Module-1 Digital and Analog Signals: CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design
Module-1
DIGITAL AND ANALOG SIGNALS
An electrical signal can be defined as the variation of electrical quantity i.e
voltage or current with respect to time.That means the signal which does not vary with
respect to time is not a signal.For example D.C is constant with respect to time even
though it is a signal.
Fig:Analog Signal
An analog signal is a signal which takes any value from the given by taking the values
of electrical signal at different time intervals.
A system can be defined as a physical device that performs an operation on a signal.
Signals can be categorized in various ways:for example, discrete time signals and
continuous time signals.Even when the signal functions are not continous,continuous
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Sk.Riyaz Hussain Page 1

time signals can be referred as continuous signals.Another category of signals discretevalued and continuous-valued otherwise known as digital and analog signals.The analog
signals can have an infinite no.of values.
Analog systems can be called wave systems.The digital signals are specified as one
of the two possibilities such as 1 or 0, HIGH or LOW, TRUE or FALSE.Digital is a method
of storing, processing, and transmitting information through the use of discrete
electronic pulses that represent the binary digits 0 and 1.While the no.of recording
intervals of analog signal increases, the accuracy of signal increases.There are many
advantages with digital signals over analog signals, that is the reason why we use digital
signals more.
Advantages of Digital signals:Noise Margin:
Digital signals are less effected by noise.If the noise is below a certain level
all.However if the noise exceeds this level, the digital circuit can not give correct results.
Error correction and detection:
Digital signals can be regenerated to achieve lossless data transmission, which contain
limits.Analog signals transmission and processing , by contrast always introduces noise.
Digital systems interface well with computers and are easy to control with software.It
is often possible to add new features to a digital system without changing hardware
and to do this remotely, just by uploading new software.
Cheap electronic circuits:
More digital circuitary can be fabricated per sqare millimeter of integrated circuit
material.Information storage can be much easier in digital systems than in analog
ones.In an analog system, aging and wear and tear will degrade the information in
storage, but in digital systems as long as the wear and tear is below a certain level, the
information canbe recovered perfectly.Theoritically,there is no data loss when copying
digital data.This is a great advantage over analog systems which faithfully reproduce

every bit of noise that makes its way into the signal.
Disadvantages:The world in which we live is analog, and signals from this world such that light,
temperature, sound, electrical conductivity, electric and magnetic fields and
phenomenon of such as flow of time, are of most particular purpose continuous and
thus analog quantities rather than discrete digital ones.
For a digital system to do useful things in real world, translation from continuous
realm to the discrete digital realm must occur, resulting in quantization errors.This
problem can usually be integrated by designing desired degree of fredility.The nyquist
shannon theorem provides an important guide lines as to how much digital data is
needed to accurately portray a given analog signal.
Digital systems can be fragile, in that if a single piece of data is loss or
misinterpreted, the meaning of large blocks of related data can completely change.This
problem can be diminished by desigining the digital system for robustness. Digital
circuitry use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same calculations and
signal processing takes, thus producing more heat as well. In portable or battery
powered systems this can be a major limiting factor. Digital systems cause problems
such as "glitches", pulses do not reach valid switching voltages or unexpected
combinations of logic states.
A corollary of the fact that digital circuits are made from analog components is the
fact that digital circuits are slower to perform calculations than analog circuits that
occupy a similar amount of physical space.However the digital circuit will perform the
calculation with much better repeatability due to the high noise immunity of digital
circuitry.
Reference Books:
1.Digital Design 3rd Edition by M.M.Mono,2002.
2.Fundamentals of logic design by C.H.Roth, Jaico Publisher,1998.
Module-2
NUMBER SYSTEM
Digital
System
Analog in
Computer
Analog out
In conventional arithmetic, a number system based upon 10 units(0-9) is used.

However arithmetic and logic circuits used in computers and other digital systems
operate only on 0s and 1s.Because it is very difficult to design circuits that require 10
distinct states. The number system with the basic symbols 0s and 1s is called binary i.e
a binary system uses just two discrete values.
A group of bits which is used to represent the discrete elements of information is a
symbol .The mapping of symbols to a binary value is known as binary code. This
mapping must be unique.
Decimal numbers:
The decimal system has 10 symbols: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. In other words it has a base
of 10.
The number 2734 can be interpreted as

2X1000 + 7X100 + 3X10 + 4X1
= 2000+700+30+4
4 is the LSD and 2 is the MSD
In general in a number system with a base or radix r, the digits used are from 0 to r-1
and the number can be represented as
N=anrn+an-1rn-1+-------------+a1r1+a0r0 where n=0,1,2,3,-----------------r= base or radix
a = no.of digits having values between 0 and r-1
The above equation holds for all integers. For the fractions the following equation holds
N=a-1r-1+ a-2r-2+-----------------+ a-n+1r-n+1+ a-nr-n
Thus for decimal fraction 0.7123
N = 0.7000 + 0.0100 + 0.0020 + 0.0003
Where
a-1 = 7
a-2 = 1
a-3 = 2
a-4 = 3
Binary numbers:
The binary number has a radix of 2. As r = 2, only wo digits are needed.These are 0 and
1.For the decimal system, radix is 10 which needs 10 digits.
Example:The decimal equivalent of the binary number 101010
N = (101010)2
= 1X25+0X24+1X23+0X22+1X21+0X20

= 43
For N symbols to be represented, the minimum no.of bits required is the lowest
integer r that satisfies the relationship
2r > N
For example If N=26, minimum r is 5 since 24=16 and 25=32
Octal numbers:
Octal systems use a base or radix of 8.Thus it has digits from 0 t0 7(r-1)
Ex:- The decimal equivalent of the octal number 15.2
N = (15.2)8
= 1X81 + 5X80 + 2X8-1
= 13.25
Hexadecimal numbers:
The hexadecimal numbering system has a base of 16.There are 16 symbols.The
decimal digits 0 to 9 are used as the first ten digits in the decimal system, followed by
the letters A,B,C,D,E,F which represents the values 10,11,12,13,14 and 15 respectively.
Below table shows a relatioship between decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal
number systems.

Decimal
Binary
Octal
Hexadecimal
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
10
1001
11
10
1010
12
11
1011
13
12
1100
14
13
1101
15
14
1110
16
15
1111
17

Number base conversions:Radix divide and multiply method is generally used for conversion.If the number
includes a radix point, it is necessary to separate the number into an integer part and
fraction part, since each part must be converted differently.The conversion of decimal
integer to a number in base r is done by dividing the number and succesive quotients by
r and accumulating the remainders . The conversion of a decimal fraction is done by
repeated multiplication by r and the integers are accumulated instead of remainders.
Integer part:
Repeated divisions by r yield LSD to MSD
Fraction part:
Repeated multiplications by r yield MSD to LSD.
Ex: Conversion of decimal 23 to binary is by divide decimal value by ( 2 the base) until
the value is 0.
2 23
2 11
1 ---- LSD
2 5
2
2
2
1
1
0
1 ----- MSD
The answer is 2310 = (10111)2

Ex: Convert (0.7854) to binary
0.7854X2=1.5708 ;
a-1 = 1
0.5708X2=1.1416;
a-2=1

0.1416X2=0.2832;
a-3=0
0.2832X2=0.5664;
a-4=0
For converting a binary number to octal, the following procedure can follow
1. Group the no.of bits into 3s starting at least significant symbol. If the no.of bits
are not evenly divisible by 3, then add os at the most significant bit.
2. Write the corresponding 1 octal digit for each group
Ex: 100
4
010
2
011
For converting a binary number to hexadecimal, the following procedure can follow
1. Group the no.of bits into 4s starting at least significant symbol.If the no,of bits is
not evenly divisable by 4, then add 0s at the most significant end.
2. Write the corresponding 1 hex digit for each group.
Ex: 1001
9
1110
E
0111
0000 (binary)
0 (hexadecimal)
Assignment:
Convert any given decimal number into a binary form.
Module-3
LOGIC GATES
Digital signal takes discrete level, we realize this by taking switch as an example on and off
represents two different states in the case of switch. If we have two level signal than we call it as
binary signal. We can convert analog signal into digital signal by using analog to digital converter. We
can represent the output signal in analog to digital converter by using multiple bits
In case of switch or in binary signals we represent ON state as 5V OFF state as 0V.
0V 0 level
Nominally
5V1 level
I am saying 5v nominally because of present technology we say 3.1v also as 1 level.
TYPES OF LOGIC:POSITIVE LOGIC;If 0 level represents low level and 1 level represents high level than we call such type of logic as
positive logic.
Level 0 0v or -5v
Level 1 5v or 0v
1 level value of the variable is greater than the 0 level value.
i.e 5 level 1>0 level 0
NEGATIVE LOGIC :If 0 level represents high value and 1 level represent low value than we call such type of logic as
negative logic.
Level 0 5v
Level 1 0v
1 level value of the variable is less than the 0 level value.
i.e 0 level 1 < 5 level 0
CS2201 Switching
witching Circuits and Logic Design
system always work on signals.
nals. We can develop systems with the help of subsystems. Subsystems contain
modules as basis. Each module contain several function, contain logic level.
The hierarchy diagram is
systems
Subsystems
Modules
Functions
Logic levels
TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:

BLOCKS:The basic of functional blocks is logic. Two type of logic functions are present, these are
1. Combinational
2. Sequential
In digital systems we use both combinational and sequential function.
1.COMBINATIONAL FUNCTION:

Output value depends only on the current input. No memory is needed to store or
remember any value
2.SEQUENTIAL FUNCTION:Output values are depends on the current inputs and past outputs. Memory element is required to
store the previous output. Sequential logic contains combinational logic also.
BASIC COMBINATIONAL BULDING BLOCK:Basic combinational building block in digital circuits is logic gates.
LOGIC GATES;A logic gate is an electric circuit that performs a particular logic function. Logic gates
have one or more inputs terminals and one output terminal. Each input terminals represents an
independent variable. At any given instance of time every terminal is one of the two binary
conditions as high or low. In most logic gates, low state is approximately 0 or high state is 5v.
Logic gates are different types depending upon the logical function preformed by the gate.
The different types are AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR, gates.
AND GATE:The output is true if both inputs are true. Other wise the output is false.
SYMBOL:- the symbol of AND gate is given below
F=A*B is read as F is equal to A and B.

TRUTH TABLE:Previously I am considering 1 as TRUE 0 as FALSE

A
OR GATE:The output is true when one of the input is true and when the both inputs are true other wise the
output as false.
SYMBOL:-
F=A+BOR gate representa on using input variables.

A+B can read as A OR B
TRUTH TABLE
A

NOT GATE:It has one input and one output terminal. When the input is high, output is low and when
input is low, output is high
TRUTH TABLE:A
NAND GATE;It has two or more inputs terminals and one output terminals. The output is an inversion of
output of AND gate. If A and B are inputs, output is NOT (A and B)
SYMBOL
TRUTH TABLE

A
NOR GATE;It has two or more input terminals and one output terminal. The output of a NOR gate is an
inversion of the output of an OR gate i.e, if A and B are the inputs the output is NOT (A OR B)
SYMBOL;
TRUTH TABLE;A

EX-OR GATE:It has two or more input terminal, and one input terminal when both inputs are low or high the
output is low. If both inputs differ it is high.
SYMBOL:-
TRUTH TABLE
A
EX-NOR GATE;It has two or more inputs terminals, and one output terminal. The output of EX-NOR gate is an
inversion of output of an EX-NOR gate. i.e, if A and B are the inputs and the Output of and EX-NOR
gate is NOT (A+B)
SYMBOL;
TRUTH TABLE
A
Module-4
Universal Gates
Both NAND and NOR gates are called as universal gates , because we design any gate by
using any one of the two gates. First of all we see the construction of AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR
gates by using NAND.
Universal NAND gate

See the NOT gate construction using NAND gate. The NOT gate truth table is
A
0
In the
implementation of NOT using NAND we have to take only one input A.
TRUTH TABLE OF NAND

A

1
Eliminate 2 and 3 rows from the NAND truth table and make B=A. we get NOT gate.
AND
We get AND with the help of NAND by inverting the output of the NAND gate.
Replace NOT gate with equivalent NAND then we get AND gate.
The truth table of the above circuit diagram is same as AND gate.
0R

Invert both inputs A and B and provide it to NAND gate as inputs and we get OR gate as output
write equivalent NAND representation of NOT
NOR GATE
Invert output of OR then we can get NOR gate by using NAND gate.
The truth table of OR and NOR as same as previous. Because now we are constructing these gates
by using NAND GATE
X-OR GATE
Implementation of X-OR given above by using NAND gates.
X-NOR GATE
Inverting X-OR gives X-NOR gate.
UNIVERSAL NOR GATE:Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies
NOR
A
NOT GATE designing;Remove 2 and 3 and make B=A and give A as input to NOR then we get NOT gate as the output
TRUTH TABLE
A
0
OR GATE:Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies

Inversion of NOR gate gives OR gate
AND GATE:We design AND gate using NOR by inverting the both inputs A and B to the NOR gate.
Replace NOT gate by equivalent NOR circuit.
NAND GATE:Inversion of AND gate gives NAND gate.
X-NOR USING NOR:-
X-OR USING NOR:Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies

By inverting the output of X-NOR we get X-OR.
MODULE -5
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
1. Boolean algebra works with binary variables.
2. A Boolean algebra is an algebraic system consisting of the set {0,1} the binary operations called
OR,AND,NOT and denoted by the symbols "+","." and "prime" respectively.
3. Boolean algebra enables the logic designer to simplify the circuit used achieving economy of
construction and reliability of operation.
4. Boolean algebra suggests the economic and straight forward way of describing the circuitary used in
any computer system.
5. Boolean algebra is unique in the way that , it takes only two different values either 0 or 1
a. it doesn't have negative number.
b. it doesn't have fraction number.
6. the basic boolean postulates
a. logical multiplication based on AND function.
* 0 . 0 =0
* 0.1= 0
* 1 .0=0
* 1.1=1
b. logical additions based on OR function.

* 0+ 0 = 0
* 0 +1 =1
*1+0 =1
*1+1= 1
c. complement based on NOT function.

* 0 = 1
* 1 = 0.
7. boolean properties.
a. properties of AND function
1. x . 0 = 0
2. 0 . x = 0 3. x . 1 = x
4. 1 . x = x.
b. properties of OR function.
5. x+ 0 =x
6. 0 + x = x 7. x + 1 = 1 8. 1 + x = 1 9. 0 + =

c. combining a variable with itself OR its compliment.
10 . x . x = o
11. x . x = x
12. x + x = x
13. X + x = 1
14. X = x
d. commutative laws.
15. x . y = y . x
16. x + y = y + x
e. distributive laws.
17. x(y+z) = x.y + x.z
18. X + y.z = (x+y) (x+z)
f. associative laws.
19. x(y.z) = (x.y)z
20. X+(y+z)= (x+y)+z
g. absorption laws
21. x+xy=x
22. x(x+y) =x
23. x+ x y = x+y
24. x(x+ y)= xy
h. demorgans laws.
25.(x+y) = x . y
26. (x.y) = x + y
8. In boolean algebra 1 is called multiplicative identity and 0 is called additive identity.

* LITERAL : A primed or unprimed boolean variable is called literal. Each variable can have
maximum of two literals.
Eg: X Is a variable which can have two literals x and x .
Proof for some properties ;
17. X + YZ = (X+Y) (X+Z)
R.H.S = X.X+X.Z+X.Y+Y.Z
=X + XZ +XY +YZ
=X(1+Z)+XY+YZ
=X+XY+YZ
= X (1+Y)+(Y+Z)
[ 1+ Z = 1 ]
[1+Y= 1]
= X + YZ = L.H.S
22. X+ XY = X+ Y
L.H.S = X + XY
=(X + X)(X+Y)
=X+Y = R.H.S
23. X(X + Y) = XY
LHS = XX + XY = 0 + XY = XY =RHS
9. logics circuits can be simplified by simplifying the boolean equation using any one of the following
methods :
a) applying boolean properties.
b) karnaugh map method of simplification
c) tabulation method
10. The properties of boolean algebra are useful for the simplification of boolean equation leading to
minimum structure.
11. simplify the boolean equation Z = XY + X (X+Y)
XY + X (X+Y) = XY + XX + XY
= XY + XY
= (X+ X) Y = Y
DUALITY PRINCIPLE : The important property of boolean algebra is the duality principle.
It states that every algebraic expression deducible from theorems of boolean algebra remains valid if the
operators and identify elements are interchanged.
EXAMPLES:X+X=X
X.X= X
X+1=1
x.0= 0
X + x y= x
x(x +y)=x
X + y= y + x
xy=yx
BY duality
by duality
by duality
by duality

X +(Y + Z)=(X+Y)+Z
X (YZ)= (XY) Z
By duality
The dual of the exclusive OR is equal to its complement

A simple procedure to find the complement of a function is to take the dual of the function and
complement of each literal.
12. Standard product or minterm (M): consider two binary variables x and y combined with
an AND operation. Since each variable appears in direct form or in its complement form there are
four possible combinations X Y, X Y, X Y and XY. Each of these four AND terms is called a
minterm or a standard product.
X
MINTERM
XY
m0
XY
m1
m2
1
1
0
1
XY
XY
m3
Standard sum or Maxterm (M): Two binary variables X and Y combined with an OR operation we will
an OR operation we will get four possible combinations X+Y, X+, +Y and +. Each of these four
OR terms is called a Maxterm or a standard sum term.
X
0
Y
0
Maxterm
(M)
M0
X+Y
M1
X+
M2
+Y
M3
+
Each Maxterm is the compliment of its corresponding minters and vice versa.
Eg: - XY = Minterm
The compliment of minterm = (XY) = + = Maxterm

13. CANONICAL FORM: Expressing the Boolean function in standard sum of product form (SSPO)
or standard product of sums form (SPOS) is called canonical form.
1. A Boolean function may be expressed algebraically from given truth table by forming a minterm for
each combination of variables which produces 1 in the function, and then taking the OR of all those
terms.
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
O
1
F
0
1
1
1
F(X, Y) = X + Y = m (1, 2)
This representation is called SSOP form. minterm or product of maxterm are said to be canonical form.
3. Sum of products form can be implemented by using NAND NAND realization.
4. NAND-NAND realization is same as AND OR.
5. Product of sums form can be implemented by using NOR- NOR realization.
6. NOR NOR realization is same as OR - AND.
7. If the signals are propagating through two stages of gates, then it is called two level gate network.
DEGENERATIVE FORM: A two level gate network is said to be degenerative if it degenerates
to a single operation. The following two level gate networks are degenerative.
Forms:
AND-AND
OR-OR
AND
OR
OR -NOR
NOR
NOR -NAND
OR
NAND -NOR
AND
AND -NAND
NAND

Realizing
the minimal
sum of products form
of a function form truth table using Boolean
algebra
We are not sure that the given function or logical circuit is in its simplest form. It is possible to
design a circuit having less number of gates and inputs to realize the same function , then it saves
hard ware. Reduction at gate level is important.
*Characteristic table of given function;
IN PUTS
OUTPUT
F(A,B,C)
*Here three input variables
(A,B,C) are present. The possible minterms are 8.
They are:-

m0 = A B C (000), m1 = A B C (001), m2 = A B C (010), m3 = A BC (011) ,
m4 = A B C (100) , m5 = A B C (101) , m6 = AB C (110), m7 = ABC (111)

Each row in the truth table is a minterm . Output is true i.e 1 for 5 minterms. Output is false i.e 0
for 3 minterms. Function is expressed as a sum of minterms for which output is true i.e1
F ( A, B, C ) = A B C + A B C + A B C + AB C + ABC
= m(2,4,5,6,7)
(SOP)
NOTE; Reduction means reducing the number of terms and number of variables in each term. Our
goal is to make it as minimum sum of products beyond which we can not reduce further
F ( A, B, C ) = A B C + A B (C + C ) + AB (C + C )
= A B C + A B (1) + AB (C + C )
= A B C + A B + AB
= A B C + A( B + B )
= A B C + A(1)
= A B C+ A
= ( A+ A)( B C + A)
= (1)( B C + A)
= B C+ A
F ( A, B, C ) = A B C + A B C + A B C + AB C + ABC
= A B C + AB C + A
Alternative:-
= ( A+ A) B C + A
= B C+ A
= A + BC
This is the minimal sum of products form.

By using De Morgans Theorem ;
we can use the minterms for which the output is false i.e 0. To
realise the function instead of using minterms for which the output is true i.e 1. Complement of the
function ( F ) is the sum of minterms for which the output is false i.e 0.
From this we can realize that the given function is the product of max terms for which output is false i.e
0.
For max terms 0-variable ; 1- complement of variable.
A + B + C (000) M 0
A + B + C (001) M 1
A + B + C (011) M 3
Module-6
Simplification of Boolean functions
Map method of Boolean simplification
KARNAUGH maps( K-maps):

Here we are using concepts of Boolean algebra in a systematic way. In it we are
mapping the truth table on a graph. Combining the outputs that are having logical
values has true that is 1 to get the minimum possible solutions.
1. A map is a diagram made up of squares. Each square represents one minterm.
The number of squares in the karnaugh map is given by 2n. Where n= no. of
variables.
2. Two variable K-map consists of 4 cells or squares.
3. Three variable K-map consists of 8 squares or 8 cells
4. 4 variable K-map consists of 16 squares or 16 cells.
5. To maintain adjacency property gray code sequence is used in K-map(any 2
adjacent cell will differ by only one bit)
Three variable K-map:
A,B,C are three input variables so we have 8 minterms so this graph contains 8
cells or squares.
A BC 00
0
1

01

11

10

[ = 0][A=1]
A varies vertically, B,C varies horizontally
Adjacency Rule:
Allowing only one of the variable to vary from one cell to neighbor cell in
horizontal and in vertical direction, but not diagonally
In the map we are denoting 11 after 01 because of adjacency rule.

For ex: Assume output is true for minterms C and BC then we can combine these
minterms. = C + BC
= C(+B)
= C [Here one variable is removed that is B]
So we removed the variable which is varying from one cell to its neighbor cell.
Denoting 11 after 01 give a way to remove only one variable which is varying.
Consider a function F= A+B
A
First min term m0 ------ 0
Second min term- m1----- 0
Third min term- m2----- 0
Fourth min term m3----- 0
Fifth min termm4---- 1
Sixth min term ---m5----- 1
Seventh min term ----m6--- 1
Eighth min term ----m7 --- 1
BC
00
01
11
A
0
1
B C
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
0 0
0 1
1 0
1
1
F
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
10
1
1
Combine the cells that are having 1, side to side or top to bottom and find which variable has
compliment in one cell and true in adjacent cell that variable can be eliminated.
(I)
It is the sum of minterms 2 and 6
B + AB = B (+A) =B
[here A only varies vertically]
A variable is eliminated.

[II]
it is the sum of min terms 4,5,7 and 6 . here A remains constant and B and C varies with in these four
cells horizontally.
So
II = A
Now F is the sum of these two equations (I) + (II)

Therefore, F = A+B
This is the simplified Boolean equation using K-map method.
Four variable map :

Ex: simplify the Boolean function
F (P,Q,R,S) = m(0,2,3,7,11,13,14,15)
The given function is the sum of min terms 0,2,3,7,11,13,14,15 these are min terms for which output is
true i.e. 1 . in the map, map the cells corresponding to these min terms as 1 .
RS
PQ
00
01 11
10
00
1
1
1
01
11
1
1
1
10
NOTE: here 8th min term comes in last because we followed the denoting order 00, 01, 11, 10
1) Try to combine as many ones as possible in a given group, but they should all be adjacent.
2) Always start with a highest possible group of ones because sometimes the smaller group may
submerge with in the larger group.
3) We can combine a cell with 1 more than once.
4) Every one (1) should be included without leaving any one.
I-this is the maximum block of ones. Here PQ varies vertically and RS remains same. This is the combination of 3,
7, 15, 11. So we can eliminate variables PQ and RS remain in the final solution.
I= RS
II- this is the combination 13, 15. In it R only varies horizontally and PQS remains constant. So
II= PQS
III- this is the combination of 14,15. Here S varies horizontally. So III= PQR

IV- this is the combination 0,2. Here the logical adjacency exists between the cells 0 and 2 as IV=
Since R only varies from 2 to 0.
Final expression can be written as
F= (I) + (II) +(III) +(IV)

F= RS + PQS + PQR +
Each of the product term (I, II, III, IV) which are combined to form sum of products is called an implicant.
Implicant:- Any possible group ones.
Example:- 1) {0,2}
7) {11, 15}
2) {3,2}
3) {3,7}
4) {7,5}
5) {13,15}
6) {14, 15}
8) {3,7,15,11}
Prime Implicant:- largest possible group ones. Implicants may be submerged into a prime implicants.
Eg: {0,2},
{3,7,5,11},
{13,15}, {14,15}
Essential Prime Implicant:- A group with at least one cell with truth value 1 has not been covered in any
prime implicant.
Eg: {0,2},
{3,7,5,11},
{13,15}, {14,15}
Those are the four essential prime implicants because they have at least one truth value 1 which is not
covered.
Note1:- To eliminate n variables there should be a combination of 2n adjacent cells having output as true i.e. 1
Note2:- An essential prime implicant covering all min terms having unique minimal form
Eg:- F= m(12,15,13,7,15,6,11)
Note3:- For the given function in K-map every min term is covered exactly by two prime implicants such a K-map
is called cyclic.
Module-7
VARIABLE MAPS
INTRODUCTION:
In the last lecture we introduce the map method of boolean simplification. we
use a karnaugh map which is a graphical representation of a truth table, filled this graph
with 1's corresponding to the cells whose minterms had a output true. The object is to
identify groups of 1's as large as possible with satisfying the adjacency rule.

FOUR VARIABLE K-MAP:
Four variable k-map consists of 24=16 squares or 16 cells. The rows and columns
are numbered in a gray code sequence, with only one digit changing value between two
adjacent rows or columns.
RULES TO SIMPLIFY K-MAPS:

1. At the time of grouping the adjacent cells containing 1's always use maximum
possible group.
2. All the 1's must be covered atleast once in any group.
3. At the time of grouping don't care(x) values can be taken as 1's.
4. All don't care values need not be covered.
m0
m1
m3
m2
m4
m5
m7
m6
m12 m13 m15 m14

m8
m9
m11 m10
fig: Four variable map

The combination of adjacent squares that is useful during the simplification
process is easily determined from the inspection of four variable map.
One square represents one minterm, giving a term of four literals.
Grouping two adjacent squares containing 1's represents a term of three literals.
Grouping four adjacent squares containing 1's represents a term of two literals.
Grouping eight adjacent squares containing 1's represents a term of one literal.

Grouping sixteen adjacent squares containing 1's represents the function=1(a term
of zero literals).
No other combination of squares can simplify the function.
PRIME IMPLICANTS:
In choosing adjacent squares in a map, we must ensure that
1. All the minterms of the function are covered when we combine the squares.
2. The number of terms in the expression is minimized, and
3. There are no reduntant terms. some times there may be two or more expressions that
satisfy the simplification criteria.
Any group of 1's is an implicant. A prime implicant is a product term obtained by
combining the maximum possible number of adjacent squares in the map. If a minterm in
a square is covered by only one prime implicant, that prime implicant is said to be
essential.
FIVE VARIABLE MAP:

A five variable map needs 32 squares and a six variable map needs 64
squares. The five variable map shown in below fig. It consists of 2 four variable maps
with variables A,B,C,D and E. Variable A distinguishes between the two maps, as
indicated at the top of the diagram. The left hand four variable map represents 16 squares
in which A=0, and the other four variable map represents the squares in which A=1.
Minterms 0 through 15 belong with A=0 and minterms 16 through 31 with A=1. Each
four variable map retains the previously defined adjacency when taken separately. In
addition each square in the A=0 map is adjacent to the corresponding square in the A=1
map. For example, minterm 12 is adjacent to minterm 10to21.The best way to visualize
this new rule for adjacent squares is to consider the two half maps as being one on top of
the other. Any two squares that fall one over the other are considered adjacent.
SIX VARIABLE MAP:


By following the procedure used for the five variable map ,it is possible to
construct a six variable map with 4 four variable maps to obtain the required 64 squares.
Maps with six or more variables need too many squares and are impractical to use. the
alternative is to employ computer functions with large number of variables.
Module-8
CODE CONVERTERS
INTRODUCTION:
We have seen the techniques for reduction of boolean functions by using
boolean algebra as well as kmaps. The object is to design circuits as per the given
specifications by using these techniques.
There are two types of the digital circuits i.e., combinational and sequential

circuits. Combinational circuits are the circuits whose output is based on the inputs and
the sequential circuits are the circuits whose output is depends on the input and as well as
the previous behaviour of the circuit.
DESIGN OF COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS:

Code converters are one class of circuits in combinational logic. Code
converters, more specifically encoders and decoders, have been used by security agencies
to protect private information. Indeed code converters have proven to be so effective that
the National Security Agency (NSA) has made a career out of creating and breaking
codes.
Example:
When we speak into cellular phone, an encoder converts the sound of our voice
into electrical signals. which can travel very fast over very long distances. When the
electrical signal get to another cellular phone, a decoder converts the electrical signal
back to the sound of our voice.
So code converters are used for more than protecting private information from
spies.
The class of codes which are used for simplification of hardware one is called
excess-3 code and other is called gray code.
DECIMAL TO EXCESS-3 CODE CONVERTER:

Excess-3 code is used to convert a set of numbers to another set of numbers. By this
code arithmetic complementing operation is easier. This is the reason why we go for
excess-3 code. The excess-3 system simply adds 3 to each number to make the codes
look different. The excess-3 BCD system has some properties that made it useful in early
computers.
BCD
b3
b2
b1
EXCESS-3
b0
E3
E2
E1
E0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
.
.
.
.
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
.
.
.
.
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
.
.
.
.
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
X
.
.
.
.
X
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
.
.
.
.
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
X
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
X
.
.
.
.
X
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
X
.
.
.
.
X
.
.
.
.
X
Table: Truth table BCD to excess-3

Now we will have to take each of the values E0,E1,E2,E3 and find out the logic
function which can represent E0,E1,E2,E3 in terms of b0,b1,b2,b3.
E0,E1,E2,E3 = f(b0,b1,b2,b3)
BINARY TO GRAY CODE CONVERTER:

The gray code is often used in digital systems that because it has the advantage
that only one bit in the numerical representation changes between successive numbers.
Binary Code
Decimal
number
Gray Code
B
G3
G2
G1
G0

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
Table: Truth table for binary to gray code conversion
GRAY CODE:
The gray code belongs to a class of codes called minimum change codes, in
which only one bit in the code changes when moving from one code to the next. The gray
code is non weighted code, as the position of bit does not contain any weight. The gray
code is a reflective digital code which has the special property that any two subsequent
numbers codes differ only by one bit. This is also called a unit distance code. In digital
gray code it has got a special place.
CONVERSION FROM BINARY NUMBER TO GRAY NUMBER:

It is easy to convert the binary number to gray number. For example take a binary
number i.e., 101101
Step 1: 101101 first write the MSB as it is i.e., 1
Step 2: add and bit next to the MSB i.e., 1+0=1

Step 3: again add 0 and 1 we get i.e., 0+1=1
Step 4: again add 1 and 1 we get 1+1=0
Step 5: in previous step carry is occured so neglect that carry. Note that dont add
carry to next add numbers then again add 1+0=1
Step 6: add 0+1=1
Answer : Gray code is 111011
Module-9
PARITY GENERAROR
Parity Generator:
A parity bit is used for the purpose of detecting errors during transmission of binary
information .A parity bit is an extra bit included with a binary message to make the
number of is either odd or even. The message including the parity bit is transmitted and

then checked at the receiving end for the errors. An error is detected if the checked
parity does not correspond with the one transmitted
The circuit the generates the parity bit in the transmitter is called a parity generator and
the circuit that checks the parity in the receiver is called parity checker.
In even parity the added parity will make the total number of 1s an even number of
amount and odd parity the added parity bit will make the total number of 1s an odd
amount it is not necessary that should odd parity has one and even parity as zero as
long as there is a complete understanding between sender and receiver these called
protocol they no what is the number of bits we sending they should also know whether
you send parity bit or not at the end of group. And also know odd parity or even parity.
In a three bit odd parity generator the three bits in the message to ether with the parity
bit are transmitted to their destination, where they are applied to parity checker circuit
.the parity checker circuit checks for errors in the transmission.
Since the information was transmitted with odd parity the four bits received must have
an odd number of 1s an error occurs during transmission if the four bits received have n
even number of 1s,indicating that one bit has changed during transmittion.The output of
parity of the parity checker is denoted by PEC(parity
Error checker) and it will be equal to 1 it an error occurs it the four, bits received has an
even number of is.

3-bit odd parity generator
Input
A
output
B
From the truth table the expression for output parity

P (A,B,C)= (0,3,5,6)
From k.map
P= ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC

= A (BC+BC) + A (BC+BC)
P
= AP+AP
= A P
= A BC
Circuit Diagram:
4-Bit odd parity generator:

B3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
b2
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
b1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
b0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
p
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
4-bit odd Generator:
BCD to 7-segment display decoder:

Every where we are using decimal numbers.In this circuit the inputs are
decimal to we have to use decimal to binary converter.A display is made up of an LED
independent on other leds.We need 7-outputs from circuit for 7 segments.
INPUTS
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
B
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
OUTPUTS
C
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
D
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
a
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
B
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
c
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
D
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
e
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
f
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
G
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1

a = A + BD + CD + B D
c = B + C+ D
e = B D+ C D
b = B + C D + CD
d = B D+ C D+ B C + B C D
f = A + C D+ B C + B D
g = A + B C+ B C + C D
There are so many gates common for some segments.So make as many as common
terms and rest of them are cant be accommodated with them.Make that common
terms unique and reduce design effort.
Module-10
ARITHMETIC CIRCUITS
Arithmetic circuits:
Simplest arithmetic operation is adder
1. Half adder
2. Full adder
1. Half adder:
Half adder is one which can only take two digits and add the sum and
get the carry and not taking carry of previous position of addition.
A logic circuit for the addition of two one bit numbers is referred to as
an half adder.
A and B are the two inputs and s(sum) and carry(c) are the outputs
S=A+B
A
Carry is when we have a digit over flowing that over flow has to accomdated
else where in the next time computation stak.you have to take into account
this over flow.

Circuit Diagram:
From truth table:

S=A B
C=AB
The half adder is used for 1 bit addition.No practical use except for every
first bit position.It not used for multibit number.To over come this we need
another circuit known as full adder.Half adder has only two inputs and there
is no provision to add a carry coming from the lower order bits when multibit
addition is performed.

For this purpose a 3rd input terminal is added and this circuit is used to add
An,Bn and Cn-1 where An and Bn are nth order bits of numbers A and B
respectively and Cn-1 is the carry generated from addition of (n-1)th order
bits.this circuit is refered to as full order.
Sum=A B Ci
Carry C0=AB+BC+CA
=AB+Ci(A+B)
This carry we can represent in XOR gates also.
C0=AB+Ci(A A B )
But we will use this occasionally for to know next carry to reduce time delay
In this the adders we have time delay i.e propagation delay.carry

propagation and sum propagation there is no difference between these two
propagations.
Circuit Diagram:
In this circuit carry in is the carry out of previous addition such a adder
which take carry from previous addition is called full order.
This is used for practical purpose and for multibit
Truth table:
A
Cin
C0
Output is represtion of number of 1s in input

But we mainly consider carry propagation delay because the carry has
to propagate through are the gates but no need of sum propagation.The sum
has to leave in every stage.
4-bit full adder:
The very first carry of total circuit we will take as 0 and to calculate
sum in every stage we need carry out of previous stage so there is a delay of
carry propagation.

Gate delay depends on number of inputs and type of gate.
Full order is unit of propragation delay Tp.
For 16 bit and 32 bit adders we need to cascade 4bit or 8bit full
adders.
Module-11
CARRY LOOK A HEAD ADDERS

Propagation delay is the average transition delay time for a signal to propagate from input to output.It is the
time delay between the application of a level change at the input and the change of state at the output of a
circuit. This propagation delay depends on the lenth of signal path or the length that the signal has to traverse
from input to the output.
When we would like to design faster system or faster circuits, the propagation delay has to be taken into
consideration where the length of the paths that the signal is going to traverse has to be reduced.
A carry look ahead adder is a type of adder used in digital logic that imp roves speed by reducing the amount
of time required to determine carry bits. consider for example a four fit adder where a carry bit is calculated
along the sum bit, and each bit must wait until the previous carry has been caluclated.
Here in this adder each bit will not wait for previous carry but looks carry ahead and thus reduces the wait time
to calculate the result. For example consider,
A =
A3
B =
B3
C3
S3
A2
B2
S2
A1
A0
B1
S1
B0
S0
For a full adder circuit the truth looks like

A
Ci
C0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
B = 1 is Ci = 1
Both A & B are 1 , AB = 1
Here the carry output is 1 if A & B are 1 irrespective of the previous carry and the carry output is 1. If
A
B is 1 an carry input is 1. So we can conclude carry output as

Co
AB + (A
B) Ci = G + PCi
Carry generate
Carry propagate
If A and B are 1 then irrespective of the carry input the output carry is generated . so , we refer to it as carry
generate.
If A
B I is 1 and ci=1 then output is generated that means the carry is generated based on the previous
+
carry that is propagrated. So, we refer to it as carry propagate.
Let us consider a 4-bit adder
B3
A3
B2
A2
B1
A1
CI
C2
B0
A0
Cin
C1
C-1
C0
C3
Ci = Gi + Pi Ci-1
C0 = G0 + P0C-1
C1 = G1 + P1C0
C2 = G2 + P2C1
C3 = G3 + P3C2
= G1 + P1G0 + P1P0C-1
= G2 + P2(G1+P1G0+P1P0C-1)
= G3 + P3G2+P3 P2 (G1 + P1G0 + P1 P0 C-1)
Now from each Pi , Gi and C-1 we can generate each Ci from the set of equations that we have derived earlier .
so now the 4-bit adder can be remolded as.
So, carry look ahead adder is one of basic techniques to improve speed of addition. In the basic adder
We have to wait for previous carries which is in contrast with this technique as it just the matter of extra
combinational logic.
Fan in : no. of inputs can give to a gate without any degradation in the performance.
Fan out : no.of outputs you can take from a gate to feed similar gates without degradation in the
performance of output.
Though CLA adder is quite advantareous regarding speed or the performance it has two
disadvantares.
1) Non uniformity or non modularity of CLA adder and
2) There is limit on no.of bits we have to do
So here in CLA adder each bit in a binary sequence to be added, the CLA logic will determine
whether the bit pair will generate a carry or propagate a carry.
Module-12
12. SUBSTRACTORS

COMPLEMENTS :
In digital systems complements are used for simplifying the subtraction operation and for
logical manipulation. There are two types of complements for each base-r system. The first is referred
to as the rs complement and the second as the (r-1)s complement.
For binary numbers of radix 2 the two types are referred to as 2s complement and for decimal
numbers the two types are referred to as 10s complement and 9s complement.
rs complement
-------------- radix complement
(r-1)s complement -------------- diminished radix complement
RADIX COMPLEMENT :
The rs complement of an n-digital number N in base r is defined as rn-N , for N 0 and 0 for N=0
.
EG: the 10s complement of decimal (1725)10 is 104 1725 = (8275)10
The 2s complement of binary (101)2 is 23 -101 = 1000-101 = (011)2.
DIMINISHED RAIDX COMPLEMENT :

Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r-1)s complement of N is defined as (rn-1)-N.
Eg: for a decimal number 729 of base 10 the (10-1)s complement
Or
9s complement = (103-1)-729=999-729=27010
For a binary number 1101 of base 2 the (2-1)s complement or
1s complement = (24-1) 1101 = (10000-1)-1101 =1111-1101 = (0010)2.
We can obtain rs complement from (r-1)s complement by adding 1 to it.
SUBSTRACTION USING COMPLEMENTS :


In the direct method of subtractions we use the barrow concept which is less efficient than
method that uses complements so, now we turn our attention towards indirect method of subtraction
that uses complements.
Let us consider the substraction of two signed numbers M,N in base r. there 2 cases will occur. They
are if 1) M>N 2) M<N
CASE 1 :
Here inorder to perform M-N we compute M + (rs complement of N ) this performs
M+(rn N ) = M N + rn
The above sum will produce an end carry , rn, which can be discarded
= M N + rn --------- discarded
[ rn = M-N]
e.g. Let M =0110 ---------------6

N = 0011 -----------------3
2 s compliment of N= 1100+1=1101
M-N= 0110 1101=*0011 = 0011 --------3
(*is discarded carry)
Without discarding carry the sum will be M+(rn-N) which rearranged as M-N+rn. so, inorder to obtain M-N, rn
should be removed.
M-N = M+(rn-N)-rn
In the previous example the sum is 10011 and rn =10000
=>M-N = 1001 10000 = 00011 ---------- 3
END AROUND CARRY (EAC):

EG : let M = 0101, N = 0010
1s complement of N =1101
M + 1s complement of N --------- 0101 + 1101 = *0010 + 1 = 0011
Here we added 1s complement of N to M. but subtraction of N from M is equal to addition of

M and 2s complement of N. so we need to add 1 to 2s complement the number inorder to do so we utilize the
discarded overfilow that means in the sense we bring the carry around and add this to the sum that is obtained
in the previous step. After adding the carry to the list significant digit of the sum we obtained desired result.
Remember that if the discarded bit is 1 , the result is positive . if the discarded bit is 0, the result is
negative.
CASE 2 :
Here M<N and the sum doesnt produce an end carry and is equal to M+(rn-N) which can be rearranged
as rn (N-M) that means the sum is rth complement of (N-M).
Therefore
M-N = -(N-M)
= -(rn (rn-(N-M)) ) = -(rn - SUM)
= -( 2S COMPLEMENT OF SUM )
where SUM = rn-(N-M).
Here sum is not the actual result . as the discarded bit is 0 in this case the result is a negative with
magnitude equal to 2s complement of sum . actually the sum is signed representation of the negative result as
most significant bit is 1.
To demonstrate this above hypothesis let us consider an example.
E.g.: M = 0011 , N = 0101
2s complement of N = 1010 + 1 = 1011
Therefore
M ----------- 0 0 1 1
2s complement of N ------------ 1 0 1 1
Sum------------- 1 1 1 0
MSB
Therefore
M-N = -(2s complement of sum )

= -(0010) = -2
Here the discarded bit is 0 indicates that the result negative and MSB as 1 indicates that the result is signed
representation of -2.
MODULE-13
2'S COMPLEMENT SUBTRACTOR AND BCD ADDER

1'S COMPLEMENT: The invertor of the given number.
Ex: Q: 101001
Ans : 010110
2'S COMPLEMENT: 1's complement of given number plus one.
Ex: Q: 1001
1's complement of number - 0110
Adding one to the number - 1
2's complement of number - 0111
Let A, B are two binary numbers
If both are positive then add those numbers
If A or B or both are negative, then to add these numbers we have to use 2's complement method.
Ex:
(1)
A
0101
B
1001
A+B
1110
(2
A
0101
1's complement of B 0110
B
1001
2's complement of B 0111 (-B)
A-B
1100
A
0101
(-B)
0111
A+ (-B) 1100
-4
Since 1 100 indicates - 4
If MSB is 1 then the number is negative.
If MSB is 0 then the number is addition of complement numbers.
In case of binary numbers, it is 2's complement.
4 - BIT REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS:
Here Most Significant Bit is singed bit and remaining three are magnitude bits.
If MSB is Zero then number is greater than or equal to zero (>=) that is positive.
If MSB is one then number is less than Zero (<) that is negative.
Ex: (1)
b3 b2 b1 b0
if b3 is '0' then it is "positive".
if b3 is '1' then it is "negative".
(2)
Q: 0 0 0 1
A: + 1
(3)
Q: 0 1 0 1
A: +
5
(4)
Q: 1 0 1 1
A: 6
Here MSB is '1", it is negative. So we have to do 2's complement.
Q: 1 0 1 0
1's complement of number
101
2's complement of number
1 1 0 (101+1)
Therefore 1010 is -6
In 4- bit representation, we have only three magnitude bits.
So,
The maximum "+ve" number is +7 "0111"

The minimum "+ve" number is 0 "0000"
Similarly, The maximum "-ve" number is -1 "1111"
The minimum "-ve" number is -8 "1000"
Therefore, The positive numbers are from 0 to7.
The negative numbers are from 0 to 8.
Truth table for 4-bit representation of numbers
Signed numbers
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
4 bit binary number

0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
Ex: (1) + 5 : 0 1 0 1
(2) + 7 : 0 1 1 1
(3) - 5 : 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 ( 1's complement of magnitude bits )
+ 1 (adding one to get 2's complement)
1 1 0 1 (-5)
(4) - 8 : 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 (1's complement of magnitude bits )
+ 1 (adding one to get 2's complement)
1 0 0 0 (-8)
GENERAL 4-BIT ADDER/ SUBTRACTOR (A+B) OR (A-B)
If we want to add A,B then it takes ADD = 0 and Cin =0

next 0
B = B then B
Cin(0) = B. Therefore, the adder directly adds the A,B.
If we want subtraction of A, B then it takes SUB = 1 and Cin =1. When SUB = 1, then SUB
B
*
'
= B (complement of B) and Cin=1. So, when we add 1 to B we get 2' s complement of B, that is
"B", then the adder will adds the A and -B, so we get A-B.
The circuit will gives adder as well as subtraction.
Since it is a 4- bit adder , it adds upto 15 only. If sum is greater than fifteen then it will not give and
appropriate answer.
Up to "BOX1" it gives only magnitude that is unsigned bit (i.e. it gives sum upto15).
If we consider the whole circuit then it gives the signed output.
If output is signed bit then it gives sum upto +7 only.
If sum is greater than '7' then it won't give exact answer.
BCD ADDER:
Consider the arithmetic addition of two decimal digits in BCD, together with a possible carry from a
previous stage. Since each input digit does not exceed '9', the output sum cannot be greater than 9 +
9 + 1 = 19, where '1' is the input carry.
That is, if we apply to BCD digits to a four bit binary adder, the adder will from the sum in binary
and produce a result that may range from 0 to 19.
TRUTH TABLE FOR DERIVATION OF A BCD ADDER
Decimal
Binary sum
BCD sum
Number
C*
S3*
S2*
S1*
S0*
C*
S3*
S2*
S1*
S0*
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Above table represents conversion binary sum to BCD sum.
In this conversion, upto '9' the BCD number is same as the binary number.
When the sum is greater than '9', we obtain non - valid BCD representation. so, the addition of binary
6 (0110) to the binary sum, converts it to the correct BCD representation and also produces an out
put carry as required.
The logic circuit that detects the necessary correction can be derived from the table entires.
The correction is needed when C* = 1 (or)
S*3 S*2 =1 (or)
S*3 S*1 = 1
Therefore, the Boolean function C = C*+ S*3 S*2 + S*3 S*1
When C = 1, it is necessary to add 0110 to the binary sum and provide an output carry for the next
stage.
DESCRIPTION ABOUT BCD ADDER
BCD adder is a circuit that adds two BCD digits in parallel and produces a sum digit also in BCD.
BCD adder must include the correction logic in its internal construction.
To add 0110 to the binary sum, we use a second 4 - bit adder.
The two decimal digits, together with the input carry are first added in the top 4 - bit binary adder to
produce the binary sum.
When the output carry is equal to zero, nothing is added to the binary sum. When it is equal to one,
binary 0110 is added binary sum through the bottom 4 - bit binary adder.
The output carry generated from the bottom binary adder can be ignored, since it supplies
information already available at the output carry terminal.
The BCD adder can be constructed with three IC packages. Each of the 4- bit adder is an MSI
function and the three gates for the correction, logic need one SSI package. However, the BCD adder
is available in one MSI circuit. To achieve shorter propagation delays, an MSI BCD adder includes
the necessary circuits for look - ahead carries.
The adder circuit for the correction does not need all four full - adders, and this circuit can be
optimized within IC packages.
THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF BCD ADDER
NOTE :
A decimal parallel adder that adds 'n' decimal digits need ' n' BCD adder stages.
SUMMARY :
Explanation about two's complement with examples.
A 4 -bit representation of numbers.
Design of 4 - bit adder / subtraction.
Design of BCD adder.
MODULE 14
ARRAY MULTIPLIER
ARRAY MULTIPLIER:
It is a digital combinational circuit.
It is used for the multiplication of two binary numbers by employing an array of

full adders and half adders.
This array is used for the nearly simultaneous addition of the various product
terms involved. To form the various product terms, an array of ' AND' gates is used
before the adder array.
The main advantage of array multiplier over traditional bit serial multipliers is, it
improves the speed.
BASIC THINGS TO SPEED UP ARE :
Repeated addition - it is inefficient.
Shift and add with a set of adders - we repeatedly do it.
Shift and add several times - working all with same times.
DEFINITION OF ARRAY MULTIPLIER :

The circuit within do the "shift and add" all at ones is called as an array
multiplier.
It also called parallel multiplier.
It takes array of adders.
EXAMPLES
(1) 2 - Bit array multiplier :

a1 a0
------- multiplicand
b1 b0
------- multiplier
a1 b 0 a0 b 0
a1 b 1
p3
p2
a0 b1
p1
p0
------- product
p0 = a0 b0
p1 = a1 b0 + a0 b1
p2 = a1 b1 + c1, where c1 = carry generator during the addition for p1 term.
p3 = c2 , where c2 = carry generator during the addition of p2 term.
LOGICAL DIAGRAM :
HA = half adder
pi = product terms ( i = 0,1,2,3 )

c = carry
s = sum
Ts = sum bit propagation time
Tc = carry bit propagation time
(2) 3 * 3 array multiplier
a2
b2
a1
b1
a0
b0
------- multiplicand
------- multiplier
a2 b0 a1 b0 a0 b0
a2 b1 a1b1 a0 b1
a2b2 a1b2 a0b2
p5
p4
p3 p2
p1
p0
product terms
p0 = a0 b0
p1 = a1 b0 + a0 b1
p2 = a2 b0 + a1 b1 + a0b2 + c1
p3 = a2 b1 + a1b2 + c2
p4 = a2b2 + c3
p 5 = c4
where c1, c2, c3, c4 are carry generators during the addition for p1, p2, p3, p4
respectively.
LOGIC DIAGRAM :
Where
HA = half adder
FA = full adder
pi = product terms ( i = 0,1,2,3,4,5 )
c = carry
s = sum
Ts = sum bit propagation time
Tc = carry bit propagation time

(3) 4 * 4 array multiplier
a3
b3
a2
b2
a1
b1
b0
a3b0 a2 b0
a3b1 a2 b1 a1b1
a0
a1 b0 a0 b0
a0 b1
a3b2 a2b2 a1b2 a0 b2

a3 b 3
p7
p6
a2b3
p5
a0b3 a0b3
p4
p3
p2
p1
p0
Logic Diagram
For 2 * 2 multiplier (see ex :1)

Number of AND gates required are 2*2 = 4
Total number of adders required are (2-1) * 2 = 1 * 2 = 2
Numbers of 'HA' required are '2'
Numbers of 'FA' required are ' ( 2 - 2 ) * 2 ' = 0 * 2 = 2
Number of product terms = number of bits in multiplier * bit
width of each partialproduct
= 2 * 2= 4
For 3 * 3 multiplier ( see ex 2)

Number of AND gates required are 3*3 = 9
Total number of adders required are (3-1) * 3 = 2 * 3 = 6
Numbers of 'HA' required are ' 3 '
Numbers of 'FA' required are ' ( 3 - 2 ) * 3 ' = 1 * 3 = 3
width of each partial product
= 3*2
= 6
Similarly for m * n multiplier :
Number of AND gates = m * n

Total number of adders = ( m - 1 ) * n
Numbers of 'HA'
= n
Numbers of 'FA'
= (m-2) *n

width of each partial product
Even through it improves the speed, still there is a level of delay invovled in an
array multiplier before the final product is achieved. That is
For an " m * n" bit multiplier
Let Ta = AND gate propagation delay
Ts = sum bit propagation delay

Tc = carry bit propagation delay
Final product delay is
T ={Ta + [ (m-1) + (n -1) ] Tc , if Tc > Ts
Ta + ( m-1) Tc + ( n - 1 ) Ts, if Tc <Ts }
Ex : For 4 * 4 multiplier ( see ex 3)

The final product delay (T) = { Ta + 6 Tc , if Tc > Ts
Ta+ 3 Tc + 3 Ts, if Tc < Ts }
CONCLUSION :
Array multiplier is an electronic circuit used in digital electronics to
multiply two binary numbers.
ADVANTAGE :
It improves the speed.
DISADVANTAGE :
Even though it improves the speed it has some propagation delay.
SUMMARY :
Array multiplier definition
Advantages and disadvantages of array multiplier.
Examples of Array Multiplier.
Knowledge about m * n array multiplier.
Module-15
INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS

The digital circuits considered so far have been combinational, where the outputs are
entirely depends up on the current inputs. Although every digital system likely to have
combinational circuits, most systems encountered in practice also include storage
elements, which require that the system be described in terms of sequential logic.
In sequential circuits present output depends on present outputs and past outputs of
the system where as in combinational circuits output is influenced only by present
inputs. This is the difference between combinational circuits and sequential circuits.
There are two main types of sequential circuits and their classification depends on the
timing of their signals. A synchronous sequential circuit is a system whose behavior can
be defined from the knowledge of its signal at discrete instant of time. The behavior of
an asynchronous sequential circuit depends upon the input signals at any instant of time
and the order in which the inputs change. The storage elements commonly used in
asynchronous sequential circuits are time delay devices. Thus, an asynchronous
sequential circuit may be regarded as a combinational circuit with feedback. Because of
the feedback among logic gates, an asynchronous sequential circuit may become
unstable at times.
A synchronous sequential circuit employs the signal that affects the storage elements
only at discrete instant of time. Synchronization is achieved by a timing device called a

clock generator. That provides a periodic train of clock pulses. The clock pulses are
distributed throughout the system in such way that storage elements are affected only
with arrival of each pulse.
LATCHES
The basic storage (memory) elements are latches. The latches introduced here basic
circuits from which all flip-flops are constructed. Although latches are useful for storing
binary information and for the design of asynchronous sequential circuits, they are not
practical for used in synchronous sequential circuits.
SR LATCH
The SR latch is a circuit with two cross-coupled NOR gates or two cross coupled NAND
gates. It has two inputs labeled S for SET and R for RESET. In digital language SET
means output is 1 and RESET means output is 0. This latch has two useful states.
When the output Q=1 and QI=0, is said to be SET. When the output Q=0 and QI=1,
is said to be RESET. The each outputs Q and QI are normally the complement of each
other. How-ever when both inputs are equal to 1 at same time, an undefined state with
both outputs equal to 0 occurs.
When S=0 and R=0 the outputs are depends upon previous output of Q and QI. it is
called memory state.

When S=1 and R=0 the outputs Q=1 and QI=0 respectively it is called SET state.
When S=0 and R=1 the outputs Q=0 and QI=1 respectively it is called RESET state.
When S=1 and R=1 the outputs are 0. it is called invalid state. Because of Q and QI
should be complement to each other.
THE NAND GATE VERSION OF SR LATCH
FLIP-FLOPS
A flip flop circuit can maintain a binary state indefinitely (as long as power is delivered to
the circuit) until directed by an input signal to switch states. The major differences
among various types of flip-flops are in the number of inputs they posses and the
manner in which the inputs effect the binary state.
SR FLIP-FLOP
The operation of the basic flip flop can be modified by providing additional control input
that determines when the state of the circuit is to be changed. An RS flip-flop with a
clock pulse (cp) input is shown.
CS2201 Switching
witching Circuits and Logic Design
The pulse input acts as an enable signal for the other two inputs.
Let us assume previous output is zero for starting time. At t1 cp and S=0 and R=1 so Q=0
until t2 and now cp=0 means it assigns its previous state i.e. Q as 0. In this SR flip-flop
flip
to
get output as 1 we have to supply two inputs S and R as 1,0 respectively. To avoid this
we have another flip-flop
flop called D
D-flip-flop.

When clk =1
If S=1 and R=0 the outputs Q=1 and QI=0 respectively.
If S=0 and R=1 the outputs Q=0 and QI=1 respectively.
When clk =0, it gives the previous output and it is known as memory state.
The D-flip-flop can be shown as
Generally flip-flops can perform following operations:

1.
2.
3.
4.
SET operation
RESET operation
MEMORY operation
TOGGLE operation
All these operations can be performed by JK-flip-flop. Before going to JK-flip-flop, let us
look at this special or modified SR-flip-flop.
Toggle means complement of previous outputs. Here one disadvantage that is while S, R
and clk are at logic level 1 , it gives output Q ,QI, Q ,QI, Q ,QI............ and this
phenomenon is called RACING.
In previous case this logic condition(S=R=1) is unpredictable and now it is predictable,

but not useful.
Changing states from Qn to QnI or QnI to Qn is known as toggling and when this happens
continuously it is called Racing.
Race is uncontrollable
Toggle is controllable
If we can control racing phenomenon then it is useful. It can be done by restricting the
output to clock periods means the output is effected by inputs only once at a clock
period.
If clock on time < propagation delay of flip-flop then racing can be avoided.

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

Sk.Riyaz Hussain Page 1

CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

Sk.Riyaz Hussain Page 2

CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies

Sk.Riyaz Hussain Page 3

CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

In conventional arithmetic, a number system based upon 10 units(0-9) is used.

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

The answer is 2310 = (10111)2

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

I am saying 5v nominally because of present technology we say 3.1v also as 1 level.

i.e 5 level 1>0 level 0

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TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

F=A*B is read as F is equal to A and B.

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

F=A+BOR gate representa on using input variables.

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

Universal NAND gate

TRUTH TABLE OF NAND

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CS2201 Switching Circuits and Logic Design

write equivalent NAND representation of NOT

B + AB = B (+A) =B