2.3. The Klein-Gordon Field as Harmonie Oscillators 21 are eigenstates of Hsrio with eigenvalues (n + })w. These states exhaust the spectrum. We can find the spectrum of the Klein-Gordon Hamiltonian using the same trick, but now each Fourier mode of the field is treated as an independent, oscillator with its own @ and a’. In analogy with (2.23) we write oo = [ val cP 4 abe? *): (2.25) reo= [Bei ws [2 (age* ~ aber), (2.26) ‘The inverse expressions for ap and af, in terms of @ and 1 are easy to derive but rarely needed, In the calculations below we will find it useful to rearrange (2.25) and (2.26) as follows: oo = | Te (ap + at,)eP™; (2.27) wp & [ap a(x) = lam ol fay —al,,)e'?*, (2.28) The commutation relation (2.24) becomes (2n)*5(p — p'), (2.29) Ips 4p from which you can verify that the commutator of ¢ and 7 works out correctly: tod =i | a BV up = oe x’). (2.30) (6(), m0] al, ] mmr) (If computations such as this one and the next are unfamiliar to you, please work them out carefully; they are quite casy after a little practice, and are fundamental to the formalism of the next two chapters.) We are now ready to express the Hamiltonian in terms of ladder operators. Starting from its expression (2.8) in terms of @ and x, we have a fi 7 GREP ptornyn{ Veber a BH (ay — alg) (op a ap + hp) (apy + ey} (2.31) t ‘The second term is proportional to 6(0), an infinite c-number. It is simply the sum over all modes of the zero-point energies wp/2, so its presenice is completely expected, if somewhat disturbing, Fortunately, this infinite energy