obtain a more compact jont without a loss in efficiency Double nveted lap Double riveted lap jot jot im chain im diagonal or zigzag arrangement arrangement Figure 4.6: Rivet arrangements MEE231VE -46- Chapter 44.3. METHODS OF FAILURE How do you design a riveted joint? A series of formulas has been developed taking into account all the reasons why a joint will fail, When designing a jomt, it 1s necessary to use the correct one. When considering possible failure of riveted lap- and butt jomnts, consider the failure per pitch of rivets as this applies to all the rivet pitches of the entire joint. The following symbols apply" CS Pith =1+(%x 4) lg fe LH 3 rivers —o— = Pitch = 2+ %=1 Oo Pitch =(2 x %4)+1=2 —- Coo £Coo Pitch = '%x 4=2 O _ Piteh=(4x %)+1=3 oOo oO The following 1s a drawing of a treble riveted butt joint. O Oo oO pa(4u hy +4=6 oO MEE231VE -47- Chapter 4% Allowable tensile stress of the plate material n MPa o< = __ Allowable crushing stress of the plate maternal in MPa + = Allowable shear stress in the rivet material in MPa t = Thickness of the plates t; = Thickness of the cover straps d= Diameter of the nvets p= _ Pitch of the nvets n= _ Number of rivets per pitch on one side of a joint s = Shear factor s=1 for single shear, s= 1,75 for double shear Pr = __ Distance between rows m = _ Edge distance (margin) F = _Load applied to the yomt Rivets may fail in any one of or in a combination of the following manners: 1. Tearmg of the plate (F,) ‘The weakened plate might tear between the rivet holes (p-d)txo, 41 Shearing of rivets (F,) The rivets can shear in single or in double shear. Ravets in double shear can be assumed to have strength of 1,75 tumes that of nvets in single shear. (Unless otherwise stated) xd? xtxnxs 42 MEE231VE. 48. Chapter 43. Crushing of rivets or plate (F.) The rivets or plates may be crushed on the projected area of the nvet hole. F =dxtxo,xn 43 4. Balanced design for riveted jomts. "A cham 1s as strong as 1ts weakest link" In order to obtain a balanced design with reference to the strength of the nveted jomt in tear, shear, and crushing, the following measures can be taken: 41 42 43 Equating the tearing resistance of the weakened plate to the shearing resistance of the rivets. @-d)txo, =sxnxbxd? x 44 ‘This means that when the joint 1s subjected to a load, the resistance of the plate must be equal to the resistance of the rivets in shear per pitch. Ratios for the determination of the single cover strap thickness (t1) 1(p~d) = (for 2 rivets per pitch) 45 (p-2d) (for | rivet per pitch) 46 Ratios for the determmation of the double cover strap thickness t,=0,5t (for mvet per pitch) 47 (-4) ‘2° (p-2d) (for 2 nvets per pitch) 48 MEE231VE -49- Chapter 44.4 Ratios for the determination of the distance between rows pr=0,6p (for diagonal or zigzag rivet arrangement) 4.9 pr=1,2p (for chain rivet arrangement) 4.10 4.5 Other rules by the Board of Trade (B.O T ) for boiler applications. Thickness of single cover straps = 1,125t Thickness of double cover straps = 0,625t Edge distance or margmn(m) = 1,3d Mimmum Pitch =2d Maximum pitch = kt + 0,042 meter The standard values of k being: Table 4.1 Number of rivets per pitch width 1/2 |3 |4 fs K (Butt ont) 175 |3,5 [463 [552 [6 K (Lap jomt) Tat [262 [347 [441 4.6 — Because of holes drilled in the plate, 1t is impossible for a rivet jount to be as strong as the original un-weakened plate. If Fycates 18 the smallest of #, F, and F., per pitch width, the jomnt efficiency of a riveted pomt 1s the ratio between Fweaset and the teanng strength of the un-weakened plate per pitch width, Remember a cham 1s as strong as its weakest link. Eyes = PXt% 6; 4a Peete 199 4.12 Jomt efficiency MEE231 VE -50- Chapter 44.7 Typical jomt efficiency percentage range. Table 4.2: Joint efficiency range Lapjoint | But jomt Jomnt type (%) (%) Single nveted 8-60 [55-65 Double riveted 60-75 70-80 Tuple riveted 65-84 [75-88 4.8 Standard rivet sizes Table 4.3: Standard rivet sizes ‘Nomi 1 J12 716 [20725 73 [4 |s ][@ ]s fio 12 [*14]16 [*18 [20 [*22 [24 |*27 [30 |*33 136 *Non Preferred rivet diameter (mm) 4.9 Standard steel plate thicknesses Table 4.4: Standard plate thickness [ Plate thickness (mm) 3 [6 |& |10 ]12 ]i5 ]18 ]20 22 [25 [28 [30 |32 [35 [38 [40 4% [50 (55 [60 |os |70 |75 |80 85 [90 [100 [110 |120 ]130 [140 [150 5. Possibilities of failure for a Lozenge joint In order to obtain a suitable rivet diameter, it 1s common practice to equate the shear strength of the rivets to the compressive strength of the nvets. To obtain the number of rivets per side, MEE231VE “51- Chapter4it 1s common practice to equate the shear strength of the weakened plate to the shear strength of the nvets. Before the failure of this joint can be investigated, the weakest of a single rivet in bearing or crushing (o; x d x t) and a single rivet in double shear ( x a x & x 1,75) must be determined. Figure 4.6: Failure on Lozenge joint INB: Note that each row has one rivet less than the previous row. This 1s a trademark of the Lozenge jomt] 5.1 Resistance agaist failure m row C (Fc) The plate width will tear through the single rivet hole (at C) =o,(W-d)t 4.13 5.2 Resistance against failure m row B (Fa) The plate width will tear through two nvet holes (at B), backed up by the single nvet (at C) in shear or crushing. Use formula 4.14 if Fe 1s weaker and formula 4.15 if F, 1s weaker. MEE231 VE “52. Chapter 4[o,(w -2a}]+ xa ext 75] 414 [o,(w -2a}]+ [o, xdxt] 4.15 5.3 Resistance against failure in row A (Eq) The plate width will tear through three rivet holes (at A), backed up by three rivets in shear or crushing (at B and C). Use formula 4.16 if F, 1s weaker and formula 4.17 if F, 1s weaker. 0 -30)}+|( 2x xox3r75] 4.16 [o, (W -3a}t]+[o, x (dx t)«3] 417 6. Possibilities of failure in thm-walled cylindrical vessels oe a < >} ‘. Figure 4.7: Thin-walled cylinder A cylindrical vessel 1s considered thin walled if the ratio of £ >20. The following symbols apply Pp _ Internal pressure (gauge) d__ Internal diameter of vessel a MEE231VE -53- Chapter 4t Wall thickness (plate thickness) s Factor of safety mi Efficiency of a longitudinal joint ne Efficiency of a ereumferential jomt o< Circumferential or hoop stress 1 Longitudinal stress ‘Asa longitudinal jomt 1s affected by a circumferential stress and a circumferential joint 1s affected by a longitudinal stress, the following formulas apply’ 6, = (circumferential stress) = P4S. 418 2tn, (longitudinal stress) = is 4.19 Both these stresses are tensile stresses and where applicable, should be equated to 6; MEE231VE -54- Chapter 4Example 4.1 ‘A tte plate of & frame structure consists of two separate steel plates each 15 mm thick and 252 mm wide. They are jomed by a double-nveted lap jot with snaphead nvets. The rivet rows are 3 times the nvet diameter apart. The stresses in tenston, shear and crushing for both the rivet and the plate should be limited to 110 MPa, 80 MPa and 140 MPa respectively If the te plate 1s subjected to a tensile force of 188 KN, determine the: (a) nvet diameter (6) number of rivets required (© maximum safe load of the solid plate (@ maximum safe load of the weakened plate (©) maximum safe shear load for the vets (maximum safe compressive load for the plates and nvets? (g) efficiency of the joint Solution Make a list of ell information given to you. t =0,015m W=0,252m ot=110 MPa oc = 140 MPa + = 80 MPa F =188KN MEE231VE -55- Chapter 4(a) According to the Board of Trade the diameter of the rivet (d) 1s: d= 6,05 x Vt d = 6,06 x Vi5 (t must be measured in mm) d= 23,43 mm According to table 4.3 the standard size for d= 24 mm. (b) Use formula 4.1 for shearing of the rivets to determine the number of rivets required (). Ra axd?xtxnxs 4 188 x 10° x4 mx 0,024 ? x 80 x 10° n= 5,19 rivets say 6 rivets (2 rows of 3 nvets_each ) Pmax kt + 0,042 m 2,62 x 0,015) + 0,042 = 0,0813 m say 80 mm, k = number of rivets per pitch width (from tables) (©) Calculate the maximum safe load on the solid plate. This means the plate without holes mnt, before at was riveted to the other plate. Use the formula for Funyeatenea but substitute pitch width with the overall width of the plate, Enewesened = 5, X Wt =110x10° x 0,0252x 0,015 = 415.8 kN. MEE231VE -56- Chapter 4@) © © (8) Calculate the maximum safe load on the weakened plate Fyeatcaa = (W ~3d)txot 0,252 — (3x 0,024)] 0,015 x 110x108 = 297 kN To calculate the maximum safe shear load for the rivets, 1.e. the biggest load the jomnt can handle before the rivets starts to tear, use the formula for shearing of rivets shown in number 2. F, ™ Axd?xtxnaxs 4 _ &x 0,024? x80 x10°x6x1 4 17,15 KN —- To calculate the maximum safe compressive load for the rivets use formula 4,3 for crushing of rivets or plate. F, =dxtxo, xn = 0,024 x 0,015%140%10° x6 =302,4 KN oe To calculate the efficiency of the jomnt, use the formula in number 4.12. Fyeakest 18 the smallest load that will have failure as a result of our calculation F weakest 217,15 KN, Jomt Bfficrency = Px 100 anveskened 217,15 «10° 415,8%10° = 52,2% oe «100 MEE231VE -57- Chapter 4Example 4.2 Design a treble-riveted butt jomt with double cover straps and the same number of rivets in each row using zigzag riveting. The plate thickness 1s 30 mm, a pitch of 150 mm 1s to be used and the distance between rows 1s (2 x rivet diameter) + 12 mm. The rivet diameter 1s to be determined by equating the tensile strength of the plate to that of the shear strength of the rivets. Safe allowable tensile stress in plates 1s 92 MPa Safe allowable shear stress in rivets 1s 72 MPa Safe allowable compressive stress in nvets and plates 1s 130 MPa Calculate the efficiency of the jomnt and make neat dimensioned sketches showing two views of the jomt. Solution Make a list of given information t =30mm p =150mm pr=2d+ 12mm o, = 92 MPa o.= 130 MPa 1 =72MPa MEE231VE -58- Chapter 4To calculate the rivet diameter (d) equate the tensile strength of the plate to the shear strength of the nvets as shown 1n 4.2 above. (p-d)txo, = 2xd?xtxnxs P era (0,15 ~d)0,03 x 92 x 10° = 0,7854 x d? x 72x 10° x 3%1,75 297d? +2,76d-0,414 =0 b+ vb? - 4ac 2a d= 32,98mm d = 36mm stan dard (see tables ) BOT.est d=6¥t = 630 d= 32,86mm — To calculate efficiency it 1s always necessary to calculate the safe tensile load for solid plate and for the weakened plate. Use formulas in 4.6. Safe tensile load for solid plate (formula 4.11): Fiso,xpxt 92 x10°x 0,15 x 0,03 414 kN Safe tensile load for weakened plate (formula 4.1) F,=0,x(p-d)xt 2 x 10* x (0,15 - 0,036 ) x 0,03 14 ,64 kN ——> MEE231VE -59- Chapter 4Safe shear load on rivets (shear factor 1s 1,75 for double shear) (Formula 4.2) F,=2xd?xrxnxs 4 = 0,7854 x 0,036? x 72 x 10° x 3x 1,75 = 384,76KN oo Safe crushing load of rivets and plate (formula 4.3) F,=0,xdxtxn = 130 x10 x 0,036 x 0,03 x 3 = 421,2kN To calculate the efficiency, use the weakest of F., Fy and F,. (Formula 4,12) Efficiency = Pests 190 _ 314,64 x10* 414x10° 16% To draw the jomnt, the following distances needs to be calculated: Distance between rows (pr) pr=2d412 (2« 36) +12 84 mm Margin (m) m =1,5d 55x 36 4 man, MEE231VE aes ~ Chapter 4Thickness of the cover straps (ti) t, = 0,625 t 0,625 x 30 18,75 mm say t, = 20 mm_ standard 0 Width of the cover straps (w) w = 4(pr +m) 4(84 +54) n=144x%) =3 nvets/pitch MEE231VE -61- : Chapter 4Example 4.3 A boiler with an internal diameter of 3 m can be considered as thin cylinder and 1s manufactured from steel and must operate under an internal pressure of 750 kPa. A longitudinal joint efficiency of 85 % and a circumferential jomt efficiency of 55 % 1s, applicable. Assume a factor of safety of 4 and determine a suitable standard plate thickness for this application. Design a double-niveted butyoint with a single cover strap and zig-zag rivet arrangement for a longitudinal joint on the boiler and determine the efficiency of the joint. The following values apply for plate and rivet material, Sy = 410 MPa, Sy: = 560 MPa, Sy.= 250 MPa Solution The followmng 1s a list of given formation: d =3m p =750kPa mu =85% Te = 55% s =4 Su=410 MPa Swe= 560MPa —Sy=250 MPa + a Sy Oo 1 0 [fp ° ° 10 MEE231VE ~62- "Chapter 4To determine the plate thickness of the material (t), use the formulas given in paragraph 6 of the theory 410x108 _ 75010" «3x4 4xtx 0,55 =9978 mm say 10 mm stan dard in, A10x10° _ 750%10° «3x4 say 15 mm standard ahaa. Determune the diameter of the nvets by B.O T standards: d= 6,05 Vt d= 6,05 V15 d= 23,43 say 24mm_standard, To determine the safe stresses use the formula given in Chapter 3 ‘Now, to determine the strength of the jomnt, use the formulas m paragraphs | and 3 above. Tear strength of weakened plate per pitch F,=(p-d)txo, F, = (p~ 0,024 )0,015 x 102,5x10° F, = 1,538 x 10° p — 3,691 x10* MEE231VE -63- Chapter 4Shear strength of rivets per pitch x Hxd?xtxnxs F, F, = 0,785 x 0,024 * x 62,5 x 10° x 2 F, = 56,54 KN oS Crushing strength of rivets per pitch, dxtxo.xn 0,024 x 0,015 x 140 x 10°x2 00.8 KN The following calculations must be done to determine the dimensions of the joint. In order to calculate the pitch of the nvets we can equate the strength of the weakened plate to the shear strength of the nvets. 56,54 10° = (1,538%10°p)- (3,691x10") p= 60,76 mm Now to determine F; F, = 1,538 x 10° (0,06076 — 3,691 x10‘) F, = 56,54KN Cover strap thickness (t)) 1, = 1125 xt = 1,125 x15 = 16,87 mm say 18mm standard MEE231VE ~64- Chapter 4‘Margin (m) m=1,5x24 m=36mn, Distance between rivet rows (pr) pr =0,6xp pr = 0,6 x 60,67 pr = 36,46 mm say 37 mp Efficiency of the joint (jon) Strengthof unweakenedplate=px to, = 0,06076x 0,015 102,5 10° 18 KY To determine the efficiency of the joint use the smallest of F,, F. and F, Noo = 100 F, _ 56,54 «100 © 93,418 MEE231VE -65- Chapter 4Example 4.4 Two lengths of steel bars, 175 mm x 20 mm are to be jomed with a lozenge joint. Calculate the nvet diameter, number of nvets per side, and the efficiency of the joint. Stresses should be limited to the following: ; = 108 MPa 6. = 124 MPa =62MPa Solution Make a list of all given information: W=175 mm t =20mm ‘= 108 MPa 0. = 124 MPa + =62 MPa For the calculation of the rivet diameter (d), equate the shear stress of the nvets to the crushing stress of the nvets. Fad xrxnxs = dxtxo, xn x Fxdxexh75=0, xt 462x108 X1,75 = 12410" 0,02 MEE231VE, ~66- Chapter 4To find the number of nvets per side, equate the tear strength of the weakened plate to the shear strength of the rivets per side, As we do not know what the pitch (pr) of the rivets will be, we use formula for tearnng of the plate (formula 4.13). Rk o,(w—d)t = Fxg? xrxnxs . 108x10°(0.175—-0,03)0.02 = 4 0,03" x62x10° xnx1,75 n=4,084 say 6 rivets per sige Note: We say 6 rivets because it 1s a lozenge joint. See drawing on page 5 To calculate the efficiency of this jomt, Fsmates: must be determined. All rivets under shear: Pre xr nxs = 70,03? x62x10° x6x1,75 F, = 460,2 kN a MEE231VE -67- Chapter 4Strength at A F, =[0,(W -3d)t+{o, xdxtxn] F, =[108 x 10°(0,175 — 0,09)0,2} + {124 x 10° x 0,03 x 0,02 x 3] 406.8 KN, Strength at B F, =[6,(w-2a)t]+[(6, xaxt)] Fy = [108% 10°(0,175 -0,06)0,2]+ [124x108 x0,03x 0,02] Fy = 322,8 kN Strength at C F, =[6,(W ~2d)t] Fe = [108x108 (0,175 — 0,03)0,2} Fy =312,2 kN F, 1s the smallest. Efficiency of the yount(n) Foatemy = 0.x Wt = 108 x10, x 0,175 x 0,02 = 379 KN = Facies 100 mweskend 312.2 "379 = 82,375% a Tom «100 MEE231VE 68 Chapter 444 SELF-STUDY Design a single nveted lap jomt to youn two 25 mm thick steel plates. Calculate the safe load per pitch width as well as the efficiency of the jomt. The following working stresses apply i = 92 MPa, 0. = 148 MPa, t= 74 MPa [F = 52,307 KN; p= 53 mm(52,7); An aur vessel has an internal diameter of 1,5 m and the longitudinal jomt 1s a double nveted lap jomnt, ‘The vessel 1s subjected to an intemal pressure of 600 kPa. Use a factor of safety of 6 and determine (@) _ asuttable standard plate thickness (b) suitable rivet diameter by equating the shear strength- to the bearing strength of the rivets (© asuitable nvet pitch (@ the efficiency of the joint. Assume the following ultimate stresses: Si = 400 MPa, $4, = 300 MPa, Sy, 500 MPa [t= 8mm (6,75); d- 18mm (16,78); p= 63 mm; 1 = 71,4 %] MEE231VE. -69- ‘Chapter 43 Two 16 mm thick, non-standard steel plates are jomned with a double-niveted lap jomt. Make use of standard rivets and determine (a) thenvet diameter (6) the nvet pitch (© thejomtefficiency The following maximum stresses apply 0: = 430 MPa, o, = 618 MPa, t = 340 MPa. [d= 24 mm (24,2); p= 68,71 mm; n = 64,8 %] Design a triple-riveted butt jomt with double cover straps to join two 20 mm thick plates for the following working stresses: o, = 124MPa, g, = 155 MPa, += 93 MPa. A double shear factor of 1,85 applies. [d= 27 mm(27,056); p = 146 mm (146,16); n = 69,3 %] ‘Two tie bars with rectangular cross section of 15 mm x w must withstand a tensile force of 380 KN and are joined together by means of a lozenge joint. Assume a double shear factor of 1,7 and working stresses c= 125 MPa, a; = 190 MPa, ‘= 95 MPa, and determine: (@) the diameter for nvets (b) —asuttable width for the te bar (©) the number of nvets per side (@) the resistant forces of the various means of possible failure; (©) the efficiency of the joint MEE231VE_ -70- Chapter 4[d = 24 mm (22,47); W = 230 mm (226,66); n= 6 (5,287); Ra= 501,45 KN, Rp = 409,65 KN, Re= 386,25 KN, Rehear = 428,365 KN, Renush = 410,4 KN; 9 = 89,57 %] Consider a safety factor of 4 and design a lozenge joint to join two steel plates, 200 mm wide and 12 mm thick if the following ultumate stresses apply’ Su = 440 MPa, Sys = 220 MPa, Sy = 620 MPa Sketch two fully dimensioned views of the jomnt [d=24 mm (24,6); n= 6 (5,335); Ra =299,58 KN; Ry = 244,18 kN Re = 232,32 KN; t= 8mm (7,5); 1 = 88 %] MEE231VE - ‘Chapter 4CHAPTER 5 CIRCULAR SHAFTS CONTENTS 5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.2 THEORY REGARDING CIRCULAR SHAFTS 5.2.1 What is a circular shaft? 5.2.2. What is the advantages of a circular shaft? 5.2.3 What symbols apply to circular shafts? 5.2.4 Formulas applying to circular shafts 5.3. SELF-STUDY PAGE 73 73 a 14 5 89 MEE231VE -22- Chapter 5OBJECTIVE To be able to determine the correct diameter of shaft to ensure satisfactory strength and ngidity 5.1 INTRODUCTION What is the aim of this chapter? ‘This chapter introduces the design of shafts and consists primarily of the determination of the correct diameter of shaft to ensure satisfactory strength and rigidity when the shaft 1s transmitting power under various operating and loading conditions. Shafts may be subjected to various combinations of axial, tensile and compressive loads as well as torsion and bending and these may be applied under gradual-, sudden-, shock- or cyclic loading conditions. This chapter will deal with the design of circular cross section shafts subjected to pure torque and sometimes bending in combination. 5.2 THEORY REGARDING CIRCULAR SHAFTS 5.2.1 What is a circular shaft? Shafis are usually circular in cross-section, are made of round steel and can be either hollow or solid. Short, non-rotatng, circular shafts are referred to as spindles. An axle 13 a shaft, stationary or rotating, not subjected to a torsion load. Although not used very commonly other types of non-circular shafts also exist, but they do not feature the advantages of a carcular shafts. Shafts can have gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets and other power- transmission elements mounted upon them. 5.2.2 What is the advantages of a circular shaft? Circular shafts have the following advantages: MEE231VE “BB Chapter 5eee torsion They have the capability to be centred easily They are naturally in balance Bearings can be fitted to them easily as they are round They have a better possibility of having a plane cross-section remaining plane under ‘They have a good torsional stiffness to weight ratio 6. Safer to use in the work place than non-circular shafts 5.2.3 What symbols apply to circular shafts? Figure 5.1: Circular shaft ' D = _External diameter of a hollow shaft in metres, 4; = _ Internal diameter of a hollow shaft in metres 4 = Diameter of a solid shaft in metres. P = _ Power transmitted by the shaft in Watt T = Mean Torque on the shaft an Nm N = __ Rotational speed of the shaft n r/min + = Maximum allowable shear stress in the shaft material (at outer fibre) in Pa R= _ Radius at the outer fibre of the shaft in metres, G = Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity or the shaft material in Pa, @ = Angle of twist over the length of the shaft n radians 1 = Shaft length in metres MBE231VE “TA Chapter 5J = Polar second moment of area of the shaft cross section in m* 5.2.4 Formulas applymg to ercular shafts 1. To calculate the polar second moment of area (J) of the shaft cross section: Joga = xd! 51 32 tk Jratoy = (Dt a 52 haw = S(D* ~ t R 55 27,78%10?__ 178,9x10° n(D*—d')/32—-dD/2 27,78%10° ___178,9x10° (0905D*)/32 Dj D=95,6mm (say 96 mm) d, =5x95,6/9 d, =53,12mm (say 53 mm) MEE231VE -83- Chapter 5To calculate the percentage weight saving when a hollow shaft 1s used instead of a solid shaft, first determine the required solid shaft diameter using formula 5.5 Because both shafts have the same density and length, the weight of the shafts will be a direct function of the cross sectional area, thus: Avsoiis — Ay % weight saving = “sit —Atator_ 199 lid _ ma?/4-n(D* =d3)/4 ad? 100 ; 2 92,48" —(95,6" 5312") _ 199 92,48 = 2613.% MEE231VE -84- Chapter 5Example 5.2 A solid shaft, required to drive a crusher, 1s to be mounted between two self aligmng bearings, 0,8 m apart, and will be driven off a 115 kW power source, rotating at 270 r/min to 2.288 mm piteh circle diameter gear situated between the two bearngs and 0,3 m from the left hand bearing. The gear pressure angle 1s 20° The shaft 1s to be manufactured from BS970: 070M20 steel (normalised) and a crusher shaft may be considered as a shaft subjected to major shock. Ignore the weight of the shaft and gear and determine a suitable shaft diameter by using a factor of safety of 2. Make use of the maximum shear stress theory of failure. Solution Make a list of information given in the question: P=115kW N=270 r/min 2 1 =08m 2 o=20° n=2 For steel type BS5970:070M20: BHN = 125 Syt=215 LRS = 63 mm MEE231VE. 85. Chapter 5Using the formulas for gear drives, calculate the normal force (Fy) between gear teeth in Newton by using formula 5 4 and formula 5 15 _30x115x10* ~ nx270 = 4,067 KNm, T=F, xReoso T Reosd 4067 0,144x cos 20° = 30,06 KN. 30,06 In order to calculate the diameter of the shaft, it 1s necessary to calculate the equivalent torque. First, determine the Maximum Bending moment: M, =0 =M, Ry = 30,06-113 30,06 x 0,3 =R, x08 =188kN T Ry =1L3kNT 1,3%10° x0,5 =5,64kNm MEE231VE. -86- Chapter 530,06kN 18,8 KN 11,3 KN 03m 0,5 m 5,64N.m Second, from table 5.3, for mayor shock, you will find that Kb = 3 and Kt=2,5 From this, use formula 5 17 to calculate the equivalent torgue T, = (KM) (KT) = JG x 5636)? + (2,5x 4067)? =19730 Nm ——> To calculate the diameter of the shaft, use formula 5.6. The following calculations need to be done first n order to use formula 5.6. From formula 5.9 calculate the ultumate tensile stress Sy = BHNx3,45 = =125%3,45 = 431 MBa MEE231VE -87- Chapter 5From formula 5 10 calculate the torsional shear force 8, =0,5778,, Torsional shear stress = 0,577 Tensile yield stress 5776, = 0577216 24 MPp Now, calculate the diameter. Kaa 7 = Bands 16 19730 = Rx124x10° xd 16 d=93,2 mm ay 95 mm standard “yo mm see MEE231VE, -88- Chapter 55.3. SELF-STUDY 1 A line shaft running at 150 r/min 1s to transmit 44,7 kW and may be regarded as subject to torsion only The shaft 1s of mild steel, having an ultimate shearing stress of 345 MPa. Using a factor of safety of 6, calculate sts diameter. [d=65 mm (63 mm)} 2. A shaft 1s supported at two bearings A and C and drives a sheave loaded as shown. 18 kN 6KN 12kN Determine a suitable standard steel bar shaft diameter if the limiting shear stress 1s 80 MPa. For the specific application, the weight of the mechanism 1s an smportant consideration and applications elsewhere proved that 1t would be safe to increase the limiting shear stress to 90 MPa. It was therefore decided to replace the solid shaft with a hollow shaft. Space limitations, however, prevent a larger diameter shaft. Determine the internal diameter of the hollow shaft. Also determine the percentage weight saving on the shaft. [d= 90 mm (88,2); di = 57,27 mm; 40,49 %] -89- - Chapter 53 A 40 KW motor runs at 2350 r/min at full load. The motor 1s required to operate under pure torsion at a temperature not exceeding 200 °C. Determine a standard solid shaft diameter from BS970-709M40 steel (oil quenched and tempered at 590 °C). A factor of safety of 2,5 applies to the yield strength of the shaft material. [d= 18 mm (17,41 mm)] 4. A50 mm diameter standard solid shaft must be replaced by a specially manufactured hollow shaft of the same material with a diameter ratio of 1,5 to 1 Determine diameters for the hollow shaft and the percentage weight saving obtained by the replacement. Also compare the torsional stiffness (T/6) of the two shafts. [D = 53,81 mm; d; = 35,87 mm; 35,67 %, The hollow shaft 1s 7,07 % stronger in torsional stiffiness.} 5 An industrial dough mixer 1s to be driven off a 45 KW motor running at 520 t/min via a two-gear speed reduction mesh with a pressure angle of 20° The dough mixer 1s required to run at 130 r/min and the gear on the motor has a pitch circle diameter of 60 mm. The effective overhang on the dough mixer drive 1 50 mm. Use a factor of safety of 3 and design according to the maximum shear stress theory of failure a specially manufactured hollow shaft for the drive. The shaft should be from BS970:817M40 steel (Q&T) with a diameter ratio of 3. 5 [D = 47,74 mm; dj = 28,65 mm] MEE231VE_ -90- Chapter 5CHAPTER 6 KEYS, SPLINES AND COUPLINGS CONTENTS, 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 THEORY REGARDING KEYS, SPLINES AND COUPLINGS O21 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 Light duty applications Medium duty applications Heavy-duty applications Shaft couplings Universal joints 6.3 SELF-STUDY PAGE A} MEE231VE 1 Chapter 6OBJECTIVE: To be able to choose the correct way of fixing a torque transmitting component to a shaft. 61 (TRODUCTION What is the objective of this chapter? The am of this chapter 1s to teach students the various methods of fixing a torque- transmitting component to a shaft and how to choose the correct method. ‘The method used depends on the size of the shaft and the magnitude of the torque to be transmutted. How do I choose the correct method? The classification of the various means of fixing a hub to a shaft as given in the following paragraphs of this chapter 1s not based on the maximum torque that can be transmitted, but rather on the percentage of the torque-carrying capacity of the shaft that can be transmutted by the torque-transmutting element, e.g. key In a light duty application, a relatwvely small torque needs to be transferred by the element as compared to the maximum torque the shaft can carry In the case of keys and splines the comparison should also be based on per unut length of the key or spline, The safety factors in table 1 can be used for pins, keys and splines when solving problems in this chapter. In practice, one should obtain these factors of safety from suppliers or design codes specified by your client. MEE231VE -92- Chapter 6"TYPE OF LOAD SAFETY FACTOR INTERMITTENT | HEAVY UNIFORM LIGHT SHOCK POWER SOURCE sHock SHOCK (GENERATOR, | (OSCILLATING qactuaring | (PUNCHES, FAN) PUMPSETC) PUMPS,ETC) | SHEARS,ETC. UNIFORM | (rursine, ELECTRIC | 1,5 18 22 27 MOTOR) LIGHT SHOCK 18 20 27 3,1 (HYDRAULIC MOTOR) MEDIUM SHOCK (INTERNAL, 30 33 36 42 | COMBUSTION ENGINE) | Table 6.1: Factors of safety for pins, keys and splines 6.2 THEORY REGARDING KEYS, SPLINES AND COUPLINGS 6.21 Light duty appli jons The following 1s a brief description of the main types of keys, splines and couplings most often used in modern applications. 1 Grub screws ‘The screw 1s positioned in a radial direction and 1s tightened to bite ito the shaft because of the slightly convex end of the screw This causes burrs on the shaft, which prevents easy removal of the components mounted on the shaft. MEE231VE -93- Chapter 62. Interference fits For this type of connection the hub diameter 1s made slightly less than the shaft diameter. The hub 1s then heated or the shaft 1s cooled with dry 1ce to a temperature that will yust allow the hub to slide over the shaft. After the setup has cooled, the frictional force between the hub and the shaft will be able to transmit torque. 3 Pins There are various types of pins, as shown in figure 6.1 Pins are normally dnven into place and have the advantage that they can transmut torque as well as axial loads. The diameter of the pins 1s approximately one fourth of the shaft diameter. Shear pins are used as mechanical fuses. ‘The pins are designed to transmit a certain mean torque, but if the torque exceeds the predetermined maximum value, the pin will fail. Any further damage to the equipment 1s thus prevented. i : Straght Taperiround Grooved Split | tubular roundpin pin pin spring pin i Figure 6.1: Different types of pins MEE231VE Chapter 6Example 6.1 A shaft made of 080M40 heat-treated steel and having a diameter of 20 mm 1s used to transmit 4 kW of power at 1000 rev.mm-1 from an electric motor to a fan. If a round pin is used to fix one of the belt pulleys onto the shaft calculate: (@) the requrred pin diameter (b) the percentage of the allowable shaft torque that can be transmitted by the pn. Solution Make a list of all information given to you: D=20mm P=4000W N= 1 000 r/min (a) Use a slightly softer materral for the pin, say 080M40 normalised steel. The yield strength of the material 1s 280 MPa according to Annexure C. Calculate yield shear stress S,y $,, = 05778, = 0,577x 280 = 161,56 MPa (From Formula 5 10) =162 MPa or ‘The factor of safety (s) 1s 1,5 (from table 6.1) MEE231VE. -95- Chapter 6‘Therefore the allowable shear stress can be calculated as follows: S, ra 5 a1) “As =108 MPa oe To calculate the torque, 2nNT 60 p= 4.000% 60 © 2ax1000 =38.2Nny P To calculate the force generating the load, T=Fxr Because the pin will be i double shear F=2x(txA) 3.830 = 2x 108 10° x A A=17,68x10% ad? 4 d= 4x17,68%10% 74 mm say Smny, A MEE231VE -96- Chapter 6(b) For the shaft: Calculate the allowable shear stress (from Annexure C) 8, =0,577S, = 0577385 222 MPa, And Ssy 7 ‘ 7% 002? x148x10 T=232,5 Nm The % torque that the pin can transmit 38,2 = 38? 2325 4%, “p 100 MEE231VE -97- Chapter 66.2.2. Medium duty applications 1. Keys Keys are used to secure pulleys, gears, etc. to shafts. The keys are normally made from material that 1s slightly softer than the shaft. Four main types of keys are used in modern day design, @ (b) © MEE231VE Parallel keys Two types of parallel keys are square keys and rectangular keys. They are used in shafts where the starting torque 1s relatively low and the torque 1s always in the same direction. rN (, ‘Clearance Square key Rectangular key Round keys ‘These keys can transmut a relatively large torque. They can be either parallel or tapered in shape. The tapered key transmits a larger torque since the frictional force between the hub and the shaft assists in the transmission of the torque. Woodruff keys These are for light to medium applications and are used extensively in automotive and machine tool industries, They are commonly used in mache -98- Chapter 6@ @ Gi tool design and other places where the shaft surface 1s under great stress, These keys consist of a segmental disk of steel. The keyway in the shaft 1s milled to the same curvature and width as the disc but 1s shallower by the amount the key should protect. i ' Woodruff key Taper keys. ‘An example of a taper key 1s a Gib-head key A taper key can transmit a larger unidirectional torque because of the frictional contact force, T ' Gib-head key There are two ways in which keys can fail: @ _ byshearng, (ii) by crushing It 1s more common for keys to fail as a result of crushing. The following formulas apply: Shearing Torque on shaft = Torque on key due to shear Powerx 60 = width x length x shear stress (1) x 4 2xaxN 2 Crushing Torque on shaft = Torque on key due to crushing Powerx60 _ key thickness d >clength xerushing stress x © 2xmxN e emma? MEE231VE -99- Chapter 6Example 6.2 A 110 mm diameter shaft transmits 70kW at 100 r/mm. The key in the dnving pulley 1s 90 mm long. How wide should it be if the shear stress in the key material 1s not to exceed 80 MPa? Solution Torque on shaftt = Torque on key im shear 3 70% 60%10" _ w x 0,09%80x 10° x 210 2xnx 100 from which W =0,0169 m say 18mm Example 63 A rectangular key 1s 16 mm wide and 10 mm thick and 1s to transmit a torque of S00. Nm. If the steel key matenal has an allowable stress in tenston and compression of 100 MPa and the shaft diameter 1s 52 mm and an allowable stress in shear of 50 MPa and the shaft diameter 1s, 52 mm, determine the required length of the key Solution Length in shear: Torque = Wala 500 = 0,016 x 1x 50x 10° 2 300% 0,016 x 50 10° x 0,052 = 0,024 m omy MEE231VE_ -100- Chapter 6Length in crushing Torque = fxtxex$ 0.010 14100108 x 02952 2 2 500 $00x2x2 0,01 100%10° x 0,052 0,038 m say 40 mp 6.2.3 Heavy-duty applications 1. Splines Shaft splines resemble gear teeth cut or forged into the shaft surface. They are used to permit relative axial movement between the shaft and the hub of the connected member. When splines are used, stress concentration 1s generally moderate. Six or more splines are normally machined in the shaft and hub and can either have a sliding or press-fit. The splines can also have either straight sides or the preferred involute sides. The following formula can be used to estimate the torque carrying capacity of a spline connection. A=<>(D-d)xLxN 1) OrA=hLN T=pxAxr, (6.2) MEE231VE. -101- ‘Chapter 6P =permissible pressure D = shaft diameter [m] d =D~2x depth of spline {m} T = torque in Nun A =the splines’ total lateral area (m?) N = number of splines 1 = length of the splines mm L = length of the hub in m h_ = depth of the spline in m Tm= splines maximum radius = (P+d) MEE231VE. -102- Chapter 6Example 6.4 A splined connection in a motor car transmission consists of 10 splines cut m a 60 mm diameter shaft. The height of each spline 1s 6,0 mm and the contact length of the splines 1s, 50 mm, Determine the power that can be transmitted at 3000 r/min if the allowable normal pressure on the splines 1s limited to 5 MPa, Solution when d = 0,06 ~ (2 0,006) = 0,048 m xL xnumber of splines ,006 0,05 x10 003 my T=pxAxry = 5108 x 0,003 x 0,027 05 Nay _ 2x3 000% 405 60x10" 27kW, MEE231VE -103- Chapter 66.24 Shaft couplings Couplings are used to connect two colinear shafts. Although it sometimes 1s difficult to the align shafts properly The following typical shaft misalignments can occur: << O=C O Parrallel offset pel t+ Non-symmetrial OO angular MEE231VE -104- Chapter 6Types of couplings Couplings can be classified into two categories: Rigid couplings Rigid couplings are used for shafts that are colinear to a high degree. Any musalignment will cause damage to the shaft support bearmgs. These couplings will also transmit shock, vibration and torque fluctuations from one shaft to the other. 2, Flexible couplings Flexible couplings can be subdivided into two groups: @ (b) Couplings with shock-absorbing components. ‘These couplings have the advantage im that they can absorb shock loads and small amplitude vibrations and can accommodate incidental, parallel, angular and axial displacement of the connected shafts. The shock absorbing components usually consist of natural or neoprene rubber. The tyre coupling can accommodate parallel misalignment of up to 6 mm, an end float of up to 8 mm and an angular displacement of upto 4° An Essex coupling, which 1s less expensive than the tyre coupling, can accommodate a parallel displacement of 0,38 mm and 1 ° angular. Couplings with kinematic flexibility ‘The components cannot absorb impact loads and vibrations but they can be used for a vanety of direct-dnven mdustrial equipment where the coupling must have an exceptional ability to cope with (not absorb) shock, pulsating, and reversing loads. A Gear coupling 1s a typical example. Gear couplings are expensive and require more mauntenance than most other types of couplings. MEE231VE -105- Chapter 6Selection of couplings The following guidelines can be used to determine the most suitable coupling for a specific task: 1 Draw up a list of the types of couplings that can be used for the specific application you are busy with. (Last the shaft diameter, required r/min, power to be transmitted and the parallel, angular and axtal displacements) 2. If any of the listed factors are applicable for your application, eliminate the coupling types that are not suitable: © distance between shafts * absorption of torsional vibrations and shock loads * couplings must cope with shock, pulsating and reversing loads © drive must be maintained sf shock absorbing parts of coupling fails 3. Make a selection using the following criteria: © cost of maintaining the coupling © price of the coupling 6.2.5 Universal joints Universal joints are used to connect rotating shafts with an angular misalignment (not colinear) of up to 35 ° for a single joint, depending on the speed. Double universal joints can accommodate a total working angle of up to 70 ° and can also connect offset parallel shafts. The main disadvantage of this type of jomnt 1s that the angular velocity of the driven shaft will not be constant if the angular velocity of the driver 1s constant, It can be shown that the angular velocity of the driven shaft will fluctuate between: Angular velocity of driver x cos (angle between two shafts) Angular velocity of driver - cos (angle between two shafts) MEE231VE -106- Chapter 663 SELF-STUDY 50 KW 1s transmitted by 2 90 mm diameter shaft running at 80 rev/min, The dnving pulley key 18 70 mm long, determine its width if the shear stress in the matenial 1s not to exceed 72 MPa. [W=25 mm] A pin key 1s used to secure a lever to a shaft whose diameter 1s 50 mm. If the torque transmitted 1s 960 N.m and the material of the pin has an allowable shear stress of 78 MPa, find the size of the pin required [a= 12,5 mm] A square key 1s to be used to key a gear to a 40 mm diameter shaft. The hub length of the gear 1s 70 mm. Both shaft and key are to be made of the same material. Determine the mmmum dimensions of the sides of the key 1f 500 N.m of torque 1s transmitted. Catow = 104 MPa and t = 60 MPa [W=6 mm] A shaft of 48 mm diameter has six splines cut into it, the active length of the splines being 40 mm. If the depth of each spline 1s 7 mm and the allowable normal pressure on the splines 1s limited to 4,5 MPa, determine the power that may be transmitted at a speed of 2 200 r/min. [P=35,71 kW] A diesel truck transmission shaft consists of a hub fitung over a splined end. The following information 1s given: (@) Shaft diameter 1s 75 mm (b) Outside diameter of the splines 1s 75 mm. MEE231VE_ -107- Chapter 6(©) __ Inside diameter of the splines 1s 64 mm (@ Active length of the splines 1s 50 mm (©) Shaft speed 1s 125 rev/min (8 Allowable shear stress in the splines 1s 83 MPa (g) Number of splines on circumference = 10 (h) The width of each spline 1s equal to the gap between the splines, Determine: * * the power that can be transmitted by the splines the force required to slide the hub axtally under the full load (coefficient of frnction 0,1) the angle of twist of the solid shaft in degrees per meter length (modulus of nigidity 83 x 10° Pa) [P= 188,8kW F=41230N: 6=6,4159 MEE231VE ~108- Chapter 6WA 72 73 CHAPTER7 PLAIN BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION CONTENTS, INTRODUCTION TAA Why do we use bearmgs? THEORY REGARDING PLAIN BEARINGS AND LUBRICATIONS 721 722 123 124 725 7.2.6 What types of bearing are available? What is viscosity? Petroff’s law ‘What is lubrication? ‘What types of lubrication 1s available? Classification of oils SELF-STUDY PAGE 110 110 110 110 i 13 7 a7 118 124 IVE -109- Chapter 7OBJECTIVE: To be able to mcrease the efficiency of a moving mechanical system by reducing finction. 7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.1.1 Why do we use bearings? The biggest culprit in effecting the efficiency of a moving mechanical system 1s friction. To reduce the friction, bearings are used together with the right lubrication. The most important function of bearings 1s to separate two elements so that no rubbing (friction) will occur. Most bearing manufacturers provide engineering manuals and brochures containing deser:ptions of the various types of bearings available. The object of lubrication 1s to reduce fiction, wear and heating of machine parts which move relative to each other. A lubricant 1s any substance that can be inserted between two moving, areas and gain the above-mentioned result. To improve the lubrication of a bearing means to actually improve the bearing. 7.2 THEORY REGARDING PLAIN BEARINGS AND LUBRICATIONS: 7.2.1 What types of bearing are available? Bearings may be divided into two mam categories: (a) Rolling contact beanngs These are bearings where the rolling elements are set between the inner and oute: bearing rings. The lubrication material 1s then put between the rolling elements to prevent or MEE231VE -110- Chapter 7minimize friction. A number of bearings are available with seals on one or both sides. Bearmngs with seals on both sides are lubricated at the factory (6) Plain bearings Plam bearmngs can be divided mto journal bearmgs and thrust bearings. In these bearings the relative motion 1s sliding and not rolling as in the rolling contact bearings. These bearings consist of a shaft or journal sliding inside a sleeve. A thin film of lubrication 1s inserted between the journal and the bearing. ‘These bearmgs can be used in a very broad spectrum of applications. Shaft Bearing In this chapter we will pay more attention to plain bearings. 7.2.2 Whats viscosity? Consider a plate (part of a mechamcal system) that moves on a layer (film) of lubricant with a thickness of h. The lubricant film consists of many parallel layers which slides on one another as a result of a force F_ The velocity of the layer right next to the moving plate 1s U The layer on the farthest side of the moving surface, next to the stationary surfece has a velocity of zero. The rest of the layers has a velocity directly proportional to their distances (y) from the stationary surface. Moving plate Layers of lubricant —Fu Stationary surface MEE231VE. “1+ ~~ Chapter 7The layers of lubricant are subjected to a shear stress t, and if y.1s the absolute viscosity, then the following formula applies: tape 2m 71 The unt for viscosity 1s N.s.m* or centipoise (CP), and from this it follows that the unst for + =N.m" or Pa One of the methods used to determine viscosity 1s the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. The viscosity 1s determined by measuring the time in seconds needed for a 60 ml of lubricant to flow through a tube 17,6 mm in diameter and 12,25 mm long. The influence of gravity 1s used to make the fluid flow through the hole. The result of this method 1s called linematie viscosity (Z5) and a flow of one square centimeter per second 1s called a stoke. ‘The formula for kinematic viscosity 1s the following: ZL, = (o2a-182) 712 Where, Zk =m centistokes (cSt) t= number of seconds Saybolt in SSU (Saybolt universal seconds) To convert kinematic viscosity to m’/s, the following conversion 1s used vv (m/s) = 10°Zk Thus, formula 7.2 becomes; ve (oa2e -2 ho 73 MEE231VE -112- Chapter 7To convert the kmematic viscosity to dyname (absolute) viscosity, we muluply v by the density; 74 Where, }1= dynam viscosity in Pa.s or mPa.s (milli Pascal per second p=oil density in kg/m? t = time in seconds (SSU) To calculate the density (p), the following formula can be used; p =890 —[0,63(T, —15,6)] 75 T. = Operating temperature in ° Celetus 12.3. Petroff’s law Petroff was the first to explain bearing friction. He used the assumption that the shaft and bearing were concentric, Petrofi’s law 1s portant because it predicts a good coefficient of friction even when the shaft 1s not concentric with the bearing, MEE231VE -113- Chapter 7Nels Figure 7.1 The following can be defined from the shearing stress equation: . cept c Force(F) = txarea (A) nau 5 16 F = Friction force [N}, or _ Fretion torque Te shaftradius T A=2nel [m?] U = 2at.N where r= shaft radius and N = rev/second [m/s] IN] ¢~ Bearing diameter—Shaft diameter _ = bearing clearance MEE231VE. -114- Chapter 7From the formulas above, the following formula for friction torque (T,) can be derived: T, = (tA) = Caan) un? Nir* € (Petroff approach only) 17 Where, y= absolute viscosity [Pas] n=journal speed [rev/s] 1 = journal length [m] = journal radius [m] c= radial clearance = (eating diameter shaft diameter) 2m] If a small force 1s applied to the bearing and a coefficient of friction (f) 1s allowed, then the following formula for pressure(P) applies: pa¥ 2a Therefore, the frictonal torque will be: 1, =fWr = (f2HIP\(e) 78 =2r4P MEE231VE -115- Chapter 7Where, W = radial load [kN] f =fnetion r =joumal radius [m] P = load per unit projected bearing area [kN] To calculate the coefficient of friction, we can substitute the two formulas for torque (7 7 and 7.8) and find the following: a2 BN. 19 This equation 1s called Petroff’'s law The bearing characteristic number or Summerfeld number 1s shown by the following formula: =p tN 8-5 S = bearng characteristic number r = Journal radius {m] ¢ = radial clearance [m] p= absolute viscosity [N.s/m? or Pa.s] N= significant speed P= oad per umtt of projected bearing area iG ‘The Summerfeld number 1s very important when doing lubrication calculations because it contains all the variables normally specified by the designer. MEE231VE. -116- Chapter 77.2.4 What is lubrication? A lubricant 1s any substance which, when inserted between moving surfaces, reduces the friction, wear, and heating of machine parts. 7.2.5 What types of lubrication 1s available? Lubricants can be subdivided into 3 basic types: 1 Solid-film lubricants Examples of these types of lubricants are graphite and Teflon. They are used in extremely Ingh temperature circumstances where mineral oils are not satisfactory 2. Fluxd lubricants (@ Oils Oils can conta any number of different additives that can make them more useful for certain applications. Some of these additives are: anu-wear additwe, foam preventive additive, oxidation and corrosion mhibitors, detergents, pour point improvers, ete. (b) Grease Grease 1s used when retention of the lubricant 1s a problem. Greases are thick and can prevent harmful elements from entering the bearing proximity Greases can however not serve for cooling the bearg or for cleaning purposes since they cannot circulate, because they are so thick, 3 Gas lubrication Pressurised air can sometimes be used for lubrication MEE231VE -117- Chapter 77.2.6 Classification of oils ‘When the operating temperature increases, the viscosity of oil decreases. Figures 7.3 and 7 4 shows typical variations of viscosity against temperature, Multigrade oils react less critically to changes in temperature than the designation oils. The SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers ) classifies oils according to viscosity into a series of viscosity bands. ‘This means that there could be a very small difference in the viscosity of the thinnest SAE 30 lubricating oil and the thickest SAE 20 oil. The SAE classifies oils m three types: 1 Single grade oils (SAE 70 or SAE 20) 2. "W" grade oils (SAE 10W or SAE 20W0) 3 Multigrade oils (SAE10W30 confirms to the viscosity of SAE 10W and to SAE 30) MEE231VE -118- Chapter 7Example 7.1 ‘A 120 mm diameter shaft 1s supported by a journal bearing with a side diameter of 120,24 mm and a length of 80 mm. The bearing carnes a radial load of 6 KN and the shaft rotates at 1 400 r/min. If the lubricating oil has an absolute viscosity of 9 MPa.s, Use Petroff’s approach, determine the coefficient of fiiction and the power loss owing to friction. Solution List all available information: L =120mm d= 120,24 mm N=1 400 r/min. =9 MPas = bearing diameter ~ shaft diameter 2 _120,24-120 aoe =012 mm, ~ 0,12 0,08 525 MPa faa Mat Pe 29x10" x1400 0,06 = 2h 6.25%10° x60. 012x107 =0,00333, MEE231VE -119- Chapter 7To calculate the frictional torque: aNL? 1 _ dun? NL T, =fWr nae A feons7 ect Oe = 4492107 x? 1400 008% 0,06 012107 x60 194 194 Ne = 1194 Np The power loss as a result of the friction can be calculated as follows: P=2nnT, _ 2x 1400x1194 ~ 60 =15 py MEE231VE — =120- Chapter 7Example 7.2 For an r/c value of 750 and assuming the radial load of 5 KN to be small causing negligible eccentricity, determine: (@) the required beanng diameter (b) the coeffictent of frnetion (©) the power lost owing to friction at 2 000 rev/min, The journal diameter 15 60 mm and the bearing length 1s 45 mm, The bearnng 1s lubricated by 20W50 oil at an operating temperature of 60 °C. Solution List given information: F =SKN te = 750 N =2.000r/mu 33,33 rev/s d= 60mm,r= 2 =30mm 1 =45mm 20WS0 oil at 60°C : cot 750 ao) 750 = 0,04 mm ~ up MEE231VE -121- Chapter 7(a) ) ©) Beanng diameter = (2) + Shaft diameter Beanng diameter = (200,040) + 60 0,08 mp. From the SAE table for multigrade oils, determine 1 = 50x 10° Pas foo? Het Pe 3 50x10" 2000 0,06% 0,045 750 5x10’ 60 =0,0133 Ww =n? 2rl a dl = 0,01332x 5x10" x 0,03 =1,998N,m nT x 33,33 x 1,998 MEE231VE -122- Chapter 7Example 7.3 Determine the absolute viscosity and possible grading according to SAE single grading for an oil tested with a Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. The oil was tested at a temperature of 80°C, and 1t took 60 ml of oil 55 seconds to flow through the tube. Solution p = 890—[0,63(°C -15,6)] 890 -[0,63(80-15,6)] 849.4 kop S be foam - ®), 10 180, = 849,4((0,2: 849,4((0,2255) -") 0,0075 Pas 5 mPas, ‘The absolute viscosity value looked up on the graph (Annexure B) against a operating temperature of 80 °C shows an oil between SAE 10 and SAE 20. As the absolute viscosity value corresponds better with a SAE 10 oil, it will fall in the SAE 10 band. MEBE231VE -123- Chapter 77.3 SELF-STUDY 1 Determine the kinematic viscosity, the absolute viscosity and a possible grading according to SAE for an oil tested with a Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. It took 60 ce of the oil 64 seconds to flow through the tube at an operating temperature of 85°C. [v= 11,27 x 10° m’/s; 1 = 9,535 MPass; (SAE 30) 2. Anil, operating at a temperature of 67,5 °C 1s graded as a SAE10 oil. Determine the density of the oil and the tume in SSV that st will take 60cc of this oil to pass through a Saybolt untversal Viscostmeter. [p = 857,3 kg/m’®, t= 65,5 SSV] 3 The viscosity for a 20 W oil 1s specified at -18 °C. Estimate the density for the oil at this temperature, [p= 911,17 kg/m*] 4, Considering Petroff’s law Determine (@) the coefficient of friction (b) the torque lost owing to finetion (©) the power loss owing to friction The speed at which the bearing 1s moving 1s 1 500 rev/min. The shaft 1s 120 mm in diameter with a radial load of 6,2 KN, a bearing length of 100 mm, and a radial clearance of (,16 mm. The bearing 1s Tubricated with an oil having an absolute viscosity of 58 MPa.s [£=0,0208; Tr= 7,73 N.m; Pr= 1,21 kW) MEE231VE -124- Chapter 75 By applying Petroff’s law, identufy lubricating oil, according to SAE classification, for the bearings of a centrifugal pump. The bearing operates at a temperature of 50 °C, the radial loading of the bearing 1s 2,2 KN, the pump rotates at 1 440 r/min and the coefficient of friction 1s designed to be 0,006. Consider an average unit loading for the application with a rie ratio of 600. [SAE 10 or 10W, p= 19 MPa] MEE231VE -125- Chapter 7CHAPTER 8 SPUR GEARS CONTENTS PAGE 8.1 INTRODUCTION 127 8.2, RATIO FORMULAS AND DEFINITIONS 127 8.3 SPUR GEAR CALCULATIONS 132 8.3.1 What is Lewis's method to determine gear tooth strength? 133 8.3.2. calculate the arm sizes on gear blanks 135 8.4 SELF-STUDY 143 MEE231VE -126- ” Chapter 8OBJECTIVE To be able to design a spur gear for transmitting rotary motion 8.1 INTRODUCTION What are spur gears? Spur gears have teeth parallel to the axis of rotation and are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another, parallel shaft. 8.2. RATIO FORMULAS AND DEFINITIONS 1 Figure 8.1: Spur gears ‘When two gears are in a mesh (see figure 8.1), the dniver gear 1s called the wheel or spur and the driving gear 1s called the pion. Usually the pinion 1s smaller and the wheel 1s larger. Quantities relating to the spur are shown in capital letters and quantities relating to the pinion are shown in lower case letters. MEE231VE -127- Chapter 8Diameter of gear d D Speed of gear a N Pitch circle radius r R No of teeth ty t Addendum radius t! Ra Basie exrcle radius tp Rs Dedendum exrcle radius. rp Ro Clearance curcle radius tc Re ‘Addendum A Dedendum D Full-tooth depth (AtD) hh Thickness of tooth base t ‘Working tooth depth by Clearance (h-hy) © Face width of teeth b Centre distance ic ‘Torque on shaft Power transmitted P Normal force Fy Tangential foree on mesh Fy Pitch line velocity v Radial force on mesh Fr Cireular pitch P Chapter m Factor of safety s Pressure angle é MEE231VE -128- Chapter 8DEFINITIONS: Chapter ‘The chapter of a gear 1s number of millimeter of pitch ewcle diameter per gear tooth. Base circle This 1s the circle from which the involute curves forming the tooth profiles are drawn | Addendum This 1s the radial height of a tooth above the pitch circle Dedendum This 1s the radial depth of a tooth below the pitch circle. Circular pitch This 1s the length from a pomt on one tooth to a corresponding point on an adjacent tooth, measured on the pitch circle Pitch circle | This 1s a theoretical circle upon which all calculations are based. diameters Pitch point This 1s the point of contact between two piich arcles. Line of action ‘This 1s a line normal to a pair of meshing teeth profiles at the point of contact. Pressure angle This 1s the angle between the line of action and the common tangent to the piteh circle, Tooth depth ‘Addendum + Dedendum Clearance circle This is a circle that is tangent to the addendum circle of the mating gear. (This 1s the distance that the dedendum of one gear 1s larger than the addendum of the other gear when they are im mesh) MEE231VE -129- Chapter 8RATIOS Speed ratio Chapter (m) ‘Addendum (A) Dedendum (D) Tooth thickness (1) Fillet radius (rf) Figure 8.2: Nomenclature of a spur gear jun chrele Patch crete MEE231VE_ -130- Chapter 8Mimmum clearance (¢) = 0,25 tp(min)=18 teeth (@ =20°) ty(min)=12teeth (@ =25°) tp + tg (min) = 36 teeth (g = 20 °) tp + tg (min) = 24 teeth (9 = 25 °) FORMULAS 8.1 h=2,25m or h=A+D 82 p= t+m 83 Ry =Reos¢ 84 85 86 ‘WHAT IS AN INVOLUTE CURVE? Gear teeth have a shape based on the involute curve, which has been found to offer a constant transmission ratio and the least interference when two gears are in mesh. Involute teeth have but one curve, this curve forming both the face and flank of a tooth side. In any gear of thirty or more teeth, this curve can be a single are of a circle whose radius 1s one-quarter of the radius of the pitch enrcle. MEE231VE -131- Chapter 88.3. SPUR GEAR CALCULATIONS When two gears are in mesh, the forces act on the gears can be shown by means of the triangle of forces. Forca Fn \ |¢—Force F, N Force Fr Figure 8.3 The normal force Fy acting along the pressure line (or line of action) 1s the force between the teeth of the two gears in mesh, This force 1s decomposed in two components F; = the tangential force responsible for the transmussion of the tangent on Fr = the radial force which 1s the component of the normal force pushing away the two gears and 1s perpendicular to the Fron radial direction. From formulas 8.1 to 8.6, the following formulas for power and torque can be derived; T =F, xradiusxcos 6 87 , xradius 88 P=RxV 89 dN _ aDN oo 60 «60 8.11 MEE231VE -132- Chapter 88.12 2nNT 8.13 The efficiency of a gear train can be calculated using the following formula: n=cos"¢ 8.14 8.3.1 What is Lewis’s method to determine gear tooth strength? Lewis used the cantilever theory to understand and calculate the gear tooth failure. The gear tooth 1s considered to be a cantilever with a load applied to the top of the tooth. A more thorough explanation of Lewis’s theory will be explained in subsequent courses. The formulas for the Lewis theory 1s the following: o= oe 8.15 where b= face width ‘Lewis form factor p= pitch Gears in SI are usually manufactured to standard chapter, as shown in table 8.1 A designer 1s not restricted to the following chapter. However to ensure standardisation 1t 1s better to use these. MEE231VE -133- Chapter 8Table 8.1: Standard gear chapter 1 2 4 8 16 32, 1,25 2,5 5 10 20 40 1,5 3 6 12 25 50 From ratios and formulas earlier on 1m this chapter, 1t 1s known that ponxmand therefore, . 8.16 mbY The face width, b, should not be 3p, Fs > Fs * — Corplaner forces: Forces acting in the same plane ** — Collinear forces: Forces situated on the same direction, 1. the same straight line or the same axe MEE231VE “164- ANNEXURE AINTERNAL FORCES Internal forces are mduced in the body to counteract the extemally applied forces. The internal forces corresponding to direct forces as discussed above are shown in the sketch below A member in tension 1s called a fre and a member in compression 1s called a strut. is F _ TIE F F “— sf 3} STRUT SINGLE SHEAR AND DOUBLE SHEAR If only one cross section of a rivet resists the applied force, the rivet 1s 1n single sheat. : Shear plane ee « 3 I Shear plane MEE231VE, 165 ANNEXURE AIf two cross-sections of the rivet resist the applied force, the rivet 1s in double shear. +o. oe planes Double shear TORSION In the drawing below you can see the twisting moment T on a shaft, The twisting moment 1s a result of two equal, collinear forces working in different directions, thus twisting the shaft. Torsion 1s unsform along a shaft so that all normal cross-sections which are the same distance apart suffer equal relative rotation. ‘The cross sections remain plane and the magnitude of the stresses induced in any eurcle of fibres 15 proportional to the distance from the centre of the shaft, provided that the stresses are within the elastic limit. At the shaft centre, the material 1s not effected. MEE231VE. -166- ANNEXURE ABENDING MOMENT Consider a simply supported beam subjected to a bending force Fs. Foending For equilibrium: DF=0 Fo=RitRa The bending moment at any section of a beam 1s equal to the algebrare sum of the moments of the forces to one side of the section. Ms=Rixly or Mp=Rox(l-o) MEE231VE - “167- ~ANNEXURE ASign convention A bending moment 1s taken as positive if its effect 1s to tend to make the beam sag at the section considered. If the moment tends to make the beam bend upward or hog at the section, atas negative. Fb Fb Negative bending Positive Beam hogs bending, Beam sags ‘MEE231VE -168- ANNEXURE AANNEXURE B ‘Temperature and pressure effects on viscosity ‘The chart shows the variation of absolute viscosity for "straight" lubricating oils with o} Absolute visosty, Ps ‘30100 110120 130 140 Temperature, °C Viscosity-temperature chart for single grade oils. MEE231VE -169- ANNEXURE BThe chart shows the variation of absolute viscosity for multigrade with operating temperature. Absolute viscosity, mPa 102030 40~SOS~C«SCSPOSBOS BO 100:*110 120 130 180, Temperature, °C Viscosity-temperature chart for mulugrade oils, MEE231VE -170- ANNEXURE BOda AXSNNV 71d _ SATA paodwwoy = 1 pouopaeH =H asifeMuON = N, zi sie- Ie _ €l St 1 = $60 1 v6 [rp =amnaicl Zoe = 8FZ zor (000 T= 058 089 LpwH OPINGOL za ZOE = 84 9 (000 T= 0s8 089 LpueH TeNEs9 €I ZOE = BhC 6@ 000 T= 058 | oso | pu EINES im 6¢e~ 61 Ost suL-seo | Os LPuOH SENSO or 620 6L1 £9 SLL= S29) SBE pu _OSWo80 [+r 6c ~ £91 OSI - 087 029 OIE = S6z N OPWNOES a Loz = 71 ZI HST oss O87 = Ste N OFNO8O we. 91-101 | __69= 0st ose SLI= S91 N STINO8O. zl SST OT 9= BST 085) sse-ore | N_ __SSWN0L0 wz 6L1- 921

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