.

[4] ,

.
Jdrzej
niadecki, 1807,
44.
Vesta

. ,
,
. niadecki,
, .[5]

(Jns Jakob Berzelius),

(Gottfried Wilhelm Osann) ' 1827.[6]

. Berzelius
, Osann
,
(pluranium), (ruthenium)
(polinium). ,

.[7]

(ruthenium)
44
101,07. "Ru"
8 ,
5 d-block, 2
.
2334 C 4150 C.[1]
,
" ", PGM, Platinum Group
Metals.
, , , , , .

PGM
.
PGM , 1844 (Karl Claus)
, (Ruthenia), .[2]

1828

,
,
.
. 1844, ( : 96 Ru, 98 Ru, ) (Karl Ernst Claus Karl Karlovich
Klaus) (1796-1864) 99
Ru, 100 Ru, 101 Ru, 102 Ru 104 Ru.
Osann .[3] Claus 6
1
( )
- ,
[7]
. Claus
,
.
16 .
18 - ,
.
,
[7]
, , Demidov 5000 . Claus [3]
19 . Berzelius,
1828,
- .
""
1

2 - -

2.1

PGM
, , , , .
, RuS2
FeS2 .[10]
PGM , :

11 % Ru,
2 % Ru.[11]


.

2.2 -

Karl Ernst Claus

(Ruthenia), (Rus),

, , ,
.
Osann 1828.
Claus:[7]
I named the new body, in honour of
my Motherland, ruthenium. I had every right
to call it by this name because Mr. Osann
relinquished his ruthenium and the word does
not yet exist in chemistry.
( , , .
. Osann
()
)

- -

74o ,
. 12
,
5000 .[8]

PGM . , , 3 g /tn.
(), 0,2 g Pt/tn.
PGM . .

, , , . '
,
4 7 .[12] , "
", PGM,
, .
100 1000 .
.
-
,
,

, . , 1400 ,

2.4

.
1500 C
,
. . , Stillwater ... 850.000
,
15,5 PGM[13]
,
100 /, 1600 C ,
, "" (matte)
PGM . matte , , ,
PGM.

2.3

3
(Na2 O2 )
IrO2 Ru Os
RuO4 2- OsO4 2-
.
RuO4 OsO4 .
(VIII), RuO4 ,
, HCl, , H3 RuCl6 Ru
NH4 Cl , (NH4 )3 RuCl6
Ru 100 C :
2(NH4 )3 RuCl6 + 3H2 2Ru + 6NH4 Cl + 6HCl.

2.4

,
,
.

, ,
, .[14]

.
Ru
[9][15] : (Au) /
(Ag) .

(Pt),
(Pd) Au. . (Ru),
(Os), (Rh), (Ir) Ag
.
(Pb)
(HNO3 ) Ag
Pb (AgNO3 ) (Pb(NO3 )2 ). Ru, Os, Rh, Ir.
(aHSO4 ) ,
(),
Rh2 (SO)3 , (Ru, Os, Ir)
,

MBq[. 1] /g PGM
. Ru. Pd , Rh .

235 U
63,44 Ru
. 3 % , 1
1,9 Kg Ru.[16] 103 Ru (
39 ) 106 Ru ( 373 ) .
,
10 . Ru
,
.[17]

3
8:00 (
) 26 2012 127
/.[18]
,
.

99,9 %[. 2]
1992 2005 56 /. 2006 '
180 /
2008 365 /. 2009
7
2011 180 /
2006.
Ru (
PGM Ir, Os, Rh)
Ru
- () 99,99%.
.
, 272,66 C
.
- 262 C.[19]
4

.
4.1

: 2315 C
105 Atm 1 Atm 4115 C.

4 ( Os, Ir, Re).

,
PGM.[20]

Ru . , ,
65 %.[20]


. 18 3 PGM (
).[21]

4.2
Ru,
= 270,59 pm
c = 428,15 pm

. ,
.

' ( ) .

d
.
Rh

-

5
.

.
'
d-block ( d
diffuse ).[22]
( KJ/mol)
Ru+
Ru9+ Ru, "" :
7p

7s
6s

6p

6d

5f

5d

4f
5p

5s

4d
4p

3d

4s
3p

3s
2p

2s

1s

Ru

' ,
: Ru2+ + 2e-
Ru (+ 0,45 V)
,
(. )
.
,

.
800 C
Ru(VIII), RuO4 .[23]
,
Lewis .
Ru

[23]
0,15 % - 0.25 % w/w.

350 C : , 7,20 mg
Ru/cm2
PGM.[20]

(NaOCl),
100 C.
(Na2 O2 ) 336 mg Ru/cm2
350 C
PGM.

(CN) 700 C ,
16,80 mg Ru/cm2 ,
(Na2 CO3 )
920 C 8,90
mg/cm2 .
(KHSO4 ) 5,05 mg Ru/cm2
440 C.[20]

Ru 2 -
(IV),[24] RuO2 :
Ru + O2 RuO2


. , Ru [24] :
- (), RuBr3 , Ru Br2 450 C
20 Atm:[25]
2Ru + 3Br2 2RuBr3
(V), RuF5 , F2 Ru
297 C:[25]
2Ru + 5F2 2RuF5

(), RuCl3 .xH2 O,

(), RuI3 ,
(IV) (VI), RuF4 RuF6 , , (IV), RuCl4 , . Ru.[24]
(KClO3 ) ,
.[23]

Ru NaOH

7 Ru :
34 (. (), RuCl3 .

, - ( )
) 106 Ru, 103 Ru 97 Ru.
- ( ).
17
" ()", RuCl3 .xH2 O
5 ,
( x=3)
95 Ru 105 Ru.
, 102 Ru,
- 102 c + -
Ru() Ru(II).[25]
102
Rh.
.
Ru(VIII), RuO4 .
6 (+8)
, - .

,
.[25] Ru(III),
Ru2 O3 , .
,

, .[26] 7.1

, - To
C-Ru.
[27]
- , . Ru
. ,
(VIII), RuO4 , , , Ru .
.
1960 1970. , , ,
7
. Ru
[28]
.
: 2 +8. :
Ru +2, +3, +4.
.
(Ruthenium blues). (
Claus 1846.[24] )
cluster[. 3] (Cl3 Ru(-Cl)3 Ru(
Cl)3 RuCl3 )4- Ru
2 2,5.
,


.
. ,

(Ruthenium
red),
.[22]
[Ru O (NH ) ]Cl .4 .[24]

Ru+3
Ru+4

, "
:

3 14

,
Ru3+ Ru+4 .
, [Ru3 O2 (NH3 )14 ]7+ .

, .

7.1

Grabbs 1

sandwich

[. 4] .
, -,
Ru(CO)5 ,

-,
Ru2 (CO)9 -
Ru3 (CO)12 [29]

Ru
.[24]
, (C5 H5 )2 Ru.
sandwich[. 5] . 1952
.[. 6]
Creutz[. 7] -Taube[. 8] ,
[(NH3 )5 Ru(pyrazine)Ru(NH3 )5 ]n+ n=5.

n = 4 ( Ru
= +2) n = 6 (
Ru = +3). Creutz-Taube,
Ru +2 +3. Ru
.[25]

(Grubbs) 1 2

.[25]
1990 (Bob
Grubbs),[. 9] Ru , .
,

ligands ( PR3 R =
, , , ). ,
' .

.

.
ligand.[29] Ru . Ru(NO)L5 ( L5
)
.

()
(), [Ru(N2 )(NH3 )5 ]Cl2 .[15] 1965
ligand , 2 .[29] 2

2 Cl2 , 3 .

2 3 .[29]
Ru 2
. [Ru(NH3 )5 -=Ru(NH3 )5 ]4+ .

8
8.1

. ( Grubbs), ,
, ,
.
,
,
,
, .
, .


. ,
, .
Ru. 0,1 % , . Ti-Ru
, ,
.
,
. EPM-102 ( 3
% Ru) TMS-162 ( 6 % Ru).[31]


,
.[32]

8.2

,
, ,

. , 1944

, Parker 51
RU 14
96,2 % 3,8 % .[33]

8.3 -


,
NAMI-A KP1019, .[34] " ",
,
,
1961
.[35]

9
[1] Becquerel (Bq) SI.
1 Bq = 1 /s. 1 MBq = 106 Bq
[2]

[3] .
[4] CO
[5] ligands ()
[6] Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson (1921-1996). .
1973,
Ernst Otto Fischer, " ,
, , "
[7] Carol Creutz.
Creutz-Taube
[8] Henry Taube (1915-2005). .
1983

, "
[9] Robert H. Grubbs (1942-). .
2005,
Yves Chauvin Richard R. Schrock,
"
"

10

[1] WolframAlpha : Ruthenium

[2] -

[16] Bush, R. P. (1991). Recovery of Platinum

Group Metals from High Level Radioactive
Waste. Platinum Metals Review 35 (4): 202
208.
http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/pdf/
pmr-v35-i4-202-208.pdf.

[3] Mary Elvira Weeks (1933). Discovery of the Elements.

Easton, . 99-116. http://books.google.gr/books?
id=SJIk9BPdNWcC&pg=PA99&dq=The+discovery+
of+the+elements.+VIII.+The+platinum+metals&
cd=1#v=onepage&q=The%20discovery%20of%
20the%20elements.%20VIII.%20The%20platinum%
20metals&f=false.

[17] Kolarik Zdenek, Renard Edouard V. (2005). Potential

Applications of Fission Platinoids in Industry. Platinum
Metals Review 49: 79. http://www.platinummetalsreview.
com/pdf/79-90-pmr-apr05.pdf.

[4] Raub, Christoph J. (2004). The Minting of Platinum

Roubles. Part I: History and Current Investigations.
48, . 6669. http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/
dynamic/article/view/48-2-066-069.

[20] The PGM Database

[5] Robert E. Krebs (2006). The history and use of our

earths chemical elements: a reference guide. Greenwood
Press, . 134. http://books.google.gr/books?id=
yb9xTj72vNAC&pg=PA134&dq=The+Discovery+of+
Ruthenium&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20Discovery%
20of%20Ruthenium&f=false.
[6] New Metals in the Uralian Platina. The Philosophical
Magazine 2: 391392. 1827. http://books.google.com/
books?id=x57C3yhRPUAC&pg=PA391.
[7] Pitchkov, V. N. (1996). The Discovery of
Ruthenium. Platinum Metals Review 40 (4): 181
188. http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/dynamic/
article/view/pmr-v40-i4-181-188.
[8] Emsley, J. (2003). Ruthenium. Natures Building
Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England,
UK: Oxford University Press, . 368370.
[9] webelements: Ruthenium
[10] Egon Wiberg,Nils Wiberg,Arnold Frederick Holleman
(2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press, .
1458
1471.
http://books.google.gr/books?id=
vEwj1WZKThEC&pg=PR28&dq=ruthenium+
occurrence&lr=&as_brr=0&cd=23#v=onepage&q=
ruthenium%20&f=false.
[11] Hartman, H. L.; Britton, S. G., . (1992). SME
mining engineering handbook. Littleton, Colo.: Society
for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, . 69.
ISBN 9780873351003. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Wm6QMRaX9C4C&pg=PA69.
[12] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD)

[18] PLATINUM today : Prices Charts

[19] C.R.Hammond : THE ELEMENTS

[21] WolframAlpha : PGM conductivity

[22] ... . .
[23] Franois Cardarelli (2008). Materials Handbook:
A Concise Desktop Reference. Springer, . 409.
http://books.google.gr/books?id=ArsfQZig_9AC&pg=
PA409&dq=history+of+ruthenium&cd=8#v=onepage&
q=history%20of%20ruthenium&f=false.
[24] S.A. Cotton (1996). Chemistry of precious metals. Blackie
Academic & Professional, . 2-75.
[25] Catherine E. Housecroft,A. G. Sharpe (2005).
Inorganic chemistry. Pearson Education, . 671 - 679.
http://books.google.gr/books?id=_1gFM51qpAMC&
pg=PA697&dq=Chemistry+of+precious+metals&cd=
4#v=onepage&q=ruthenium&f=false.
[26] Inhalation of radionuclides and carcinogenesis
[27] Food Info :
[28] Shunichi
Murahashi
(2004).
Ruthenium
in
organic synthesis. Wiley - VCH, . 154 - 157.
http://books.google.gr/books?id=bgaw-z0aNEAC&pg=
PA154&dq=history+of+ruthenium&cd=4#v=onepage&
q=history%20of%20ruthenium&f=false.
[29] . (1986). . ..., . 49 - 79.
[30] PLATINUM 2008. Published in May 2008 by Johnson
Matthey..
[31] Roger C. Reed (2006). The superalloys: fundamentals
and applications. Cambridge University Press, . 20 26. http://books.google.gr/books?id=SIUGcd4a-EkC&
pg=PA20&dq=EPM-102&cd=5#v=onepage&q=
ruthenium&f=false.

[14] George, Micheal W.. 2006 Minerals Yearbook:

Platinum-Group Metals. United States Geological
Survey USGS. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/
commodity/platinum/myb1-2006-plati.pdf.

[32] Kuang, Daibin; Ito, Seigo; Wenger, Bernard; Klein,

Cedric; Moser, Jacques-E; Humphry-Baker, Robin;
Zakeeruddin, Shaik M.; Grtzel, Michael (2006). High
Molar Extinction Coefficient Heteroleptic Ruthenium
Complexes for Thin Film Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.
Journal of the American Chemical Society 128 (12): 4146.
doi:10.1021/ja058540p. PMID 16551124.

[15] .. (1983). . 2. ,
, . 471-487.

[33] Mottishaw, J. (1999). Notes from the Nib Works

Wheres the Iridium?. The PENnant XIII (2). http://
www.nibs.com/ArticleIndex.html.

[13] SAVE Tangle Lakes

10

13

[34] James C. Dabrowiak (2009). Metals in Medicine.

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, . 149 - 167.
http://books.google.gr/books?id=tBz4PlWW_8YC&
pg=PA71&dq=Synthetic+metallomolecules+as+
agents+for+the+control+of+DNA+structure&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=NAMI-A&f=false.
[35] Hayat, M. A. (1993). Stains and cytochemical methods.
New York, NY: Plenum Press, . 305310.
http://books.google.com/books?id=oGj7MLioFlQC&
pg=PA305.

11

Cotton, Simon A. (1997). Chemistry of Precious

Metals. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-75140413-5.
Crabtree, Robert H. (2005). The Organometallic
Chemistry of the Transition Metals (4 ).
Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut: WileyInterscience. ISBN 0-4716-6256-9.
Dabrowiak, James C. (2009). Metals in Medicine.
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-68197-8.
Ebbing, Darrell D.. Gammon, Steven D. (2008).
General Chemistry (9 ). Cengage Learning.
ISBN 0-618-85748-6.
Emsley, J. (2003). Natures building blocks: an AZ guide to the elements. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-198-50340-7.
Greenwood, Norman Neill. Earnshaw, Alan (1997).
Chemistry of the Elements (2 ). Oxford:
ButterworthHeinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.

http://195.251.197.63/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=
1390175V69YV8.102099&profile=clib-$-$1&
uri=link=3100006~{}!1065714~{}!3100001~{}!
3100002&aspect=subtab13&menu=search&ri=
2&source=~{}!uoi_library&term=%CE%9F%
CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%
B9%CE%BA%CE%AE+%CF%87%CE%B7%
CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1&index=
ALTITLE. 20
2014. (: , ;
, .; ,
.; ..).
Murahashi Shunichi (2004). Ruthenium in Organic
Synthesis (2 ). Wiley - VCH. ISBN 3-52730692-7.
Pauling, Linus (1988). General Chemistry (3
). Dover Publications. ISBN 978-048665622-9.
Reed, Roger C. (2006). The Superalloys:
Fundamentals and Applications. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-5218-5904-2.
Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). Discovery of the
elements. Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN 0766-13872-0.
Wiberg, Egon. Holleman, Arnold Frederick;
Wiberg, Nils; Aylett, Bernhard J.; Brewer, William
& Eagleson, Mary (2001). Inorganic chemistry.
San Diego, California: Academic Press. ISBN
0-123-52651-5. OCLC 833903147.

12

Housecroft, Catherine E.. Sharpe, Alan G. (2005).

Inorganic chemistry (2 ). Prentice Hall.
ISBN 978-0-1303-9913-7.

Krebs, R. E. (2006). The history and use of

our earths chemical elements: a reference guide.
Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-4708-6403-6.

Mackay, Ken M.. Mackay, Rosemary Ann.

Henderson, W. (2002). Introduction to modern
inorganic chemistry (6 ). CRC Press. ISBN
978-0-7487-6420-4. http://books.google.gr/books?
id=STxHXRR4VKIC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR13&
dq=%22Introduction+to+modern+inorganic+
chemistry%22&source=bl&ots=EF4qHL8__-&
sig=59HPZLdZGl94Cb8krZBzperMzug&hl=
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20 2014.
Morrison, Robert Thornton. Boyd, Robert Neilson
(1988). (3 ) (4 ).
. ISBN 0-1364-3669-2.

13
Elementymology
Ruthenium

&

Elements

Multidict

Mineral Species containing Ruthenium (Ru )

11
The periodic table of videos
Ruthenium images and pictures
Olefin metathesis : Big-deal reaction
Rob Torekis Organometallic HyperTextBook :
Olefin metathesis
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2005

12

14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14
14.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

: https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF?
oldid=5818321 : Geraki, Templar52, Gerakibot, Aurilios, Dead3y3, Kostisl, Escarbot, JAnDbot, Magioladitis,
FlaBot, VolkovBot, Atlantia, Idioma-bot, TXiKiBoT, YonaBot, SieBot, PipepBot, Xhmikos, DragonBot, Ttzavaras, MelancholieBot,
BOTarate, Darkicebot, CarsracBot, Nikosguard, Costas78, Luckas-bot, ArthurBot, , Xaris333, MastiBot, C messier, Xqbot, TjBot,
EmausBot, Alchemist-hp, WikitanvirBot, , HRoestBot, MerlIwBot, Vagobot, Spiros790, Dexbot, , Addbot,
Francois-Pier, Gts-tg : 1

14.2

Images

:Activity_of_pt_group_metals_from_uranium_fission.png : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/
3b/Activity_of_pt_group_metals_from_uranium_fission.png : Public domain : Transferred from
en.wikipedia to Commons by Vinhtantran. : Cadmium at Wikipedia
:Commons-logo.svg : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg : Public
domain : This version created by Pumbaa, using a proper partial circle and SVG geometry features. (Former versions
used to be slightly warped.) : SVG version was created by User:Grunt and cleaned up by 3247, based on the earlier
PNG version, created by Reidab.
:EcRu.svg : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/EcRu.svg : Public domain : : Xhmikos
:Greek_wiktionary_logo.png : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Greek_wiktionary_logo.png
: CC BY-SA 3.0 : File:Wiktprintable.svg, Transferred from el.wikipedia to Commons by MARKELLOS using
CommonsHelper.
: meta:User:Smurrayinchester, ::Assassingr
:Grubbs_Catalyst_1st_Generation.svg : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Grubbs_Catalyst_1st_
Generation.svg : Public domain : : Luk Mioch
:Hexagonal_lattice.svg : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Hexagonal_lattice.svg : CCBY-SA-3.0 : Crystal stucture : Original PNGs by Daniel Mayer, traced in Inkscape by User:
Stannered
:Karl_Klaus_(1796-1864).jpg : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Karl_Klaus_%281796-1864%
29.jpg : Public domain : Source unknown, probably public domain :
<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
:Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg
: FAL : : Alchemist-hp (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/User_talk:Alchemist-hp' title='User talk:Alchemist-hp'>talk</a>) (www.pse-mendelejew.de)
:Ruthenium_crystals.jpg : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Ruthenium_crystals.jpg : CC BY 3.0 : (my own photo) : Periodictableru
:Ruthenocene.png : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Ruthenocene.png : Public
domain : : Pdphan
:Transparent.gif : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Transparent.gif : Public domain
: : Edokter

14.3

Content license

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