THE Revolt oF THE Black Athlete Harry Edwards Semuel J, Skinner, Ir fr.) 3} ‘The Free Press Colier Macmillan Limited Jomes B. Shepard Memoxtal Library North Carolino Ceziual Universitycopyright ©1969 Wy The Fe ree Rpmssonter ese [SStng geowcopying recoding Srtyny fot sagan eval sen, Seotperteoea ne Dedication The book is dedicated to the following beautiful black warriors in the sincere faith that their sacrifices and ‘courage shall not ave been in vain: Lew Aleindor, Bill Rusell, Mike Warren, Tommie Smith, Lucius Allen, ‘Mohammad Ali, and John Carlos. ‘And to those who dared attempt to practice the ideals ‘of humanity, sportsmanship, end the Olympic spt in the face of condemnation, ridicule, and interracial mis: understanding: Curtis R. Csaning, Pal Hofman, J Cleve Livingston, Scot N. Stekeiee, Dave F Dave Patick, and Mr. and Mes. Hal Connally. ‘And they also contsibuted who learned and grew: Lee Evans, Larry James, Bob Beamon, Ralph Boston, Charlie Greea, Ron Freeman, Otis Burrell, Wyomia ‘Tyus, Vince Matthews, and all the other athletes who cemerged black from the 1968 Oiympics.3 ‘Mounting the Revolt XD re sevot ofthe blac athlete in America as a phase of te ovrell ac eration movement is leg fsthe stn, the rewom ides, ray fer manifest. ton of Afro-American elon to gan feedom, The fonlsof the rl kee are ie sane as howe of ny Ste egitinate phase of the movement equality, os Ses he regaining of Mack. igity lst daring tee hundeed years of ject very, and he atainent of the basic human ané hil hts guarated by the United Stats Constiton ed he concep of American dencracy. Ie wet Sneviabe that thie revo} sould develop. With struggles being waged by black people in te tes of edveton, housing, mploymec, and ‘anyother wes only a mateo ine Before Aéro™ AAmetiean alte oo, shed thi fantasia and deh sons and astered their manhood, faced the facts of theirexistnce, The revolt was as inevitable asthe rising ‘ofthe sun, Witin the context of the overall Black bera= tion strugle the revolt ofthe black athlete as its roots land draws its impetus from the resistance of black people in the dim and distant past to brutal oppression {nd callous exploitation. The moversent for Black lib- tration dates from the fst moment that a black captive ‘chore sicie rather than slavery. More recently, lyn ing, murders, and beatings heve served only to heighten this resistance and to give the movement new forse end direction, And now, at long lat, th black athlete has entered the arena as a warrior inthe strugale for black dignity and fredom. Thets >} The frst publicly acknowledged indications that aevelt by black athletes was imminent came withthe publia- tion of Bill Russ book Go Up for Glory. Unwilling to communicte the same old tired clichés, gitering generalities, and distortions, Russell in the book at fempted to pot the real sacrifices a famous black athlete tendires and the rewards he receives in proper perspec tive, The consequences for Russell were severe. He was lambasted by the nation’s leading Negro and white sports reporters; he was accused of being. ungrstful ‘hd egotistical; and, of couse, he was charged with the ‘old ungrateful bit—"But look what sports, and coaches in parbiular, have done for you, Why, if i were not for basketball, you woulda't be what you are today.” But atleast part of Ruseell’ theme was that perhaps if ere not for him, basketball would not be all that it is today, His concern was not ly for what basketball Inad done for im, but what white coaches and white- controled amateur and professional basketball had done to him, This approach represented a radial do- parture from the funrand.games, win-some-losesome dercarrent of Revolt Mounting the Revolt + 39 |sil of autobingrphy pial ghos-witen for Neo tnd wntesporsstars Sova crytubigs of vol revolved around the ics of segrgation and social discrimination, For Stance in teat fits and mile sis, there Wee Sumetou cess whee Back atles refed to par {Espa doe fo dscrnination in spectator Satng et ttlese events or berate of cimiatry pacts Encountered bythe tees thenssves Arm indi Sin that he evel was brewing appeared in 1965 whet the iack ates cose to play the America Foo bail Leagu’s East West AllStar game banned together and refused to playin Now Ones, Loaisiana, bate {veral ofthe AftsAmerican srs ad Been ese Shtrancs fo sme ofthe i’ soil cbs. Asa reat of te alte threat to Boyt the eves, Joe Fos, ‘hon commissions of he Ieee, ha te game mov th moter cy, Ths incident mane te Stine toler aie sory thet a porting svet bad at tly been hanged to another se beens of trina tonagsns Ato American prsipens. And the threat sucxeededlagly Bete ofthe uty among the Dla Mists inebed, a wnity fxg fom their fim come ‘eon tht they were sen and that they In fast were {ong tobe ceated assoc, From ht seen, the das tbe back sets would ply the role of wthining Imacines onthe fel and submissive xb-momans the teld were deinely mere Sa the youn of amateur ates thece had ben ings ro. In 1960, somtone mggested to Raler Tohnson that he bycot he Olympic estes ofthat ear inorder to protest the reste of back people by te Dolce dung te cll phe prot in he Souk Jenson aughed the whole notion of and waked sy ‘Butte incident reached the press and wa 0m tat {yon inevocaby planted ine minds of lack pope fs perhaps yet anther oo oe in eematang he gravity of the plight of Afco-Americans in rcise white Aneta. Tit 1363, Dick Gregory, black hamaavrghts activist, folitcia, and comedian, attempted to organize a boy” Cott ofthe Russian-American Track and Field meet by black athletes, The boycot itself failed, but the bret movement gave impetis to the whole idea of utilizing fmateur athletics at a means of dramatizing racial in- justice. In 1964, Gregory once again put forth the no- tion of boycotting an athletic event, this time the 1964 Olympic games that were (0 be held in Tokyo. The bbojeott idea once again found litle support among the atletes, but Gregory did manage to get aboot & «dozen people o picket the United States Olymy 4 Once the Black athletes who competed in the 1964 Otympic games arrived at Tokyo, there were new in dications of the ising tie. There were rumbli the American Olympic quarters centering around the treatment of the black Olympians on the US. tear treatment involving social activites, ath ments, and housing accommodations. The incidents ‘were quickly seted, however, and the whole affair was hushed up by the press. But after the 1964 games, What hitherto had been merely rumblings tarned into full- throated roars, The American press went to great ends to qe the furor, but tomo avail. At every major ta eet tht followed the games black athletes got together ‘nd talked about the possibilty of black boycot ofthe 1968 Olympics to be beld in Mexico, They discussed the justifications for the move and also the possible ramifications ‘3 Then, in the fall of 1967, two events occurred that ‘Drought all the talk and diseusion to 2 heed. First, Tommie Smith, in Tolyo for the University Games, casually commented that some black athletes would per haps boycott the 1968 Olympics. He merely gave a sSmple answer o an equally simple inquiry. A Japanes ‘Mounting the Revolt © 41sports reporter had asked, "Do I understand corsetly ‘that there stalin America about the possibility thet black American athletes may boycotthe 1968 Olyapic games at Merico?” Smith answered, “Yes, ths is tue Some back athletes have been discussing the posstity of boycotting the games to protest racial injustice ia “America,” The elec of Smiths brief and noncomital featement was immediate and its repercussions were ‘enormous. The major American wire services and most ofthe country’s sports pages carried the story, proclim- ing that Tommie Smith had stated that there was co siderable sentiment among black athletes favorirg boycott of the Olympic pares in order to protest rial injustice. OF course, Smith at chat time had made no such statement ‘The second event was a revolt of Back students and athletes st San Tose State College in Califernia, which just happened to be the insttion at which Tommie Smith and a number of ether “world-class” athletes were ‘mutriclating. The significance of this event was that sixty of the seventy-two Afro-American students on campus (out of a college enrollment of 24,000) fad banded together and fr the fst ime in history utlzed collegiate athletics a5 lever to bring about social, scademie, and polieal changes at an educational inst tution, The waole plan forthe revolt originated from a siseusion between me and Kenaeth Noel, then a nas ters degree candidate at San Jose Sate He, bike matt of the black males on the campus, was @ former stlete Most of the Afro-American males on Sam Tose Sate College's campus were former alates who 20 longer nad ny college athletic eligi fete but who had aot yet graduated for precsaly the restons discusced eater. ‘Ken was one ofthe tres who had graduate after asx year term as an undergraduate and then enetiaueé on {ora Master of Arts degree. Our rather casual conves tion centered around the old and the new aspects of fe at San Jose State for black students After talking for ‘he Revol ofthe Black Atte» 42 bout an hous, t suddenly davined on us thst the same Social and racial injustices and discrimination that had dogged our footsteps as freshen at Sa Tose wece sill rampant oa campus—racism in the fratemities and sororities, raciim in housing, racism and out-and-out sistreatment in athletics, and a general lack of uncer ‘Handing ofthe problems of Afro-American by the cl lege edministaton. Dur ft move was to approach the administration, fe were promptly referred the Dean of Seudents, Stanley Benz. It id not take him long to make it crystal clear that, where the interest and desires ofthe majority whites were concerned, the necessities of Black students ‘were inconsequential At this point, we flt that we had zo alteraative bu 1 move into the public arena. So we called a rally t0 commence at noon on the epeniag day ‘of clases forthe fall, 1967, semester, We had ciscoaes printed and placed them in all the college's depart rental mail boxes, These circulars essentially served notice thatthe rally would be held and that the topic ‘would he the elimination of raciem at San Jose State College, We invited allaculty members and administa- sion ffcias ‘The rally began on time with, at frst, only about thirgy-five blackestadents and about a hundred whites in attendance. Th faculty was sparsely represented and only a handful ofthe college's re than fity adminis: trative offcials was present, But as the rally gained ‘momentum, more and more people cami out to se what ‘vas happening. AC its height, there were over 700 peo. plein attendance, including the president ofthe college Robert Clark, and representatives from vasious black ‘community organizations. As saan as it wa clear to ue that no more people were coming, we outlined s list of demands and stated publicly what our strategy would be if our demands were not met. We, in elect, declared that we would preven the opening football game of the season from being played by any means necessary. Most Mounting the Revsit = 3cbwerves el that hs wat an ncostent and std tetngsategy, Why stop the football game? Why a (coe vujace it hed goed se je a or basicaly one, First ofa Ae rrtepil somthing at pkey te earl 2 ot—tht eee va, in fac 2 a ty of the oer aes of coege Me. Second, we fl dhatwe had to wile a poser lever that woud ring ‘he conminiy and aide body ax welts the ain tron ofthe college ito the pree station, We had seen ll to of, the spruce of back people deronsrting and plksing pope, cgi ti instatons fined concern to people a poston of oer. We erefore deed to ot someting more ental 1 the concerns of the ete lol commit Sutures. Was acy ofrorereeance toa suet body tan the dat fooball game of he seston? Wat sly is of wre relevance tos colage town afer along std economically douphtstien Sommer tan the Bet big game? And what it of more immediate inporance to sollgeadainieaon fan the heat of stoping a geme tht had ben contacted for under a $12,000 breach of contact clause a he Cencelaon cf al tte competion commimnens it the game were no payed? Te acl alo was ely invlved in he af parla ‘te facy ofthe Deparment of Mag Payal Education and Inter colegeAthedee or some ofthe ick etees bed Theateand to oyeatt the game Hf he black sons sereforedto ty tov The rally wa a sucess and immeciatlyatermard_| an orgenation was formed, the United Black Students for Action. It was composed ciety of Afro-American stadens, but there were also some white faculty mem bere in advisory capacities, Negro faculty members on | campus refused evento attend the rally muck les help i developing an organization to implement the alt The Revo ofthe Black Atte + 44 rmatums and directives esuting from the rally. Our demands were as follows: We the afliates of United Black Stodens for Acton, put forth he folowing DEMANDS: 1, Public deliberation of al problems as sion relevant to the situation of minority groups 2 Publicly announced pledges fom the SIS tion that hovsing—cpproved, unapproved fraternities, aod Sovoniies aot open t2 ALL SIS eudents wil aot be open tbany student In conjanetion with dis pledge the following DEMANDS ate pot for: ‘That shore hovsng wits diserininting are to be of ini all stants under 21 years of age—his holds Sls for freteriiee and sorories tat refoe to desegreyat ‘That ony stdeot ining om ving In segregated outing be suspended from SIS unt sock time a he €on- fous to the moral and ethical codes ofthis colege. And ‘his too seers to sorories and fates that foe to desepregte. 3. That the highest suthory (local and/or satioal, whichever is more appropriate) of ary and all social nd police organizations be required to sipulate dn writing before November 1, 1967, that its parcel organizational branch on the SIS campus is open to all students, and ‘Sonal, that any andallsuch orgeiantons not conoring {© tis requste be disecatod from the allege. November, 1967, “That ay and all orgeizations providing the cbove stipulation pave bythe first day ofnstreton ofthe spring ‘emnster 1968 tat they have comes all racist iseimisation SIs 5. That the Dept. of Intecolleginte Athletics organize ani pinto operation Immediately aneflective program that provides the sane tuestment and banding forall athletes Freluding visiting prospective athe 6. That the Dept, of Inerooleiste Attletics make a public ststement cenouncing the racist principles upon ‘hich the present freterity sem functions and secondly, Mounting the Revolt» 45that they pully aisoiae themselves and their dex from hess. 7 That te celege nino iter work to expand ‘he 254 rule to bring underprivileged minority group atea bers to SIS as tents at east im proportion to tee repre: sation a the general population of Calforia or that fe ‘ministration wie te 2% rule ole) forth ecru ‘of minority group student, §. Thata permanent commission be set up to adminiser sod operate @ “tutorial” type program med at the 1e- ruitment of minority group members, and, second, at {his commision show proof bythe deadline admision det forthe sping "68 semester that fae worked effectively © rake the student noi group population atleast prope: "one to the representation of te various minority inthe genaal population ofthe State of California. 9. That the administation take steps t0 insure student government ie representative ofthe total population ofthe college and not ost an organized, efuent, bot compe ‘2104p of racist fom 11th Stee (Fraternity Rov Die to the seriousnes ofthe present situation, UBS. ‘urge all partes empowered to act upon these DEMANDS Provasion Hanny Eowatze (Coordinator Unite Black St t for Acton 2 The end sesult ofthe confrontation wat that the col loge administration moved to mest our demands, but ct before tension had reached such a pitch that te ‘game had to be called off Both the college administa- tion and the faculty bd vision of incidents occurring Similar to the socer riots in Argentina and Peru that had left hundseds of people dead and hundcods moce ‘maimed and injured. Adding tothe chaos was te doubt surrounding the question of whether or not the blatk players from either team would compete, even if the game were held. There was considerable communice ‘ion back and forth between the two schools involved— the University of Terat at El Paso and San Fose State “The athletic directors of both schools finally decided tw achero to President Clark’ docsion and not play the ‘game at ll. There had been some discussion ofthe pos bility of playing the geme on the Texas campos, but ‘word got around that ifthe decision to cancel the game ‘were ignored by the schools athletic departments, the San Jove State College stadium would be burned tthe ground. All totaled, the cancelation of the football sme had cost the Sen Jose community and the college Somewhere inthe neighborhood of $100,000 in dizect fame receipts and anticipated business income. The black students were relatively unconcemmed about the cancellation, because they had been ow oa the college's ‘educational totem pole for years. What is @ cancel fame relative to acquiring the basic human rights éue fny citizen ofthis country and the regaining of one's black dignity? So we had carried the confrontation. But moze thea, his, we had leamed the use of power—the power to be ‘gined from exploiting the white man's economic and Almest religious involvement in athletics ‘Meanwhile, the furor surrounding the statements al- lgedly mede'by Tommie Smith in Japan continued White and Negro spots reporters accused him of being ungrateful, childish, and unpatitio. He began rece fing al manner of “fan mai,” most of it personally in sulting and racially or politically derogatory. All the paraphernalia of threat and intimidation was directed fageinst him, Typical of the hate mail that Smith re- ceived were the following te leters written in the early Fall of 1967 Yokobsma, Japan 29 Sept. 1967 Neccer Sam Tam a white infantry coliier (dates) on RAR here in [Moating the Revle » 47a i r Jspan from Viet Nam, Just read an ate ia the sports Sion aboet you. You don’ know me and dont kno {ou however Tave hour tbat you are «fost niger. "You tid of the track you aro just another nigger. Well, Ihave seen your pictare and there no argument from me ‘on tis mate. I dont really know what you siggers wat, ‘butietme telly afew things. We have high percentage of backs in my company, and they ae as good as the next seldiee. However, hey are tl nigers and Dat is fara ‘goes. We have to work together The Army require it “The Amy places us together. We work, et aod sleep in ‘he ame area, but when Ihave any free tne I want 9 get star away from nigger as Tan pet. The ater whites fel ‘he same way. We hoe the niggers fel the same way about ts Thelped cary wounded aiger tothe aid man and 1 have seon nigger help cary whites tothe aid stations. Sill, Im ie ofthe above We whites donot wish to aetcite with Bigger and we want them to fel the same towards us, The niet iea fine American, They wih to remain fo themclie, their crime rate is very low in comparison to the nigger ‘They have suffered as much dicrimiaaton asthe text ob, but they ae very good Americas. You don't hear of them otng, burning, looting, stealing, king. "For your information & fur gidance Iam sure tat at least 986 of whites (north & south) (and 1 am from the sort) fel the same way. Dont pay any attention to those white poltcins, they ‘only want te niger vor. Take over a coupe of state, run ‘he whites out Just think you ean have your own Governor (Carmichael) and there a many other Rghly qualied Bigger for leser ype jobs. Ob whe you're st i don't for get welfare dep. to handle ald those Nigger whores that ‘have brought so many bastard nigges ito this world. "Now call all jour niggers together, plan your ssn (Geroic spe) and go cut and snatch an elderly White lady's purse, orpchaps beeaka window out of sn old mass shop. ‘You know, do something real rave something You and only you niggers are capable a doing, Justa YANKEE ging youtbe stright poop | | | Jomee B. Skepasd Memorial Library Nor Carolina Cental University Mr. Tommie Sth ‘San Jor Stat Caloge Sen Jose, Calioaia Deak Traston, "You ae not only a disprace to your College, your CCouazy. butte yourself ‘lease don't uy to win place onthe Olympic Team, Yd rather have our County finish ast, without you, than fist with you. ‘Yours tly, 24 Dismayed bythe personel aac, Smith made an p- ointment to disust the wile matter With me, He was faking my course i race relations atthe tine. At this mein, the leters and sports reports were discussed slong withthe Boyett possibilies. Mention was aso sade ofthe resolution that had been passed atthe 1967 ‘National Conference on Black Power hat bd bea eld in rebelion ora Nevark, New Terey- Ont of our ds. union came the devon to check the attitude of other ‘wordlassatletestowaed a revolt of Afro-American Ihetes over the problems facing blak athletes andthe tack community in general A numberof black aletes vere contacted~John Cates, Lee Evans, Lew Al Endor, Obs Burel, Mike Waren, and Lucius Alen, fmong others, We found through ob inquiries that not nly wack and field athetes, bu also Afro-Americans agoped inser alec ativities ha given agrest dal ‘of serious thought tothe ide of boycotting the 1968 Ovympic games inorder to dramatize rail injustice in “Americ deed, some had even commited themselves tovtch a scrlce a easly a he fll of 1967. On the basso his support, we began to mobile. Hf The ist tp wast form a orgsiztion chat could ‘lan and map sateyy forthe revolt To this end, on Mounting te Revolt + «9 312787Cctober 7, 1967, «meeting vas held at my home. Ta attendance wore George Watbogton Ware, ed worker ture Sado Nem Viet Cobranatng Comite ‘Tommie Sith, who at the tne eld cewen word ck seconds Ken Now, he co-planne ofthe black teat ‘elt at Suz Jose State College immy Gaetan ex ‘ellen organizer and chainoan ofthe Black Student Union at ap Francia Stats Cage; and Bab Hoover, ‘ack pollcal activist and coussor a Son Mateo Susior College. Out of his nesting came te Obpic Commitee fr Human Rights Ie we desided alse tat the best yt nit the mcbization was ol for # workshop andinvteastany black ates as posible toattend. The tas ofthis workshop would bev sel out formally the decdon thatthe Olympic boot his oftherovoltwoul take, Thesegmente he evel Skalng special wih mobizaton to boyet te Olympic prmes was designated The Oljmpi Pajet foc Human Rights Otter plans ao vere propsed— seh she organzition of ebelion on aro clege ampser, the boycotig of rast alte cbs, and ‘forth or immediate cosera vas the Olapie Proctor iuman Rigs 2% The ste chosen forthe proposed workshop was the Tos Angeles back Youth Conference, whieh had as theme "Liberton is coming fom a black ag” This fenferece, like the osgin!tselation proposing sm Afro-American toyot fhe Opie gan ed ftom th ations end reruns ofthe 1967 National Colac onliek over Ti it ong nih be ‘wih ofthe onpenizrs ST tobi to pt as any ‘Segments ofthe black cemmunity vl fate eat ‘spoils, made the Black Youth Conference ua. Tonal” base fom which fo luach th reblion. The date forte conference were Novenbor23 and 28. The {ime lapse betwen the organizational meeting andthe scheduled dat ofthe Olympic boycott welsiop met ing allowed te organizers cnr a tonth to get evant “The Revol af he Black Atiete + 50 {information to as many black athletes as posible and slsoto urge them toattend, she five problem confronting the Olympic Com: “ites for Human Rights was financial. There was an jimmediate need for funds to finance the printing and smaling of information tothe athletes. The only source fof such funds was my salary as instructor of sociology fat San Tose State, Students who had been active in the black student revolt at San Jose State volunteered their time and clerical help and often worked long hours and fac into the night in an effort to Jocate and get informs- tion to as many black athletes as posible. We were ‘only partly succesfl, The main roadblock we en- ‘countered in trying to contact the athletes was the com- ‘mon practice at many white dominated athletic depart- rests of funneling mail for athletes through their recpective coaches and not delivering it directly to the afletes themselves. Many coaches at various universi- ‘ies, colleges, and junior colleges throughout the covatty, for instance, open mail sent to athetes—black athletes in particular. Many athletes, we Tater dis ‘covered, never received the mailings we sent them. But fn any even, the movement was oa to utilize, for black politcal ends, the fact of America's dependence upon ‘lack athletic alent in onder to maintain is competitive ge over other counties in the international summer ‘Olympic games. ‘The Black Youth Conference ‘The meeting and agenda of the Black Youth Confer ence had been we ‘Workshops were sched ‘led on the rights of black people under the provisions ofthe Selective Service Act, the rale of black women in he back liberation strugpe, the organization of com- ‘munications networks between black poitial o-ganiza- tions, and s0 forth. Also scheduled was a Keynote feddress by James Forman, Director of International Mounting te Revolt + $1 i I‘Relations fgr the Student Non-Violent Coordinsting Commitee the event that drew the most atention and inzorest wae the coheduled workshop on the pro posed black boycott of the Olympic games. Negro and ‘white reporters hovered about the buildings and facil ties of the Second Baptist Church where the conference \as eld, attempting to obtain information on the num ber of athletes scheduled to attend, the exact room in hich the Workshop would be eld, and whether or not the pres sould be allowed to attend the mesting. We succeeded in maintaining the secrecy ofthe proceedings, however. For black people had long since learned that the les information about Afro-American inteations and plans released to white and Negro representatives of the mass media, the better off black people were. Black newsmen Were permitted to attend the sessions, although they were not slowed 1 bring tape recorders, paper and pencils, or cameras into the meetings with them. It was decided by the three-man Olympic Cam mittee for Human Rights that because back people did ‘ot control to any significant degree any form of smase media, we would have to guard against “the man! smeags of communication being used to our disadvan we made up out mings to make the press dependent upon ous reports and interpretation ot ‘what went on in the workshop rather than permitting them fo observe the actives of the workshop at fst hhand and thus possibly influencing the proceedings by the very facto heir presence, 2% The confereace stated on time, ss did the Olympic boycott workshop. In attendance were Tommie Smith, Otis Burrell, Lew Alcindor, Lee Evans, and othe world-class athletes who were slmost certain to make the 1968 United States Olympic team if they chose te enter the tals, Also present Was a host of less fam athlete fom both the college and high school levels, 1 By way of starting the proceedings, T introduced my. ‘fas chairman ofthe workshop and then gave a bet The Revol of the Back Aes + 52 balf hour résumé of the factors prompting consdera- tion of «proposed baycot ofthe games. The racist, po- Iigeal, end coononie expecta of athletes ta America were st forth and then te workshop was thrown open {to discussion from the Boor First to speak was Tommie ‘Smith. Briel, ina fivewmiaute speech, he outlined his sporting the move to boyeot the games. [Lee Evans spoke next ina similar vein, Then Otis Bue ll ook the oot to state his unequivocal suppart ofthe proposed boycot. But peshaps the most moving and ‘ynamic statements in behal! of the boycott were those lade by Lew Aleindor. Hs brie and memorable words Grew a five-minute ovation fom the more then 200 persons who packed the upstsirs Sunday School room ‘ofthe church, "Everybody knows me,” big Lew began. P¥'m the big basketball star, the weekend hero, every ‘ody’ allAmerican. Well, last samme killed by a racist cop shooting a black cat in Harlem, “He was shooting on the street—where masses of Black people were standing around or just taking a walk. But hae didnt care, After all we weee just niggers. I found out last summer that we dont etch hell because we trent basketball stars or because we don't have money. ‘We catch hell because we are black. Somewbere each of ushas got to make a stand against his Kind of thing This is how T take my stand—using what [have, And But not all those atending approved ofthe direction ‘and momentum that the discussion was taking. “Dea on” Dan Tower, a former profesional football player for the Los Angcles Rams, was the fist co voice toa) ‘opposition tothe plan, He pointed cut how much sports bhad done for Negroes and how great a privilege it was fora Nogroto compete for America. A chorus of boos greeted his words. Undeterred, he coutiaued, this time attscking the athletes who bad previously spoken as being unintelligent and gullible, Finally as is remarks ‘began to draw threats om the audience, he was shouted ‘Moontng the Rerelt + 53down, Other Negroes who had obviously come to try te souade the athletes from supporting the movement Ieitie meting alter witnessing the fate of die "Des “YA the close of the discussion, a commotion broke ‘out outside the church, An integrated group of pro ‘communist Ieftsts had attempted to derop the meetings and orderly processes of the conference in an efor take over the ovement, They vere driven off and some shots were fired, ostensibly by members af the security force in charge of policing the conference, although it ‘yas never established conclusively where they eame from. ‘The disruption had occurred at a very inop- pportune time for us inside the church, for we were just bout to vote on the proposed boycott and the suggested ‘mesns of mobilization that had been presented within the context ofthe foor discussions. Rather haa the ia dividual vole vote that we had planned tose, we had to sete for a mass *YeaNay" vote, 8 Ia the 1968 ‘Democratic and Republican conventions, because ofthe confusion outside, Only tree ofthe more than two haa. dred persons in attendance responded with a"Ney,” and notone ofthese was an athlete, Alter the vote, the work: shop wat formally and quickly adjoammed. The Olympie. Commitee for Human Rights had gotten the endorse sent that it sought and the frst step inthe mobilization ‘wascomplete As I teft the church, Negro and white reporters fathered around. No satement was issued to them. A prior arrangement hed boen made with a black sports eporter from a Los Angeles paper to record the first Offical release concerning the decisions reached during the course of the workshop, The statement was bret and lasted only abovt five minutes. After making statement, which contsined none of the names of athletes attending the conference, I quickly lft Los ‘Angeles to attend the National Conference of Student Body Governments being held in San Francisco. As a result of my initiating the black student revolt on the ‘Sen Sows State campus, I had been asked to eddveee the conference on the topic “Student Government Re- sponsibility zd the Crisis in Race Relations on Ameri ‘ean College Campuses." Negro and white press re- porters had gotten wind ofthe impending engagement tnd were waiting atthe Sheraton Palace Hotel, site of the conference. A rough statement on the results of the Olympic boyeor workshop was hastily prepared and, stor giving my talk, I read the statement to the ninety feporiers present. Copies of the statement were then pated out to them. The Statement read a8 follows RESOLUTION DRAFTED AT BLACK YOUTHE CONFERENCE, LOS ANGELES NOV. 23, 1967 ‘OLYMPIC BOYCOTT, HARRY EDWARDS: CHAIRMAN ‘Whereas: The United States bat filed to se te power— govemmental or evonomic—to efectively allevite he [Problems of 22 milion black peopl in his cour, Whereas the United States nas openly and fagranty cared out and endorsed scis which have operated Plant {he deinest of black people inthis county, \Whereds the United States has engaged in acts which con- stitute ede front and humo to tbe base humanity ‘ofblack propein tis tece), ‘Wheres the United tates has hypoectaly put el wp as ‘he lecer ofthe Free Word while ight her inthis coustry sve have 22 milion black people catching moze hell tha foyone in any communist country ever dreamed of, ‘Wheres he Lied States government has ated in com ple with other race elements of ts selety to stip Diack stletes oftheir presgeané athletic wats based upon sere act whim, Resolved: Black tea and women athletes a Black Youth Conference bed in Lor Angels on te 23d of November, 1967, have onanimowsy voted to fully endorse and parte pte ina bojeot of the Olympic Games in 1958,[New York Athletic lab ‘Weve the NYAChas worked effectively and maiclously ‘maintain within rales ely white Cristian, (Whereas the NYAC tas ad uetner an intrest in nor any tse for black athletes or abletes of various religions back: {rounds until that period of tie jst porto the NYAC Indoce meet, ‘Wheress te NYAC has woed black alte in pateular tomake timers nancial susces for decades, [Black tock and fsléatletes have wnanimovsly vowed to boycott anything even remotely coected with the NYAC, Sou africa ‘Whereas the United States has saen ft to allow the travel, within the poise! borders of this county of persons from countries where black people ean alibr eter nor escape theslvery thereof, [And whereby the presence of these foreign persons, thet Participation in an} aspect of soci, plea, of economic Ectviy ia ths county, atd the eompliity with which the ‘United States foactias in conjunction with such persons all represent an arnt (0 the basi humanity of black people inthis country, ‘Buck men and women athletes have vote unanimously 10 ‘oye eny meet in which partlpants from ovo counties inparieularmight bein prtcipation. "These countries are: 1. South fries 2. Soutben Rbodesia “The immediate repercussions ofthe decisions reached atthe Black Youth Conference were prdictable, The ‘evening newspapers and television and radio news and sports shows clearly registered the impact the reslu- tions had bad on the white extabishment and its Negro ankles, Typial ofthe newspaper headlines were the following Los Angeles Herald Tribune: novcor? oLvarrics “The Revolt of he Hack Alte + 56 [New York Daily News: ‘MOB RULE IN 105 ANGELES: 200 NEGROES VOTE [UNANIMOUSLY TO BOYCOTT GAMES Los Angeles Times: NEGRO GROUP VOTES TO BOYCOTT '68 oLwPIcs paring the conference a white reporter intimated in “his column that he thought that he bad seconnized Otis ‘Buse atone ofthe black athletes who had partpated in th boycow workshop. Buzll was inmate no find thatthe Chrismas vacation job that had oon his for thee years would be given i someone else, Lew ‘Aleindor was persecuted and vile for patcpating inthe workshop. More bate mail poured it on Tommi Shit and his ife—along with the ves of Lee Evans, ‘Ken Nod), snd my own—were opted threatened by anonymous ewer wsters and phone calles. AF Gries oft wont as and “The Neo alts ovis ‘to compete too mich to become party 10 such 2 mp sib rebelion” fled the pres. They were totaly wrong ‘om the Sst count and almost ally wrong onthe so= ‘ond, The rst misalelation bythe press ad the sports ‘Stablshnent stemmed from tee Laure to secopaze that they were no longer dealing with the “Neyo” athlete ofthe past. Conroning hem now vas th new back athlete anda new generation of Ao-Ameicns Second tomate ute thatthe movement would as the ‘Otympie Committe set about devising 2 set of it mediate goals to maintain the momentum of the move- teat unt the Olympics served in October 1968, @ esi covering most a year. We were wel aware itt, Time alone might enlips the star we Bad made in Los “Angeles unless we could manage to Keep news of our {etvites before the public. To this end, we sought Ox Ssehep and adviee “ove decided hat he best person t tara to for advice an iretion was Lous Lomax, a veteran ci rights ‘Mttng the Revolt + §7activist and personal friend of mine. On November 25, 1967, Tew to Los Angeles from San Jose to discuss ‘with Lomax the possible akerative steps that could Dest serve the ends we sought. Over coffe in Lomax’ Kitchen we drew up alist of six demands on which we ‘would focus unt the following October. Next, we de- cided to bring as many resognived leaders as posible into the movement and by so doing to strengthen the {forces behind the Olympic Projeet for Human Rights, ‘The leaders contacted were the late Rev. Dr. Mactia, Luther King, J, President of the Southern Christin Leadership Conference, an Floyd MeKissck, Director of the Congrese of Racial Equality. An attempt var sade to contact H, Rap Browa, but to no avail, Leaders of other orgenizatione that we regarded a= primarily "Negro oriented,” such asthe Urban League and Nat tional Association for the Advancement of Colored People, we purposely avoided. Arangements were ‘made to hold a meeting in New York City at which time ‘he six demands would be presented to te public. The reeting was held on December 15, 1967, in the con- ference room of New York City’s Americana Hotel. With me at the meeting were Lomax, MeKissik, and Dr. King a well as a ost of other less prominent sup- porters. Each of the leaders present delivered a short Statement of support for the movement. Pechape the ‘most noteworthy was Dr. King’s, in which he stated that ppethaps the condition of race relations in the United States today demanded a total boycott of the Olympic {games by black people fr litle els in the way of nom ‘lent protest was left to them. I then presented the ist of demands, They were X1. Restoration of Muhammad Ali tie and right to box in this oonty. 2, Removal at the ‘Avery Brundage fom bi post as Chalzman of the Inter- national Olympic Commits. “The Revol af the Black Athi + $6 3. Curtliment of participation of al-white teams andind- doals fom tte Union of South Afica and Souter Rhodesia in all United States and Olympic Athletic 4. The addon of atleast two black coaches to the men's teack and Geld coaching staf appointed to coach the 1968 United States Olympic tam. (Stanley V. Wright ‘a member of the coaching team bathe fa devout Negro tnd thereon is unaoeplable) 5. The appointment ofa least two Black people to policy making postion on the United Stes Oljmpic Com 6, The complete desegregation of the bigot dominated snd racistNew York Atle Club Pros to his pres confeonce, copies of the demands resent oa many bck ates could Ye ete. ow many sceally knew of them prior tthe press ‘seas, however, uniown. After the press confor nce, ered Lomax sitet dus ese possible enapies ht might be eployed to keep the Pll ok lng. Dr. King sggested that on infomation booklet te sentoall ths alts who allegedly were skeptical tf the socal or politcal elevance af the Olmpie Pro- fect for Huan Rights, Ao, each person at the pres onerence agra toast in an enol ary capacity othe movement and Lomax, McKie, and DirKing ree to bsome formal visors The bret, that Dr King svggested be sen 0 the unconvinced ot taverng Hack alts explined why it had been pt tngcther,ovtned the goals of the proposed boys. fst forth the jastatons for Such step. and ‘opened and elaborated en the sx dernands. Major {Sew om the booklet are repented in Appendix E. ‘SEerave ofthe spring momentom and seppor the movement had generate, the por exeishment and its chit ai, he pres, ppd ap tei ore to lk the project Former Nepo sl, htbens sles and Mounig the Revolt + 59obscure, suddenly became mainstays on the sports club ‘and sports banquet circuits, Names suchas Tesse Owens, Ralph Meter, and Rafer Johnson appeared dally it the sports pages of major newspapers throughout the county, Hece isa prime example of how the establis- iment uses Negroes to hinder the liberation efforts of black people. These people were suddenly beroes to the ‘white establishment. Thei value to the establishment ‘went up in direct proportion to the increasing success of our effort. Jesse Ovens’ tax troubles were con- veniertly forgotten by the establishment. Granted a half Dour of prime nationwide television time, Owens re emphasized his rdiculoaly naive belie in the sanctity of athletics and spoke warmly about the friendships and Understanding brought about between blacks and whites ‘thecugh sport. “Faring all this time Owens seemed to feel that the Doycotters were more interested in publicity than ia omen rights, But what really roubled him was the thought that anyone would dare launch a direct attack agtinst soch a hallowed institution as the Olympic ‘uunes in particular and sports in general, Al the fine young Negross who would be competing in Mexico ity, be believes, would help erase misunderstanding Detween the races. Sports was the one area where [Negroes had been accepted on a par with whites and top-ranking Negro athletes had always been looked up to and respected by young and old. of both races. A boycot he feared, Would tear down everything that had been accomplished and do icreparable damsge to the eause of the Negro in Ames [Nor was Owens about to tolerate any criticiom of ‘Avery Brundage. As far as he knew, Ovens pointed ‘out, Brundage always had been fair and cordial to ‘ward him. All questions had elicited frank, straight answers, Owens conceded that Brundage was not 2 warm, outgoing person, but the fact that he had held ‘The Revol the Mack Amete + 60 together the Olympics for so long set him apert and rendered hin virtually immune from swpicion and "Owens claims no knowlelge of Brundage’ owner ship ofthe Montecito Country Cub in Sante Barbera, California. (Brundage has been accused by the OCCHR, of owning. and runaing the racially ex lusiveciub,) Owens explined that Brundage could rot be charged wi diseimination even if he did own the club and even if the club did exclude all Jews and [Negroes from membership. His reasoning? Brandsge robebly ad someone else run the club for hin end thus wat fee ofall Blame 2 iis hard to believe tat Owens could have been so ullble and misinformed, His comments elicited re foinders fom a aumber of athletes supporting the Olympic Project for Human Rights. Johs Carls, the Pree holdr of the wold record in the 200-neter fis, cosld not wndertand how Owens could sa that atilede competition brought blacks and whites closer ‘wien Owens himsel, the great hero ofthe 1936 Oly Pie games, war a vetim of white racism i his 9m founty, Furtemmore, the German supposedly be- fended by Owens during the 1936 games prompdy became a member ofthe ante, white supremacy ‘Naz pasty in Germany apd late was klled in Europe Aging for He's dream of world domination Tense Smith seo questioned the vale of sports 35 2 diseminatorof virtue and good wil. Sith fle that it spore and the Olympic games in particular did so rnvch to crete good wl between the Faces, then a5 the Dropotion of black people pariipating inthe Olympis aes forthe U.S. ros, there sul, by Owens engu- Sent be a commenarae stein racial harmony ia “Ametice, Sook bas not beea the ase. More end more ‘hack people have been parésipatng in Olpic games forthe United State, yt race relations in America are ‘worse today than at ay other te since slavery fone Mounting the Revolt = 61 |‘were to act upon the contention of the sports etablsh- ‘ment and its Negro flunkes, then the logscal thing to do I wader to deecease voce between the caces WOU be for all blacks to withdraw from sports entirely. But of couzee, the whole argument is spurious. It was ‘aged out only because the authority and legitimacy of a thoroughly frightened and defensive sports estab- lishment were being challeaged, Others also got into the act. Rafer Johnson, then ‘working for a Los Angeles television station, trod to sot ‘vp group called the "Committe forthe Perpetwation of Friendship Through Sports” as another means of shortstopping the revolt. It never got of the groand. “sohnson slo made his felings and sition clear ha number of other occasions when discussing the proposed boycott. He contended that the question of (piricipating ia the games was an individual mater, jst a8 anyone who won a place oa the team bad to ‘win it on his indivi effort and merit If someone wanted to pull out, that was Bis business, But be couldn't ee'a group withdrawing, no mater what hey were protesting agains, even if they were objecting to distrimination and other offenses ageinst a minority group. The relevancy of the bayeot escaped im. A boycott, he felt, would not bring better housing for the Negro nor assure his acceptance in society nar increase understanding between the recs, s0 therefore ft was not justied, He too, like Owens, parroted the ‘ld Tine about sports being the grest equalizer and that Negroes, slong sith everyone elte, should be proud to participate in the games and to give 100 per cent of themselves for team and county. At ene point Johnson also questioned my motives and insinuated that my part inthe boycott was merely the disgruntled response of en outsider who had filed to qualify for the team. Anyone who purported to speak for Negro ‘Olympians should be an athlete who has competed in the games and lmew frs-hand what the situation was, hae felt, If the boycott had been conceived and lannched by a former Olympic athlete or group of Olympic ews he might be Saclined 4 take Jc tore sexily, the once admitted. At ene point he compared what 1 vas trying to do with a hypothetical situation in which the depicted himself as wying to convince Dr. Marin Luther King fo turn down the Nobel Prize in onder 9 spotight the plight of the Negro in America, Neither situation, Jobasoa affirmed, made much sense a fa as he could see, Wait, he advised on one orcasion, until sve are sure that Negroes will make the team. He ad sited that such an eventuality was extremely unlikely, but still maintained that the entire project should be eld in abeyance unt we were sure ¥ What Jobneon filed to realize was that neither 3 Nobel Prize nor an Olympics medal elevates a black person to human status in America. Mubammad Ali twas denied service in restaurant in his home town of Louisvile, Kentucky, right after the 1964 Olympic sgames—tnd at the time his gold medal actually was banging around his neck. Dr. King, Nobel Peace Prize winner and worl-renowned apostle of non-violence, ‘was violently shot down in his owa eountry. The only reason wiy Rafer Johnson bas aot besn atacked is thot he has taken no standin support of liberation for black people Regardless of the opposition, notwithstanding its source the demands had been issued andthe activities geared toward enforcing those demands woald con- que, In order to justify the committe’ postion and their own suppor, each black athlete issued 2 personal statement explaining Why he supporced the demands and the Olympic Project for Human Rights. The state- smentissued by Tomase Smith was typical ofthese posi tion papers: Thase. smany letes and phone call about my Aecsion to support the Oljmpie Project for Homan Rights Mouating the Revolt + 62{have re to explain hia a number a speaking engoge ‘ment, wl do hs agai bere. ris cue tha I want ws pathipate i dhe Olympics end son ll f the er ack mews scheduled for next yar [But Lazo recognize the poltcal sod socal implication of some black people participating fora counay in which the ‘ast majority of back people sulle rom unthinkable dis- ‘timiation and racism therefore fs hat itis my oblige tion as black man to do whatever is necessary, by any Invansnecessiy, oi ny poopl in obtaining the teecom that we all eee Tf can open sogle door hat might lad in the dieetion of ieadom for my people, thea Teel chat T thust open that door. Tam not only wing to give up an fpportiaty to partipte ia the Olympics, bot T am also tiling to give up my ie there is even a cance that i wil Serve fo dramatize, mich ess solve, the problems faced by ray people San Tove State Colege ‘Smith's letter only sparked more derogatory com- ments from the white pres, Jim Murray of the Los Angeles Times compared him to a “ehilé who bolds his breath to make tis parents feel bad” and accused the author of being close to Hitler in his political and socal philosophy. OF courte, this ind of response was to be expected. For anytime a warsior is decorated or praised by his enemy, he is obviously not fighting the ight enemy. Smith and the other athletes simply shragged ff teins. ‘After the December 15 meeting in New York City, the Olympic Commitee for Human Rights began © ‘organize for the fr test ofits demands and resolutions ‘The New York Athletic Club's indoor track meet was scheduled for February. At the Black Youth Confer- fence, a resolution had been passed to boyoot this mect. “Although many athletes ad been contacted about the proposed boycott, the committe still had is work cut ‘ut fori, For facing the California-based committee "The Revs ofthe Back Ashes + 64 vas the tatk of mounting a boycott and demonstration to beheld 3,000 mile avvay—and this with no available fad otber than my stlry and no means of commani ating with the East coast other than by telephone. ‘Offers of money usually were tied to requests fora de _g1ee of control over the movement. There was aso the teraction ofthe new Madivon Squase Garden. This was to be the first big athletic eveat to be held in the new cena, and many athletes wanted to take pat, "The Now York Athletic Clb Boycott A-The ceateal sim of the NLY.A.C. boycott was not to force the club to integrate black people into is segre gated organizational structure but rater to regain some ‘ofthe dignity that black athletes had compromised over several decates by participating for club that would not evea alow a black petson to shower i its facies, The philosophy undetiying the move was imply this: If black athletes are acceptable enough to make the N.Y.AC. track mest a sucess each year, then black athletes are also due the human respect and considera tion granted other athletes competing in the meet. The ‘onset of the New York Athietc Club boycott marked the end of an age when Afro-American sthetes would ‘compromise black dignity for a wate, a television se, ‘trophy, ormerely telove of competition 3f-The organization ofthe NY-A.C. boycott formally ibegan witha series of telephone contacts between the Olympic Committe for Human Rights and a number of New York City-based organizations and individuals, Some of the individuals contacted were Omar Ahmad, co-ciairman ofthe 1965 Black Power Conference: H. Rap Brown, chaiaman of SN.C.C; Jay Cooper, chair- man of the Columbia University Black American Law Students Astociation. Tt was these persons, working through their various orgenizatons, who took on the major responsibility of mobilizing black people Moaating he Revolt + 65to demonstrate and picket the meet, Marshall Brown, beautiful black man who also happened to be an AAU, ullial, wok uu the sespousbilty of contact ing all the black athletes om the Fast coast. He also ‘got in touch with many of the schools and clubs that had traditionally participated in the meet and enlightened them about the policies of the N'Y.A.C. and the goals of the boycot.Iefll 0 the committee 12 censure adequate publicity forthe boycot, to contact ‘West coast and Micwest based athletes, and to press the N-Y.AC, boaed of directors to justify, explai, or clarity their policies. The committe set itself one last task—to attract intemational attention to the boycot ‘Our task was made easier by the fact that a number of foreign tems then were touring America’s indoor tack meet cioait. We decided to center our eforts on the ‘Russian National trick team. A telegram wat sent t9 ‘the Russian Embassy in Washington, D.C. to the effect that the N-Y.A.C track moet would be picksted by ‘lack people protesting the racist exploitation of Atro- ‘Americans by the eportserabliiment in America in {geneeal andthe directors ofthe N-Y.A.C. in particular. ‘The Russian Ambassador was informed that the Oly pic Committee for Human Rights could not guarantee the safety of Rustin athletes atempting t cross the N-Y.AG. pickeline. We also intimated that we hoped ‘thatthe Russians would support eur effors, 3 The day before the mect was tobe held, an unofficial ‘ally of the schools and athletes that had withdrawn showed thatthe meet was headed for disaster. The club baad ad to cancel its entite high schoel division of com: petition because of mass withdrawals. Oaly nine Negro athlete were stil onthe rotter of competitors. A repre- sentative of the U.S. Secretary of Defense had seat a telegram to the N-Y.A.C. advising its board of directors ‘that none ofthe military academies would be permitted ta compete. Many college tame that had traitionally competed in the meet had also pulled out. Later that “The Revol a the Black Athete + 66 ‘evening, a press conference was held in the offce of “esse Gray, the leader of a New York City rent strike against slom lords, With mo atthe conference were I Rap Brown, Ray Ennis of CORE, Omar Ahmad, and ‘hos of other Eart coast organizers and supporter: of ‘taeboyeot ‘The following pres release was issued: ‘We ar ere to fnalize the fist step in or dive to resine athoyeot ofthe Olympic Games by Back Atte. “The intransigence of the NY.ALC. in its refusal to even smi the problem of recim in its ranks, moch les tke eps to recy i, we belive, indicative of the present Aemeanor of White Amerce tard taking eal tepe to desk ‘ith racem inthis sosiy. ‘We se, through this protest, that itis’ jost racist d= viduals we ace up agsne T's 2 racet conspiracy involving ‘many ofthe would-be great institutions ofthe Soe. Ta this ease, we are confronted not only with ras in we NYAC., but ako a rackt conpinacy involving the ‘AAU, and the Dicoos and Sipervoo of Medion ‘Square Garden. "The A.A.U. has paid (partially orin total) for the tans- poration, aid, and other expenses of Forcign Athletes brought by the N.Y.A.C af the lst minute ia flrt ‘0 break his protest The A.A.U, has giea is approval ot {his meet, a ithas given its approval tall past meets, even ‘ough hasbeen wel knowa for yeat hat the NYA swasa White acs organization. “The superior: of Madson Square Gaden have allowed fe NV.AC, to hold is rc fnstons inthe fly for ear and thus har perptoatod @ rack fwneion in this ‘We ace taking a numberof steps of ur own to ret tissu, (1) We ate intisting a number of legal scons sgsiast eNYAC (2) We shall picket what remeants of a track meet the NAY.A.G. may beable o po gees (3) We shall whitest any and al universes and coe Mounting the Revol = 67leges taking pact fa the NY.A.C. function and we shall ove on thn sccordingy. +} On the night of February 15,1968, the boyott went of as ached. Atendance was down by 50% over pre- ious years, The times and distances registered in various events wore mediocre et best. The eollege and {lub representation was minimal an, to top i all off, the Rasian Naina! Team caoded ts scheduled par- {iipaton fn the meet atthe last minute “in orét to void interference i & confit involving the interal Jntegity of the United State.” Typical of the head- Tins following the boycot was the following from the Palo Ato Times (California) “N.Y.A.C, MEET FLOPS: BOYCOTT DOESNT” > Bven Time magazine admitted thatthe boycott had ‘been atleast partially successful, although it added that its success could be traced to intimidation and coercion by the Olympic Committee for Human Rights and its ssocates. Time obviously was referring t0 reports atibuted to white cogches that their athletes were not sitending the mect becavse of threats they had ze- ceived. However, upon checking with athletes who ‘were supposedly threatened, such as John Thomas and others, the accusetions were not confirmed, Actually, ‘many black athletes had already sade up their minds ‘ot to tend the N.Y.A.C. meet even before mobiliza tion for the boycott had begun. To get them to change ‘heir minds, N-Y.A. officials desperately resorted to a varety of measures to salvage what they could from the situation, But all their efforts could not shake the black boycotters’ resolve. For black dignity was no longer for sale at any price. The avetion block was down. “eMany Caucesian athletes, to ther everlasting credit sided with the lack athletes. Men lke Dave Patrick ‘of Villanova zefvsed to compromise ther principles and ‘Te Revolt of the Blac Atlee + 68 compete. But i is unlikely chat the white athletes ‘would ave taken such a stand if Afro-American ath- [ctes had aot nated tho action. sgilay ie tes an one wit dominted hols did participate however. Those schools and those athletes who decided to enter did so osten- Sibly because they “didn't want to be portrayed as [supporers} of Rap Brown and Hany Edwards” White-dominated schools, such as the University of ‘Texas at El Peso, reportedly made black athletes par- ticipate in the mest under penalty of losing their ath- Jetc grants-in-aid. Such coercion merely lent impetus to tho strategy of using ableics as a power lever for ‘ringing. about political and social changes om the nation’s eampuses, The fist step in this direction was taken by the Olympic Committee for Human Rights ‘when it waitested a group of universities and began tw organize to help black stents and athletes enrolled st whitedominated schools to gtin a grester voice i Setermining the curviculum costent and treatment of ‘Afro-Americans on their various campuses ‘The black athletes and the Olympic Committee for Haman Rights had passed the fist serious challenge to ther goals and demands. The next challenge was to gota the whitested colleges Mounting the Revolt + 69