WHOPERICETNETIIDA-A DISTR LIMITED | ENGUSH ONLY AS39ID ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY SERIES ASSESSMENT OF SOURCES OF Air, WATER, AND LAND POLLUTION A Gute To Rapip Source INVENTORY TECHNIQUES AND THEIR USE IN FORMULATING ENVIRONMENTAL Controt STRATEGIES Part ONE: Rapip INVENTORY TECHNIQUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION BY ALEXANDER P, ECONOMOPOULOS Democritos UNtversity OF THRACE @® Wor tp HEALTH ORGANIZATION, GENEVA, 1993| UR, | | UNIDO | | | We | = Inugenavonal Aime En8'Gy Une Ns Instn evacoment Organizes Luni Man0n4 Enawonmen Progiom me Dear Recipient, ‘The World Health Organization is pleased to provide you with the latest revision to its rapid assessment manual, "Assessment of Sources of Air, Water, and Land Pollution." This document revises an earlier publication, "Management and Control of the Environment” (WHO/PEP/89.1) and was developed under WHO's Global Environmental Technology Network (GETNET). GETNET is a programme to enable authorities at the local, regional, and national levels to identify, assess, and take actions on their own to prevent or eliminate environmental problems which threaten public health. In 1986, the World Health Organization teamed with three other United Nations agencies - United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), and the International Atomic Energy ‘Agency (IAEA) to form the Inter-Agency Project on Risk Management. The purpose of this programme is to develop an integrated approach to the identification, prioritization, and minimization of important industrial hazards in a given area. This publication represents WHO's contribution to the Inter-Agency Project. We hope that this publication will be beneficial in identifying priorities for future efforts to reduce environmental pollution in your area. WHO is committed to continually updating the rapid assessment programme and to developing future improvements to the document such as training modules and simplified, computer programmes for use of the document. Sincerely, Croton G. Ozolins, Manager Prevention of Environmental Pollution Division of Environmental HealthCONTENTS PART ONE __ Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Preface Introduction Source Inventory Techniques Air Emission Inventories and Controls Liquid Waste Inventories and Controls Solid Waste Inventories Study Implementation Aspects Appendix I UN Classification of industries and Services Appendix tit Conversion Factors and Selected Material Properties ‘Appendix IV List of Abbreviations Note: Appendix I, Environmental Quality Guidelines, is not necessary for use in Part One. It is contained in Part Two.PREFACE Environnental management is often referred to as an art rather than as 2 science. The past twenty years has seen considerable progress toward re- vising this image. Numerous examples can be cited which show that proper planning can significantly reduce the impact of human activities upon the environment (Economopoulos, JAPCA 37:8, 1987), The difficulties in formulating sound environmental management programmes are especially pronounced in developing countries, and there is a need for practical tools that are suitable for widespread implementation and that permit the standardization of the critical initial stages of the planning pro- cess. This book attempts to address these requirements. Some years ago, WHO published a book entitled Rapid Assessment of Sources of Air,’ Water and Land Pollution (WHO, offset publication No. 62, 1982), which focused primarily on the source inventory aspects of the management process. Translated into several languages, it has been widely distributed and the procedure described has been the subject of numerous training courses. The Rapid Assessment procedure has been found particularly useful in developing countries in the design of environmental control strategies and policies using relatively modest resources. More recently, WHO updated and expanded the Rapid Assessment techniques by publishing a book entitled "Management and Control of the Environ- ment* (WHO/PEP/89.1). This book strengthened the inventory portions, provided comprehensive lists of control options for each kind of air or water pollution source, and introduced some easy to use air and water quality models. This book, as well as its predecessor, has been found valuable in developing countries, and two of its reprints have already been exhausted.iii. Assessment of Sources of Air, Water and Land Pollution In 1991, WHO initiated the Global Environmental Technology Network (GETNET), which had as its prime objective the strengthening, at the Jocal level, of education and training materials on environmental pollution control technologies. This book, which succeeds a previous publication entitled "Nanagement and Control of the Environment’, is linked to the GETNET activities and will hopefully be widely used by developing countries to assess their environmental conditions and lead to making the environmental management process more of a science than an art. The rapid assessment procedure is most useful in making an initial ap- praisal of the sources and levels of emissions from an area that has Tittle or no previous pollution load data. It is also useful in select- ing priority areas to conduct more extensive monitoring surveys; for conducting case studies as part of public health programmes directed at pollution control; and for formulating pollution contro) policies and regulations for national environmental health activities. Part I of this book updates the rapid pollution assessment factors and introduces air, water and solid waste inventory and control models. It describes how to initiate a study, including how to organize study teams, how to define study areas, and how to collect, cross-check, orga- nize and process field data so as to generate air, water and solid waste inventories, and, how to produce relevant reports to present to decision or policy makers. The necessary models and data for conducting air, water and solid waste inventories, for defining alternative control measures, and for assessing the pollution load reduction effectiveness of the latter are provided in Chapters 3 to 5. Study organization and ‘implementation aspects are discussed in Chapter 6. Part II of the book deals with environmental management problems and describes how to assess the current quality of air and water and how to identify land pollution problems; it also describes how to formate alternative control strategies, haw to evaluate their effectiveness and how to define high priority action programmes. The systems analysis approach, which sets the stage in the remainder of this book for the development of rational pollution abatement strategies, is presented in Chapter 7. Management approaches for urban and rural air pollution problems and selected air quality models are presented in Chapter 8, and for water pollution problems and selected water quality models in Chapter 9. Management approaches for municipal solid’ wastes and hazardous substances are discussed in Chapter 10. While the focus of this new book is on the revision of the rapid assess- ment process, the model application techniques for air, water and solid wastes are greatly expanded. There is considerable discussion of various management approaches to consider once an environmental assessment of the area has been completed. The listing of all possible control and prevention strategies would, obviously, constitute an extremely ambitious, if not impossible task. Accordingly, the management approaches described in Chapters 8 to 10 are to be regarded as suggestions for the development of an environmental control strategy for an area. Many of these techniques to reduce pollution have proven to be very powerful and should be given serious consideration in problemi Preface analysis and strategy synthesis. The user of this book should make use of the expanded tools and data for conducting or updating their emission ‘inventories and then give serious consideration to the approaches suggested herein. WHO, through the GETNET and its many experts from al] fields of environmental technology in over 65 countries, can provide assistance to developing countries in interpreting the results of the vapid assessment and in the selection of management approaches. Work on this book started before its predecessor, "Management and Control of the Environment", was published, mainly in the form of research addressing the lack of suitable models, for the purposes of the present methodology. The content was discussed at a consultation held in Geneva in June 1991. The first draft was reviewed during a meeting held in Athens in July 1992. Mr. G. Ozolins, Manager, and Mr. 0. L. Calkins, Scientist, both from Prevention of Environmental Pollution, Environ- mental Health Division, WHO Geneva, provided the necessary impetus for the writing of this book and their support and advice throughout the preparation period is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Mr. G. Ozolins, Dr. D. Mage, and Mr. D. Calkins, from the Prevention of Environmental Pollution, Environmental Health Di- vision, WHO Geneva, for reviewing the source inventory and the section on air’ pollution management and for drafting most of the preface; to Dr. R. Helmer, from the Environtental Health Division, WHO Geneva, for re- viewing the water pollution management; to Mr. P. Economopoulos, from the Association of Communities and Municipalities of Attika Region, for his valuable contribution to, and review of, the section on solid wastes management; and, to Mr. E. Giroult, from the Environmental Health Divi~ sion, WHO Geneva, for reviewing the section on solid wastes management.CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION1-2 Assessment of Sources of Air, Water and Land Pollution 1. Introduction Environmental pollution affects the air we breathe, the water we drink and the food we consume. It also affects the production of food, the general quality of our surroundings and may pose a risk to our health and well-being. Control of environmental pollution is necessary in almost all communities and countries to protect the health of the popu- Jation. The important question to be answered in each situation, is which pollutants should be controlled, in what way, and to what extent. This book recommends the systems analysis approach and __ the simplification of analysis procedures in environmental management, both of which can be particularly effective in the analysis of existing problems and in the synthesis of control strategies: The systems analysis approach, which is introduced in Chapter 7 of Part Two, is systematically followed in Sections 81, 9.1, and 10.1 dealing with the management of the air, water and land pollution problems. The essence of this approach lies in the analysis of existing problems and the identification of the most critical ones, in the setting of definite pollution control objectives and in the development of effective strategies to meet those objectives. The above requires the capability to conduct source inventories, to assess the impact of the released loads into the receivers, to define major control alternatives and to analyze their environmental, economic, and implementation consequences. The systems analysis approach offers the important practical ad- vantages of high cost-effectiveness and fast implementation, and its results can be impressive indeed. It creates however, particu- larly demanding analysis requirements, which have to be simplified and addressed through special tools and procedures, if it is to be practical and widely used. The simplification of analysis procedures down to practical, and yet meaningful levels, while maintaining at the same time a highly in- tegrated environmental management approach in relation to air, wa- ter and land pollution, has been the major challenge in’ the writing of this book. The environmental management requirements were established through the following procedure: complex problems were decoupled into a series of much simpler ones; inventory and control models, as well as ambient quality models, capable of providing solutions in an effective and practical manner, were carefully selected and/or developed; the most important control measures were classified in categories and existing relevant data and information about their cost/effectiveness and implementation aspects were documented; and, finally, a coherent approach for the collection of the required information from the study area, the analysis and evaluation of the existing problems and the synthesis of truly affective managenent strategies was formulated, feld-tested, and lescribed.Introduction 1-3 The selection of analysis tools defines to a large extent, on the fone hand the magnitude of resources required (manpower, skills, study duration, etc.), and on the other hand the reliability of the management results. The need thus arises for the screening of available models for the purpose of carefully balancing issues such as the accuracy and the reliability of predictions against the importance and relevance of Fesults, ease-of-use and data requirenents, or inter-model-compatibility. As ready, off-the- shelf, models meeting the above requirements did not always exist, some models had to be adapted and expanded (e.g. the ECE CORINAIR model for traffic fuel consumption and air emission calculations), while several new models had to be developed (e.g. the air, water and solid wastes inventory and control models presented in Sections 3.2.2, 4.2.2 and 5.2.2, as well as all air quality models presented in Section 8.2). For most developing nations, where environmental problems are often critical and available resources scarce, environmental management. approaches based on the best available control technology tend to be too expensive, while those relying on the imposition of selective controls through local inspectorate decisions and public opinion feedback, tend to be unworkable (lack of inspector skills and other infrastructure requirements, long response times, etc, see Section 7.2.) The al- ternative systems analysis approach for environmental management, followed in this book, is believed to be better suited for developing nations as it offers a practical procedure for formulating cost- effective strategies, targeted at selected critical problems, as well as detailed action programmes, which facilitate strategy implenentation. It js thus hoped that the described procedure can contribute to better health and environmental quality protection, to conservation of valuable resources, and to unobstructed development in a rational and sustainable manner, Designed as a work-book, this publication contains all the information required to analyze the current situation and to develop adequate management approaches, and additional information, such as conversion factors that facilitate the task. However, the measures derived through the reconmended procedure, especially the complex and expensive ones, should not be regarded as final or as suitable for direct implementation, but rather as promising, high potential candidates which require further examination through more detailed feasibility studies. Making assessments of environmental pollution and devising control strategies should not be viewed as a one-off effort, but rather as an on-going process. After an inventory of pollution loads has been made in a given area or country, it will need to be kept up-to-date and its accuracy improved, Similarly, control strategies will need to be reviewed as to their effectiveness and cost, while the efficiency of implemented measures will need to be monitored and compared with predictions, so as to provide guidance for the future. Assignment of these follow-up responsibilities to a specific government department is necessary, but the involvement of other government experts who would provide data and support to the total effort should be encouraged and stimulated. Examples of the latter are environmental and public health specialists, meteorologists and hydrologists, regional and country wide1-4. Assessment of Sources of Air, Water and Land Pollution planning specialists, statisticians with knowledge of industrial and other economic activities, etc. This network of experts could, in a spirit of fruitful cooperation, develop into a highly competent planning body with far reaching impact. The environmental management techniques described in this book can be used at different levels: municipal or local, provincial or state, and national. At the local and regional level, the management results can be used for addressing the pollution problems in an effective way. At the national level, management plans from various regions can be combined and used in the formulation of a national environmental management policy, which offers notable advantages such as: ® Rationalization of allocated government funds for protection of the environment through clear national priorities; Improved implementation through appropriate distribution of relevant responsibilities among the central and local authorities. As a gen- eral rule, the implementation of relatively simple measures affect- ng numerous small local sources can best be handled by local au- thorities, while that of complex measures affecting larger areas, by central government services. An example of a measure suitable for ‘implementation by local authorities is the Inspection and Naintenance of central heating furnaces, and of measures suitable for implementation by central government are the changes in the fuel type or quality, or the setting of vehicle emission standards. Competent central government control and coordination is highly desirable in relation to the formulation, implementation and follow up of national environmental plans; Valuable input can be offered in the formulation of other government plans and policies, in fields such as land planning, or the rational balancing of industrial and economic development against environmental quality.CHAPTER 2 SOURCE INVENTORY TECHNIQUES 2.1 Alternative Source Inventory Approaches 1 Purpose and Objectives -2 Waste Monitoring Programmes +3 Modeling of Pollution Source and Control Systems 4 5 2.1, 2 2.1.4 The Rapid Assessment Procedure Combined Approaches " 1 4 1 1 2. 2. 2.2. Screening and Classification of Pollution and Waste Generating Ac- tivities 2.3 General Description of the Rapid Assessment Procedure 2.4 Validity of the Waste Load Factors 2.5. Bibliography2-2 Rapid inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 21 Alternative Source Inventory Approaches 2.11 Purpose and Objectives The reliable assessment of the air, water and land polluting loads gen- erated by each source, or by groups of similar sources, in the study area is essential for the identification of the nature, magnitude and origin of the existing pollution problems, as well as for the formulation of rational pollution abatement strategies. Established methods to provide such information include direct moni- toring of waste discharges, computer simulation of source and associated control systems, as well as the rapid assessment technique. In the sections that follow, these methods are described, their advantages and drawbacks outlined, and their possible combined use, so as to maximize the accuracy of the inventory results in a cost effective manner, discussed. 2.1.2 Waste Monitoring Programmes The direct monitoring of waste sources through sampling and analysis is an obvious approach and one of the earliest and most widely used. This method is indispensable in many cases, especially when the waste discharges from large sources need to be kept under close surveillance, or when environmental services need to verify compliance with the applicable liquid effluent and air emission standards. The major advantage of the direct waste monitoring method is the accuracy of the inventory results. In the context of environmental managenent studies however, which are of prime importance here, this method may be extremely time consuming and resource intensive, and even impractical for large and complex study areas. For example: Monitoring of the effluents from a leather tannery plant requires careful sampling as well as analysis to determine the concentra- tion of a nunber of pollutants. As the effluent volume and compo- sition changes significantly during the weekly production cycles, a fair number of samples need to be taken representing al1 major production phases, while the corresponding effluent rates must be determined. It is rather obvious that the resource requirements for the particular plant are high and could soon become pro- hibitive for a study area with numerous sources. Monitoring of the exhaust emissions from a road vehicle is even more difficult as the rate depends on parameters such as vehicle speed, engine loading, engine and catalyst warm up status, and is thus continuously changing. In addition, a significant part of the emissions, the evaporative ones, are not released via the tail pipe, and the bulk of them not even while the vehicle is running. In cases like this, the on-line measurement of the emissions evenSource inventory Techniques 2-3 from a single vehicle is difficult, and obviously impractical from an entire fleet. Based on the above discussion, source monitoring can improve the accu- racy of inventories and should be pursued to the extent possible. How- ever, priorities must be set, so as to have all important sources ade- quately covered. As the latter often account for the bulk of the re- Jeased loads, accurate monitoring of their wastes contributes substan- tially to the accuracy of the overall inventory progranme. For the same reasons, time and resource constraints that are always present should not lead to a superficial coverage of many sources, and especially to the collection and analysis of few random samples from each source, as the inventory results obtained this way are generally unreliable and highly unpredictable. 2.1.3 Modeling of Pollution Source and Control Systems The use of mathematical models, which simulate the behavior of certain sources, such as external and internal combustion sources, cement kilns, Time kilns etc, along with the performance of the attached control sys- tems, constitutes one of the most advanced methods for reliably assess- ing not only the current emissions, but also the impact of possible de- sign and operating modifications. The disadvantages of the modeling approach include the practical diffi- culty of developing such models for the great variety of existing sources and control systems, and also the demand for the collection of often hard-to-find process and control system design and operating data during the source survey visits. In reality the limited availability of models and the associated diffi- culties in assembling the required input data during field surveys re- strict the application of the modeling approach during source inventory studies. In this book such models are used for predicting the emissions from Light Duty Gasoline Power (LDGP) cars, the flue gas volume from external combustion sources, as well as the drop in the temperature of flue gases passing through stacks. This selected use was deemed necessary for enhancing the accuracy of the air emission inventory results, as well as for generating inputs which are required for the application of air quality models. It should be noted that the sources concerned (LDGP cars and external combustion sources) are important contributors to air pollution problems, particularly in urban areas where they usually play a dominant role. Validation of certain models under the local circumstances through bal- anced source monitoring programmes can be particularly beneficial and in some cases necessary, especially when large-scale measures are to be in- plemented. Verification using the emission model for LDGP cars is highly reconmended if. local. measurements, or infrastructure allowing the generation of local monitoring measurements, exist. On the other hand, certain models such as the flue gas volume model do not need verification because they rely on stoichionetric relations.2-4 Rapid Inventory Techhiques in Environmental Pollution 2.14 The Rapid Assessment Procedure The rapid assessment methodology provides a particularly effective way of assessing air, water and solid wastes generated by each source, or groups of similar sources, within the study area. In addition, it permits convenient assessment of the effectiveness of alternative pollution control options. This method is based on the documented, and often extensive, past expe- rience of the nature and quantities of pollutants generated from each kind of source, with and without associated control systems, and, as Figure 2.1,4-1 illustrates, it makes constant use of this experience for predicting the anticipated loads from a given source. Control Systems Raw waste Load Effectiveness Factors Factors, Source Type | > forest Loads | Jeased Loads Activity Size & Control Type Other Source-Specific Inputs. Legend: Bold: Field survey data totic: Mose? output Figure 2.1.4-1 Tustration of the rapid assessment approach for estimating the air, water and land pollution Toads The advantages offered by the Rapid Assessment approach include con- venience of use, which makes it possible to conduct integrated source inventories of air, water and land pollution sources in highly complex situations within only a few weeks time and with modest resources. More- over, despite the simplicity of the method, the end result is often considered more reliable than that from direct source monitoring programmes in cases where shortcuts have to be taken (see also Section 2.1.2 above), Another significant advantage is the possibility of estimating conveniently the effectiveness of alternative control schemes in terms of their polluting load reduction potential. The latter constitutes a major input into the process of formulating rational control strategies. A major disadvantage of the Rapid Assessment approach is the statistical validity of its inventory predictions. More specifically, the predic tions from any given source need to be considered in many cases only as indicative as there is significant variation in normalized emissions between similar sources. Consequently, measures adopted immediately Following Rapid Assessment need to be Viewed as preliminary, subject toSource laventory Techniques 2-5 subsequent, more detailed, analysis prior to implementation of strategies. 2.1.5 Combined Approaches The source inventory approach in this book combines the Rapid Assessment method (see Section 2.1.4) with the selective (and streamlined) use of the modeling method (see Section 2.1.3). The end objective of the above combination 1s to enhance the accuracy of predictions while maintaining the overall simplicity of use. Source inventory data and information, which can easily be generated for any study area, can be used for more effective planning of waste and ambient air and water quality monitoring programmes, in cases where extra resources are available and such information is desirable. Indeed: Through the source inventory procedure described in this book, one can obtain information about the nature (polluting parameters of major interest) and the magnitude of the polluting loads released from each source. In most situations, a few large sources account for the bulk of the released loads (e.g. among 140 tanneries in a study area, the largest plant was found to account for 40 % of the total discharged loads, while the largest five plants contributed about 80 % to the total discharges) and these few dominant sources can be easily identified. Waste monitoring could then be re- stricted, at least in the initial phases, to the dominant sources, for it is often preferable to have reliable monitoring data from, for example 80 % of the discharges than shortcut data of unpre- dictable quality from 100 % of the discharges. Based on the above, a carefully planned combination of the Rapid Assessment and the monitoring approaches could maximize the accu- racy of the inventory results within the constraints of available resources. Data and information fron the Rapid Assessment methodology could be used, possibly along with the air and water quality models, for planning more effective ambient monitoring programmes. Information about the important parameters to be measured and about the criti- cal location of the stations can easily be generated and could be a valuable input into the planning process of monitoring networks.2-6 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 2.2 Sereening and Classification of the Pollution and Kaste Gen- erating Activities There are often many types of pollution-generating activities in a study area, and dealing with all of them in the context of an environmental management study, is not practical, nor even feasible. As discussed in Section 2.3 below, the objective of an effective source inventory ap- proach is to assess on an individual basis the very large sources (such as power plants, steel mills, and municipal waste water outfalls) ex- pected to have major impact on the environment of the study area. Other major sources of pollution to be considered are service stations, dry cleaners etc., which collectively have an appreciable impact on the environment. While almost all industrial activities cause some pollution and produce some waste, relatively few industries (without appropriate air pollution Control and waste treatment facilities) are responsible for the bulk of the air, water and land pollution loads generated in a given study area. Careful’ selection of the major pollution and waste-producing industries can greatly simplify the preparation of the assessment, while still cov- ering most of the pollutants and wastes produced. Table 2.2-1 presents a list of the industrial sources and processes that account for much of the industrial pollution and waste loads in almost any study area. The table also gives the corresponding Standard Indus- trial Classification (SIC) numbers (UN 1980, 1989) and indicates whether a specific industry or process is included in the appropriate air, water and solid waste inventory and control models of Sections 3.2, 4.2, and 5.2 respectively. The list could be used in the initial phases of the inventory work as a check list to identify the existing major industrial operations in the study area. The identification of industries to be included in the survey is very important and should be prepared with great care since it forms the basis for the remainder of the work to be completed.‘Source Inventory Techniques 2-7 Table 2.2-1 List of activities included in the air, water, and solid waste inventory and control models, classified under the SIC system, UN (1989). A aepereaaecraeaere er a Te ETE IE erE TD Ssolié Grissions® _Effluents* Wastes! 0 Activities not Adequately Defin Consumer Solvent Use Surface Coating Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry & Fishing 11 Agriculture and Hunting LLL Agriculture and Livestock Production 12 Forestry and Logging 121 Forestry Mining and Quarrying 21 Coal Mining 22 Crude Petroleum & Natural Gas Production 23° Meta? Ore Mining 29 Other Mining Manufacturing 31 Manufacture of Food, Beverages & Tobacco S11/2 Food Nanufactuetng 311 Slaughtering, preparing and preserving meat S112 Yanufacture of dairy products 3123 Canning and Preserving Fruits 8 Vegetables 3114 Canning, preserving & Processing of fish * 31S fanufacture of vegetable & aninal oils & fate SII€ Grain msT7 products * 3117 Bakery products S1I8 Sugar factories and vefinerias 3121 Food products not elsewhere classified 3122 Alfalfa denyarating eee eee EEE Beversge Industries 3131 Distilling, rectitying-and blending spirits 3182 Wine tndustriog 3183 Malt Tiquors and nalt 3124 Soft drinke2-8 Ropid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Table Cont inued: Eniastons® _Effluents® Textile, Wearing Apparel & Leather 221 Harufacture of TextiTes 5210 Manufacture of textiles BR Manufacture of Wearing Apparel, Except Footweer 3211 Spinning, weaving ard finishing textiTos 321d Cenpet and rug manufecture Manufacture of Leather end Products of Leather s21Tennertes end Jeether finishing Paper & Paper Products, Printing & Publishing BAL Wenufacture of Paper ond Paper Products 342 Frinting Publishing ard Al ied Industries . Manufacture of Chemicals, & Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber & Plastic Products 351 Henutacture of Industrial Cherleals 3511 Basic induetrial chanicals except ferti izers 12 Nenufacture of fertilizers and pesticides 3813 Resins, Plastics & fibers excest glass Manufacture of Other Chenicel Products 3821 Manufacture of points, varnishes & lacquers 3822 Manufacture of drugs and nedicines 3823 Manufacture of soap & cleaning preparstions 3528 Chentcal products not elsewhere classified etroteun Refineries Manufacture of Misc. Froducts of Petroleum and Coa) Nonufacture of Rubber Products 3551 Tyre & tube industries * Non-metallic Mineral Products, Except Products of Petroleum & Coal 61 Manufacture of Pottery, China and Earthenware 382 Manufacture of Glass and Giass Products 369 Manufacture of Other Non-Metallic Mineral Products 3691 Manufacture of structural clay products 3692 Cement, Line and Plaster 3699 Products not elserhere classified Basic Metal Industries 371 Iron and Steel Basie Industries 372 Non-ferrous Hetel Basic Industries Fabricated Netal Products, Nachinery & Equ’t, BL Fabricated Metal Products, Except Machinery 364 Manufacture of Transport Equipment 384] Ship building and repairingSource Inventory Techniques 2-9 Table 2.2-1 (Continued) Effluents® Electricity Gas and Water 41 Electricity, Gas and Steam 4101 Electricity Tight & power Wholesale and Retail Trade 61 Wholesale Trade 62 Retail Trade 63 Restaurants and Hotels 531 Restaurants, Cafes, and other Eating & Orinking 832 Hotels, Roaming Houses, Camps and Other Lodging Transport, Storage and Communication 71 Transport and Storage TUL Land Transport 712 Water Transport 713 Air Transport 719 Services Allied to Transport 7182 Storage and warehousing Community, Social and Personal Services 92 Sanitary and Similar Services 93 Social and Related Community Services 831 Education Services 932 Nedical, Dental and Other Health Services 94 Recreational & Cultural Services 95 Personal and Household Services 982 Laundries, Laundry Services and Cleaning ESSE SESS seeeeeeeeeeenereeeeeneneeeeeeeeeeeeeeeneeaene An asterisk in the column below indicates that the relevant industry or process is included in the appropriate air, water or solid waste inventory and control models of Sections 3.2.2, 4.2.2 and 5.2.2 re- spectively.2-10 Rapid inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 2.3 General Description of the Rapid Assessment Procedure As discussed in Section 2.1.4, and as shown in Figure 2.1.4-1, the cal- culation of the released loads from a given source is based on the use of appropriate waste load factors, which reflect the existing relevant experience from the measured performance of similar sources. Each waste Joad factor, ej, is defined as the normalized released load of pollutant J expressed’ inkg/(unit of activity) of the particular source under con- sideration. Sections 3.2.1, 4.2.1, and 5.2.1 present the rationale for the selection of the most appropriate "unit of activity” for each kind of source. Ba- sically, the selected "activity unit" must bear a close and proportional relationship to the pollutant Toads generated; it must also offer conve- nience during field-work (available field activity data must be commonly expressed in terms of the selected unit). The former makes the waste load factors, ej, independent of the source size and activity level, and allows it to be expressed mathematically in the following form, as a function of several parameters ej = /( Source type, (2.3-1) Process or design particularities, Source age and technological sophistication, Source maintenance and operating practices, Type and quality of the raw materials used, Type, design and age of the control systems employed, Type/design of control systems employed in other media, Ambient conditions, etc.) The dependence of the waste factors ej on parameters such as those in- cluded in Equation (2.3-1) above, cainot be expressed in a continuous function form due to the discreet nature of most parameters (e.g. the type of control systems employed), and the lack of sufficient informa- tion in relation to the remaining ones, A discreet functional form yielding a series of waste factor values, each valid under a specific set of common and important parameter combinations, is used instead. The above leads into the tabular constructs for the air, liquid and solid waste inventory and control models, which are presented in Sec- tions 3.2.2, 4.2.2 and 5.2.2 and described in Sections 3.2.1, 4.2.1 and 5.2.1 respectively. These models introduce the impact of ali major pa- rameters into the assessment of the load released, while providing at the same time a precise definition of the data requirements from the Field surveys. Sections 3.2.4, 4.2.4, and 5.2.4 elaborate on the latter. Based on the above, the air, liquid and solid waste models presented in Sections 3.2.2, 4.2.2 and 5.2.2 provide values for the waste load fac- tors, as well ‘as guidance for the data to be collected from the study area. The applicable waste load factors along with the collected data can then be introduced into (blank photocopies of) the Working Tables, which are given in Section 3.2.3, 4.2.3 and 5.2.3.Source Inventory Techniques 2-11 In the above Working Tables the activity level of each source must be expressed in (1000 units/year). This activity value can then be multi- plied directly by the waste load factors, which are always expressed in (kg/unit), to yield the released loads for all pollutants of major in- terest, expressed in (tons/year). The Working Tables provide room for Tisting not only the waste Toad factors and the source type and activity data, but also the conputed inventory results. The latter can also be added together to provide partial or overall totals, e.g. for the loads released from a particular industry and/or for the Toads released within the entire study area. This way, the field survey data are organized and documented in a concise manner, along with the applicable factors and the source inventory results. Sections 3.2.4, 4.2.4 and 5.2.4 provide examples on how the air, liquid and solid waste inventory and control models of Sections can be used, along with the Working Tables of Sections 3.2.3, 4.2.3 and 5.2.3, to de- fine the data requirements, to list the field survey results and to com- pute the released loads. ‘An important practical question, which often arises during source inven- tory studies, is when one should collect field data and compute the re- Jeased loads for each source individually, and when one is justified to do so for a group of similar sources jointly. The answer is obvious for the relatively few large sources (e.g. an electric power plant), for which calculations on an individual basis are required, as well as for Groups of numerous small sources of similar type and with similar con- trols (e.g. space heating furnaces), for which joint calculations are necessary. In the latter case the combined overall activity (e.g. the total heating oi7 consumed by the space heating furnaces in 1000 tons/year) is entered in the Working Tables and the overall waste loads produced jointly from all such sources are computed. Between the very large individual sources and the groups of numerous but very small sources, there is a grey area, for which the decision on how to proceed must be based on careful judgment as it may significantly affect both the amount of work involved and the accuracy of the results. As a general rule, when numerous small to medium size sources exist within our study area or sub-area, one should try first to classify them into one or more groups, for which common sets of waste load factors ap- ply, and calculate their combined waste load releases. This has some distinct advantages, since data about the combined overall activity are often easily available from government sources and industrial associa- tions, etc (see Section 6.3.3) and these data are often reliable. Nore- over,” the entire assessment procedure is greatly simplified and a clearer overall picture is obtained. The classification however of the smal] sources in groups of similar type, and especially the distribution of the known overall activity among the groups, is not always straight- forward and some pertinent information from knowledgeable persons is usually required. As an example let us assume that in a study area 140 tanneries are operating, one of which is known to be large, half a dozen of them to be of medium size, and the rest small. A sensible inventory approach would be to visit the large and the biggest of the medium-size tanneries so as to calculate their effluent loads on an individual basis. For the2-12. Rapid inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution remaining ones, one should try to obtain data about their collective output (i.e. tons of hides processed annually) as well as information about the process used (e.g. chrome or vegetable tanning) and the kinds of control systems employed (e.g. no control or primary sedimentation) . On the basis of this information one could then form a number of groups, each of which comprises tanneries of the sane process and of the same effluent controls. Assume for example that the information collected indicated that about 80% of the hides are chrome tanned and that no controls are used as the effluents are discharged directly into the sewerage system. Under such circumstances two groups need to be considered, one comprising all production lines employing chrome tanning, and a second one comprising the remaining production lines employing vegetable tanning. The collective activity of the former is 80 % of the known total for all small plants, while the collective activity of the latter accounts for the remaining 20 %. 2.4 Validity of Waste Load Factors ‘The waste load factors listed in the inventory and control models of Sections 3.2, 4.2, and 5.2 relate, as we have seen, to major production or other industrial activity sectors. These factors have been obtained from a multitude of different books, documents, and scientific articles gathered from different parts of the world. They have subsequently been evaluated and cross checked before being inserted into the models. Par- ticular attention has been given to the reliability of the factors, as this is directly related to the validity of inventory results. There are however, certain limitations associated with the use of factors, which must be considered: For any given activity, the waste load factors vary from source to source, and this variation is sometimes very significant, Such variations are often the results of different operating practices, but may also reflect differences in the design and layout of the equipment. The factors provided are selected to represent as much as possible, average or typical conditions. As a result it can be expected that the waste load predictions on any individual source basis may occasionally differ significantly from the actual waste loads generated. Overall load predictions for several similar plants, e.g. the total polluting loads in the effluents of many tanneries operating in a given area should however, be reasonably accurate. The accuracy of the factors provided is not uniform as it depends on the nature of the source, on the pollutant generating mechanisms, and on the extent of the characterization and Measurement studies done. As an example, the SO, emission factors from external and internal combustion sources can be considered very accurate since they are stoichiometrically related to the sulfur content of the fuel. No other emission factors for combustion sources bear such a close relationship to a well defined and known parameter (the sulfur content) and they are thusSource Inventory Techniques 2-13 Jess accurate. Furthermore, some of them, are based on relatively few measurements and exhibit wider variation. The question often arises as to the validity of factors across different countries, especially those derived in industrialized countries when applied to developing countries, For example, because of differences in source inspection and maintenance, or because of differences in the size of a “typical” plant, somewhat higher factors could be justified. However, extensive use of the Rapid Assessment procedure (WHO, 1982), for over a decade in many parts of the world has shown’ that this is not a stgniftcant problem. The general conclusion so far is that the application of the Rapid As- sessment procedures should generally be expected to produce acceptable accuracy for the management purposes intended. The accuracy could be im- proved in cases where information about local factors is available and assessments should be derived from these whenever possible. Such refinements, along with the increase in the number of experienced personnel, are expected to improve results and in turn, the quality of environmental management. 2.5 Bibliography Economopoulos, A.P., (1980). Technical Publication, Vol IT / Inven- tory of Pollution Sources. Part I: Sources and Polluting Loads in the Greater Athens Area. PART II: Generalized Methodology for Pollu- tion Inventories, Environmental Pollution Control Project - Athens (PERPA), pp 261. Economopoutos, A.P., (1989). Management and Control of the Environ- ment, ed, H. W. de Koning. WHO/PEP/89.1. World Health Organization. Geneva. . United Nations, (1980). Year-book of Industrial Statistics. Depart- ment of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistical Office of the United Nations. New York. United Nations, (1989). Industrial Statistics Year-book. UN publica- tion, Sales No. E/F.91.XVIT.14, World Health Organization, (1982). Rapid Assessment of Air, Water and Land Pollution Sources, Publication No. 62. Geneva.CHAPTER 3 AIR EMISSION INVENTORIES AND CONTROLS Compilation of Air Emission Inventories Under Present and/or Strategy Target Conditions Model for Compiling Air Emission Inventories and Assessing the Effectiveness of Applicable Controls 3.2.1 Introduction Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3.2.2 3.2.3 Working Table for Assessing the Air Emission Loads 3.2.4 Example Model for the Exhaust and Evaporative Emissions from LDGP Vehicles Under Specific Driving, Climatic and Gasoline Volatility Conditions 3.3.1 Introduction 3.3.2 The Exhaust Emissions Model 3.3.2.1 Description of the Model 3.3.2.2 Example 3.3.3. The Evaporative VOC Emissions Model 3.3.3.1 Description of the Model 3.3.3.2 Example Model for the Flue Gas Volume from External Combustion Sources 3.4.1 Introduction 3.4.2 Description of the Model 4.3 Example lodel for the Temperature Drop through Stacks Introduction Description of the Model Example Bibliography3-2 Rapid lnventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 3.1 Compilation of Air Emission Inventories Under Present and/or Strategy Target Conditions This chapter presents four models, two of which can be used for computing the air emission loads generated under present and strategy target conditions, while the remaining two can be used to calculate the flue gas volume from external combustion furnaces, as well as the gas temperatures at the stack exit point, as a function of the inlet gas temperature. The output from the latter models, along with the inventory results, are necessary for assessing the impact of point sources on the air quality, as well as for formulating appropriate mitigation strate- gies (see Chapter 8). Among the inventory models provided in this chapter, that of Section 3.2.2 represents a general one applicable to all sources of interest. in the study area. This model provides five columns listing the emission factors (see Section 3,2, below) for the "conventional" pollutants TSP, $02, NOy, CO, and VOC, as well as a sixth column reserved for other im- portant “Substances, as the case may be, for each source considered. The procedural aspects for the calculation of the air emission loads are presented in Section 2.3 and demonstrated through an example in Section 3.2.4. In this model, the particularly important source category of Light Duty Gasoline Powered (LOGP) cars, is covered through a simplified procedure, allowing the computation of the typical annual emissions in urban areas with temperate climate under typical driving patterns. The model in Section 3.3 focuses on the computation of the LOGP car emissions and supplements the above general model by providing a more elaborate computational procedure, which allows the user to derive emis- sion factors adapted to local driving habits and to the prevailing an- nual or seasonal climatic conditions. The use of this model is described in Sections 3.3.2.1 and 3.3.3.1 and is demonstrated through examples in Sections 3.3.2.2 and 3.3.3.2. To conclude this discussion on the source inventory, some remarks are warranted in relation to the procedure followed for the computation of road traffic emissions and justification of the particular emphasis placed on this source category: ‘The importance of road traffic emissions in urban areas stems from their dominance in terms of the emitted loads, the low level of their release, and fron their adverse spatial distribution (the highest emission densities are generally encountered in the high- est population density areas). As a result, the impact of road traffic emissions on urban air quality and on the health of the general population is significant Assessment of the emissions from LOGP cars, by far the most important category of road vehicles, presents _ particular difficulties as these emissions are highly variable and dependent on a number of parameters, such as the age and size distributions of the vehicles in the fleet, the severity and the period of en- actment of the emission standards legislation, local driving patterns, and local annual or seasonal climatic conditions.Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-3 From the published data and information about the LDGP car emis- sion factors, those from the U.S. EPA (1989) and from the Conmis- sion of the European Communities (1989) stand out clearly for their completeness. The U.S. EPA data reflect a situation not representative of developing countries since most of the U.S. Fleet now uses catalytic converter technologies (strict measures have been imposed since 1980) and comprises vehicles of unusually large size. The CEC legislation on the other hand followed the evolution of engine design, and the periodically updated emission standards closely reflected the improvements obtained from the progress in the conventional (non catalytic) engine design technologies. Only from 1993 will catalytic technologies become mandatory through CEC regulations. Furthermore, the European fleet comprises a relatively high proportion of small vehicles, which are more suitable for the congested European city traffic conditions. Based on the above, the CEC data appear to be representative for most countries and are used in this book. Nonetheless, the use of jocal factors, if available, is encouraged, especially for coun- tries where the local car production is not export ortented and/or without reasonably strict vehicles emission standards, as higher emissions than the computed ones may be anticipated. From the analysis of the CEC data, two models have been derived and are presented here. A simple one, which is suitable for com- puting typical annual emissions in congested urban areas with temperate climate, has been streamlined and incorporated in the general emission load model of Section 3.2.2. A specific model, allowing users to derive more accurate factors on the basis of lo- cal driving habits and on the prevailing annual or seasonal cli- matic conditions, is presented in Section 3.3. The flue gas volume model presented in Section 3.4, allows convenient assessment of the actual gas volune from external combustion sources as a function of the easily measured (or assumed) C02 concentrations. This information is required for estimating the ambient concentrations from point sources through the application of dispersion models (see Section 4.2.1). As the majority of point sources, for which air quality models are applied are industrial or utility boilers, the present model should cover a significant part of the gas volune data requirements. The stack tenperature drop model presented in Section 3.5 allows conve- nient computation for the stack-gas exit temperature, as a function of the stack-gas iniet temperature and other variables (physical stack height and diameter, and flue gas volume). It should be noted that although the flue gas exit temperature is a key variable for the use of air quality models, only the stack gas inlet temperature is usually known from literature and/or from direct measurements. The present model holds for both insulated and non-insulated stacks and addresses the input requirements of the air quality models by properly interfacing the raw data which are normally available from field surveys.3-4 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 3.2 Model for Compiling Air Emission Inventories and Assessing the Effectiveness of Applicable Controls 3.2.1 Introduction The quantities of emissions released into the atmosphere from any indus- trial or other activity depend, in general, on a number of parameters. Thus, the emission £ of pollutant j could be expressed in a mathematical form as follows: £j = f( Source type, (3.2.1-1) Unit of activity, Source size, Process or design particularities, Source age and technological sophistication, Source maintenance and operating practices, Type and quality of the raw materials used, Type, design and age of the control systems employed, Ambient conditions, etc.) The source type defines the kind of pollution generating activity in somewhat broad terms, e.g. cement manufacturing, vehicle traffic, external fuel combustion. More precise definition is provided through other parameters as discussed below, Obviously, the source type is a parameter which is closely related to the type and quantity of pollutants emitted. Through the source type parameter alone it is possible to simplify very substantially the source inventory and the air pollution man- agement tasks by excluding right from the start numerous activi- ties with relatively minor air pollution potential. The unit of activity, referred to simply as unit hereafter, defines an acceptable way of expressing the activity of a given source. Suit- ably defined units can be used to provide a measure of the ser- vices offered (e.g. the mileage of the vehicles in relation to the traffic in a study area, or the aircraft landing and take off cy- cles in relation to an airport), of the raw materials consumed (e.g. the fuel of1 burned by an industrial boiler) or of the prod- ucts manufactured (e.g. the quantity of cement produced by a ce- ment manufacturing plant). Selection of the most suitable unit for each type of activity is jmportant, as the unit must have a direct relation to the pol- lutant loads emitted, and must offer convenience in obtaining the required data during the field work. For example, the activity of an industrial boiler could be characterized by the quantity of fuel used, or by the quantity of steam generated. The former is directly related to pollutant emissions, while the latter only indirectly (other parameters such as the overall thermal ef- ficiency of the boiler are involved). Moreover, in practice is it easier to obtain reliable data on fuel consumption (both on aAir Emission Inventories and Controls 3-5 plant, as well as on a regional basis) than on the quantities of steam generated. Hence, a unit related to fuel consumption would then be appropriate for characterizing the activity of the boiler. In some cases alternative units are provided to facilitate the field work. For example, in the case of road vehicles, units re- jated to the distance driven or the fuel consumed can be used. Source size, although a key parameter, is only indirectly related to the normalized emissions rate (emission loads per unit activity). In general, economies of scale allow better design and operation, as well as stricter emission controls for larger size units. Moreover, for industrial sources, selection of the particular process to be used is often dictated by plant size. It is for these reasons that emission standards are generally significantly stricter for large plants. In the context of the present methodology the effects of plant size on the normalized emission loads can be taken into considera- tion only in cases where the source size affects the process se- lection. In some important cases however, as in the calculation of emissions from vehicle traffic, separate vehicle size categories are considered. Process or design particularities are very much related to the kinds and to the quantities of pollutants emitted from industrial sources. For example, different kinds of kilns in the production of lime and cement, or different types of furnaces in the metallurgical ‘industry result in greatly varying emission rates. Source age and technological sophistication are important parameters, as they often significantly affect the emission loads. The aging of a source causes higher emissions as systems tend to fail more frequently and their operation tends to depart from the new equipment specifications. In addition, older systems do not take full advantage of technological innovations, which tend to yield environmentally friendlier performance. Naturally, the technologi- cal sophistication does not only depend on the age of the source alone, but also on the environmental legislation, as well as on enforcement aspects. ‘A well known example of the impact exerted by the age of the source and the severity of legislation on emissions is in the case of motor vehicles. Continuing improvements in engine design over ‘the past 20 years have resulted in the production of vehicles with progressively diminishing emissions. Age aspects of light duty passenger cars are dealt with here in detail as they play @ dominant rote in urban air pollution. Source maintenance and operating practices is another parameter significantly affecting emission loads. Fortunately, for the vast majority of industrial sources, proper maintenance and operation is also intimately related to production quality and costs and for this reason is usually practiced to acceptable standards. For smaller sources however, improper maintenance and operation is the3-6 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution rule rather than the exception, despite the associated economic losses. A particularly important example of the impact of improper mainte- nance on emissions is in the case of internal and external combus- tion sources (industrial or domestic boilers and motor vehicles). Proper maintenance practices for certain of these sources are described in our emissions model, as they offer potent control al- ternatives for urban air pollution problems, along with sig- nificantly lower fuel consumption and economic savings as well. The type and the quality of the raw materials used is in may cases inti- mately related to the types and to the quantities of pollutants emitted. In industrial processes the type and the quality of raw materials available often dictate the process to be used and the emission loads released by then. However, the most important, and perhaps the most striking impact, is in the case of internal and external combustion sources, where the type and the quality of fuel used exert a dominant impact on the urban air quality. Based on the above, it is not surprising that possible improvements in the type and in the quality of the fuel used, offer some of the most potent air pollution management options. In our emissions model the general subject of the raw materials type and quality is treated with particular attention due to its significant practical importance. The type, design, and age of the control systems employed determine the removal efficiencies of the source emissions and are thus inti- mately related to the loads eventually released into the atmo- sphere. It should be noted that all parameters discussed so far in this section are associated with the generation of emissions and their reduction at source level. Only this one deals with the reduction of the emissions once they have been generated by the source. The type of the control system enployed defines by itself the ca- pabilities and limitations (and hence the control efficiency range) for the source under consideration. Analytical design char- acteristics allow a better insight and a more accurate assessment of the control system efficiency, but relevant data are difficult to collect in practice and difficult to use. The age of the control system affects the emissions due to the progressive downgrading of the performance with time, but, most importantly, due to the generally more relaxed design specifications of the past. Old age of equipment tends thus to be associated with lower design efficiencies. In our inventory model the type of control system is used as the leading parameter for assessing the control system performance. The age of the contro? system is an additional parameter, which is used in selected cases. Detailed assessments on the basis of specific design characteristics are however not addressed, as typical design practices are assumed.Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-7 The ambient conditions may significantly affect the rate of emissions. For example, wind velocity and/or rainfall affect the TSP emissions from roads and material storage facilities, while tem- perature affects considerably the road traffic emissions. The im- pact of the ambient conditions has been incorporated in our emis- sions model for selected sources. The above discussion leads into the important practical question of how the emission load Ej could be expressed as a direct and explicit func- tion of all the parameters that may affect it for all pollutants j of interest. The first step in this direction is to define the emission factor ej for pollutant j, through the following relation: Ej. kg/ye - 2 (3.2.1-2) Source activity, Units/yr The emission factor ej is normally expressed as kg/unit and is assumed {o be independent of the source size and the source activity (or produc- tion) level. The basis for this important assumption is the way the ac- tivity units are selected. Indeed, as discussed above, a key criterion in the selection of the activity units is their direct and proportional relation to the emission loads generated. From the above and from Equa- tion (3.2.1-1) we obtain: ej = f7( Source type, (3.2.1-3) Process ar design particularities, Source age and technological sophistication, Source maintenance and operating practices, Type and quality of the raw materials used, Type, design and age of the control systems employed, Ambient conditions, etc.) The emission-factor ej is used extensively hereafter, as the key objec- tive of the air emissions model is to define the value of ej for every significant source and for every pollutant of interest j. The dependence of the emission factors ej on the parameters discussed above and listed in Equation (3.2.1-1), Cannot, in most cases, be ex- pressed in a continuous function form due to the discreet nature of most parameters (e.g. type of fuel or type of control equipment used), and to the frequent lack of sufficient information in relation to the remaining parameters. A discreet functional form yielding a series of emission values, each valid under a specific set of common and important parameter combinations, is used instead. The discreet rather than the continuous nature of the emission factor values leads into the tabular construct of the model in Section 3.2.2, into which the source types are organized on the basis of the UN Stan-3-8 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Poliution dard Classification of Industries and Services. Under each activity listed, all important individual sources are included (e.g. under Gypsum manufacturing, the Rotary Ore Dryers, the Raw Mills and the Calciners are included); for each such source all major alternative processes are listed (e.g. in Gypsum manufacturing and under Calciners, the Flash and the Continuous Kettle Calciners are listed); and for each such process al] major control alternatives are provided (e.g. in Gypsum manufactur- ing, under Calciners and under the Continuous Kettle Calciners the Un- controlled, the Fabric Filter and the Electrostatic Precipitator contro) alternatives are provided). For each such combination of parameters the applicable emission factors are given for the pollutants of interest. The impact of the raw materials type and quality is either expressed di- rectly through a relation (e.g. in the case of the SOp and TSP emission factors in several external combustion activities), indirectly through the listing of alternative processes (the process selection often de- pends on the raw materials available), or is described in the footnotes Similar provision is made for the remaining parameters, whenever their impact becomes important. The impact of the ambient conditions (as wel] as of the local driving patterns) for light duty passenger cars is examined separately in Section 3.3 because of its particular importance for urban pollution. The tabular structure and the form of Section 3.2.2 constitutes a rather elaborate air emissions model by introducing the impact of all major parameters into the assessment of the air emissions releases, and by providing a precise definition of the data requirements from field surveys. The model of Section 3.2.2 is thus a valuable tool for source inventory studies, not only for computing the emissions, but also for providing guidance on the data to be collected during the field survey work, as well as for organizing and presenting such data in a concise manner (see also Sections 3.2.3 and 3.2.4 below). In addition, the model in Section 3.2.2 should be a valuable tool in air pollution management studies as it provides a clear picture of the ex- isting sources and emissions and, along with it, a fairly comprehensive list of the available alternative process modifications and control equipment options for each activity and each source therein, as well as identification of the parameters that exert a particular influence on the emissions and quantification of relevant changes (e.g. quantifica- tion of the impacts from possible changes in the types and qualities of the fuel used). The above constitute key elements in the analysis of air pollution problems and the formulation of effective control strategies for any given urban or industrial area. Finally, the model in Section 3.2.2 is useful in Environmental Impact Assessment Studies as it provides, in a convenient form, quantification of the impacts of alternative process and emission control system selections for most sources and activities of interest.‘Air Emiasion Inventories and Controls 3-8 3.2.2 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls SIc# PROCESS WHIT (U) TSP $0. WO, CO Woe: kg/V kg/Y ko/V kg /V kg/d ‘¥AJOR DIVISION 0. ACTIVITIES WOT ADEQUATELY DEFINED Consumer Solvent Use! (Person)*(yeer) Surface Coating Paint ‘in conoured Varnish ‘tn consumed Lacquer ‘tn consumed Enamel tn consuned Primer (Zine Chronate) ‘tn consumed MAQ0R DIVISION 1, AGRICULTURE, ROUTING, FORESTRY AND FISHING LLL Agricultural and Livestock Product ion ‘Open Burning of Agricultural Materials Field Crops m 1000 n® of land vine Crops ol 1000 w? of land Woods tn 1000 m2 of Vand Orchard Crops te 1000 m? of ond Forest Residues ca 1000 w? of Tand 121 Forestry Charcoal Manufacturing ‘Uncontrol Ted 1 me Afterburner wow MAQOR DIVISTON 2, IMIG AND QUARRYING 210 Coad Mining oa] Cleaning Coal Drying Fluidized Sed Dryer Uncontrolled tm of dried coe) 100.22 0.07 0.05 Cyclone ‘tn of dried coal 6 0.22 0.07 0.05 The Visted factor includes evaporation losses from the use of polishes, waxes, desdorants etc. and tte value 1g related to the standard of Tiving of people in the study area. A lower value than the listed one may be 1s sore appropriate for aress with low standerd of Tiving.3-10 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d t SICH PROCESS UNIT (UV) TSP 502 Oy CO VOR. kg ka/U kg/V kg/U kof Wet Scrubber to of dried con) 0,05 0.13 0.07 0.05 Flash Orter Uncontrotied to of dried cond 8 Cyclone to of dried coal § Wet Scrubber tn of dried cont 0.2 Mutt Nowvered Ories UncontroTTed tn of dried coal 13, cyclone tn of dried coal 4 Wet Scrubber tn of dried cost 0.05 220 Crude Petroleum and Natural Gas Product Desuifurization of Netura) bas? 100m} a4. eta -edigs 1000 a? 16.6(1-e)$ tnof gut 17-1(1-0)hgs tnof gas 20(1-e)5 2302 Non-Ferraus Ore Mining Hota Vic Mineral Process ing (Low Mo\sture Ore) Urcontro led Crushing Primary Secondary Tertiary Ory Grinding Gravity Discharge Air Swept Drying Fabric Filter or Scrubbers Leadvearing Ore Crushing and Grinding Po Ores In Ores Cu Ores Po-Zn Ores. Cu-Pb Ores Cu-2a Ores Cu-Po-2n Ores (2) “e* ts fractional efficiency of sulfur recovery plants with typical values as follows: for uncontrolled 2-stage sulfur recovery plant: fren 0.920 te 0.950 for uncontrolled 3-stage sulfur recovery plant: frem 0.950 to 0.975 for uncontrolled 4-stage sulfur recovery plant: frem 0.960 to 0.990 for controlled sulfur recovery plant rem 9.990 to 0,999 “ii” $8 the mole percent of HyS in natural gus (1 mole % HyS = 0.968 weight % Mp5 or 0.858 weight % Sulfur), while “S" is the weight percent of sulfur in the natural gasAir Emission Inventories and Controls 3-11 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d c Sice PROCESS UNIT (U) TSP 50 HO, 0 Yor kg/d kg/V kal) kgf kg/d 2901 Stone Quarrying, Clay and Sand Fite Sand and Gravel? Stone Quarrying and Processing4 \Uncontrodee Wet Guerry DrilTing Blasting Batch Drop Track Unloading Truck Loading Conveyor Front. End Loader Conveying Drying Crushing PrinarysSecondary Crushing Dry Materials Wet Materia te Tertiary Ory Materials 2902 Chemical and Fert! tizer Mineral Hining Phosphate Rock Process ing Drying oF Cacining orying Uncontro}ed Low Pres Venturi Serubber High Pres Ventur’ Serubber Calcining Uncontroted Low Pres Verturi Serubber High Pres Venturi Scrubber Product Grinding ‘Uncontro ed Fabric Filter Transfer and Storage Open Storage Piles Enission factors apply n cases whore granular materials are found in near-surface alluvial deposits and in processing cperations involving initia) dry screening followed by wet pro- esting for screening and ai1t renoval to produce washed sand and gravel. In situations where Silt is removed ty air blowing, 2 significant portion of the raw material may be blown in the air resulting in very high dust emissions. Eniesions fran the material hauling are not included 2s they can be computed separately (see factors Msted in group 711).3-12. Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r sic# Races UNIT () TSP S0p WO, CO vor kal kg/V kg/U g/l ky/t WAOOR OIVISTON 3, MANUFACTURING DIVISION 31. WANUFACTLRE OF FOOD, BEVERAGES AND TowACco 3121 Meat Snokehouses Uncontre ied te 015 0.3 0.18 Low Voitage ESP or Afterburner te 0.05 0.0 0.075 3114 Fish Processing (Canning & Manufacture of by-products) Steam Tube Driers tm 25 Direct Fired Orvers th 4.0 3116 Grate MTs Feed 4112, Uncontreled neat Hi 1Ting Uncoatrol Ted Cyclones & Fabric Filters Darua Mi118ng, UneontroVed aye Mi}Ving, Uscontra ed Cyclones & Fabric Filters oat MiTTing, Uncontral tea Rice Ns11ing, Uncontrol Ted Soybean Mi11ing, Uncontrolled Dry Corn HiiTing, Uncontratied Wot Corn Mi Ting, Uncontrolled 312) Stareh Manufacturing incontvo Ned antee? Ted 3122 A}FaTfa Oehydrating Primary Cyetone No Secondary Controls Hediun Energy Wet Scrubber Meal Cor lector Cyclone No Secondary Controls Fabric Filter Pellet Cooler Cyclone No Secondary Controls Fabric Filter tm 3133 Beer Brewing th of cereal nd of beer 0.8 ISP enissions fron the various corn cleaning, grinding, and screening operat fons can be con- trolled by centrifugal ae scrubberAir Emission Inventories and Controls 3-13 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls. - Cont’d r sie pnocess WHIT (U) TSP $02 Ny CO OC ko/ kg/U kof ka/ kof 3133 Wine Production 3 of wine 0.38 DIVISION 32, TEXTILE, WEARING APPAREL X LEATHER INDUSTRIES. 321 Textile Fabric Printing tn of fabric 3211 Cotton Binning Uncontrolled tn of cotton 7.0 Cyclones, in-line Filters etc tn of cotton 4.48, DIVISION 33, MANUFACTURE OF WOOD & WOOD PRODUCTS, INCLUDING FURNITURE 331 Manufacture of Wood and Wood and Cork Products, Except Furniture Prywood Veneer Fugitive Emissions Log Deberking & Sawing tn of Togs Plywood Cutting & Sanding of of plywood Sandust Mand} ing tn of Sawdust Dryers 000m? DIVISION 34. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER AKO PAPER PRODUCTS. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING 341 Manufacture of Paper and Peper Products Sulfate (Kraft) Pulping Digester, Grown Stock Washer Multiple Effect Evaporator Uncontroled tn Recovery Bo! ler Recovery Boiler & Direct Contect Evaporator ‘Uncontrolled tn Venturi Sorubber tr VeoturteAuei iary Scrubber tn asp tn EspeauxiMiary Serubber tS Recovery Soiler Without Direct Contact Evaporator Uneostrat ed mn on5, EP imo8-14 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Poltion Mode? for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd SICH pRocess WHIT (UTS? Sd Mo, 0D VOC: af Kg/U ka/U ko/U kg/d Smelt Digselving Tank Uncentrotied Mesh Pad Serubber tine k3 Uncontra led Serubber or £5? Niece? taneous Sources Sulfite Pulping Digester Blow Pit or Dunp Tank Uncontrolled a0 Base Syston Process Changes Sorubber Process Changes*Scrubber ATT Exhausts through Recovery Systems Wig Base Systen Process Changes Process Changes+Serebber Ns Base syste Process ChangesvScrubber Caletun Base System Recovery System Mad Base Systen WuTticyclonesventurs Serub, iy Base Systen Nig AbsorptioneMist Elim, Ne Base System Sodium Carbonate Scrubber Acid Plant® Mig Base Systen ‘Serubber Na Base System Caletun Base Systen Serubber Necessary in pulp mi1is with insufficient or nonexistent recovery systens.Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-18 Mode? for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd i SICH PROCESS UNIT (U) TSP Sd NO, CO Yor kg/d kai ka/ kg /V kg/d 342 Printing and Publishing and A1Vied Industries Graphic Arts Smal Applicat tons” (capitay* (year) Hajor Printing Lines® Web OFfeet Pablicat ions Print ing Line UncontroTed Ine inerat ton Printed Product Newspapers: Printed Product Web Letterpress Publications Print ng Line UncontroT ed Incineration Printed Product Newspapers Rotogravure Printing Line Uscentrotled Carbon Aésorpt ion Ineinerat son Printed Product Flexography Printing Line UncontroTled Carbon Adsorption Inetnerat ion Printed Product Publication Gravure Prsneing®) Uncontrolled Contro}ed (014 Presses) Controted (New Presses) (a] Large sources contribute most of the enissions for graphic arts operat fons. (b] The listed factor Is expressed in kg/year/capita, it provides an overal) estinate for tthe nuserous maT] sources which are difficult to be identified separately, and can be used only in the case of developed countries. jon factors for the plant oparat ions (dryer and other print-1ine components) are separately fror these for the printed product, as the former are subject to controls. Controt devices cen be of the solvent recovery (carbon adsorption) and of the solvent destruction type (thermal or catalytic oxiéation) type, the former being more comion ‘The 75% overall control level represents 84K capture efflotency and 80k contro} eff ciency (the U.S. EPA guideline recomendat ion for old exist ing presses}. The 88% over~ 11 contra? level represents the Best Denonstrated ControT Tecnology for new plants.8-16 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Potttion Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r 1 SCY PROCESS WHIT (UV) TSP $0z Ny cD VOC: kg/d ke/ ka/U kg/¥ g/d kar ODVISTON 25, MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS & OF CHEMICAL, PETROLEUM, COAL, RUBBER & PLASTIC PRODUCTS 351 Manufacture of Industrial Chemical 3511 Gasie industrial ChenteaTs Except Fertilizers tha ic Anhydride Oxidation of o-xylene Frocess Main Process Stream Uncontrolled Serubber & Ine Inerator Incinerator IneineratorsSteum Generator Pratrestnent Vegontral ed Scrubber & Incinerator Ine inerator Dive sTlation Uncontrolled Scrubber & Incinerator Incinerator Oxidation of naphtha ene ncontre ed Teeinerator Scrubber Pretreatment Uncontra Ned Tne tn Serubber Dist Nation Uncontrolted Incinerator Serubbor Chlor-A1kali Product ton Mercury Ce11 Pracess Air Blowing the Cel Brine Blow Gases fram Liquefact ion ncontro) ied Water Absorber Caustic or Line Absorber Loading of Chlorine Storage & Tank Car Vents Diaphragn Cell Process: Blow Gases from Liquefact ion Uncantre Ted Vater Absorber Caustic or Lime AbsorberAir Emission Inventories and Controls 3-17 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont/d r Slee PROCESS WaT (U) TSP SND, CO VOC: kg/ kg/d Kai kg / ke/d Loading of chTorine Storage & Tank Car Vents Hydrochloric Aekc (hy-praduet process!® Uncontre ied Fina Serubber Hydrof erie Aetd fram Fuorospar & HyS0y Spar drying, trensfer & silos Uneontral ted FFs, Covers, Additives Tat) Gas ‘ncontro Ted wo Sify 15.0 Coustie Serubber . won Sify 0.18 suifurte Aesatt Without Acid Mist Controls Fron Recovered § fof 100% HS0g (008) From Bright Virgin § of 100% 1750, _7{100-e) Fron Dark Virgin $ ‘of 100% #80, 7(100-e) SulFige Ores of 100% H780 —-7{100-e) Spent Aid of 100% Hp$0, —-7(100-e) ESP or Mist Euminator of 100% 480, —-7(100-e) Nitric Acid from Catalytic oxidation of Wy Weak Acid Tail Gas Uncontra) Ted tn of 100% sore Catalytic HO, Reduction with matured Gas te of 100% acid with Hydrogen tn of 100% acid with 25% NS 75% Hy of 100K seta Extended absorption ‘tm of 100% acid Nigh Strength Acta Plant oF 100% acta Phosphoric Ae id Wet Procese!2 Uncontrat ed tn of P20 Fy 58.4 Contra ed tn of P2053. Fr 06 With chlorine added to an organic conpound such as benzene, toluene and viny? chloride e" 4s the process conversion efficiency of S0p into $0,. Typical values for single absorp- tion plants ave 95 to 98% and fer double absorption plants about 99.7%. For single absorpt van plants equipped with alkaline $0, absorbers, a value of 99.7% anould be also used The wet process is used predominantly in the production of fertilizers: Phosphate rock {s assumed to be delivered dried or calcined to the plant, If drying or cal= ccining takes place, the added TSP eniszions must be computed (soe SIC Ho 2902)8-18 Rapid Inventory Techniquos in Environmental Polktion Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d c SIC ROCESS. UNIT (U) TSP S02 NO, -6-vOC a/v kg/V ka/U kgf 9/0 Thermal Process Contre] Ted Lead Oxide & Inorganic Pigments Lead Oxige Production Barton Pot (After FF] Caleining Furnace Uncontroleg Scrubber Cyclone + FF Plament Product ion Red Lead Uncontro ted Serubber Cyclone + FF Vnite Lead Uncontro! led Serubber Cyclone + FF Chrome Pigments Product ton Uncontroted scrubber Cyclone + FF Armonia Prertvct on 4 With natura? Gas as Fuel 0.072 0.022 2.7 7.97 4.73 With Distitlate 01 as Fue! 0.450 1.319 2.7 8.02 4.94 Sedum Carbonate (Sods Ash) Production Natural Process (Recovery from nature) deposits)}5 Predryar - Rotary steam heated Uscontrat ted tn 188 Venturi Scrubber th 0.03 Caletner Gas Fired - Uncontrotled tote Coa) Fired - Uncontrolled ta 198 0.007 Cyclone & ESP t0.975-0.08 Bleacher = Rotary gas Fired Uncontrolee tm 155) Cyclone & ESP tn 0.02 The natural gas feedstock 1s assuned to he éesulfurized. If nature) gas desvifurtzat ion takes place, the additional S0p entssions need to be considered (see SIC No 2200). Loading of stor- ‘age tanks and ahips may be an additions] source of significant MH emistions if proper con trols are not apolied. Significant TSP emissions, which may arise From crushing and dissolving operations, eleva- tors, conveyor transfer points. product loading and storage piles, have not been included.AicEmission tnventories and Controls 3-19 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d Sice process Dryer Rotary steam tube UncantreT ied Ventur’ Scrubber Fluid bed stean tube Uncontra) led cyclonesventurs Scrubber synthetic (Solvay) Process!® Uuncontroed Controied Calotun Carbide Product ion!? Coke Dryer Uneontra es ControNes Electric Furnace ‘Cireular Charging Conveyor Control ted Furnace Main Stack Uncontrolled Controted Tap fuse vents ControNed Furnace Roon vents Uncontrolled Control ed Primery and Secondery Product Crushing Controted Adipic Reid (Fron eyeTehoxane or eye lohexane!) Raw Matera} Storage Cyc lohexane Oxidation Uncontrolled (after serubber) Cerbon Adsorber Faring £0 boiler Thermal Incinerator Nitric Acid React ion Uncont' Ted (after NO, absorber) Serubber, Flaring or Corbust ton ‘Thermal Reduction} wir (UW) ” tn tn tn tn ta tn tn tn 1 TSP 50. Ny CD VOC ko/U kgf kg/U ko! ke/ koi 2 8 os Significant fugitive TSP emissions from Tinestone handling and processing operat tons, praduct drying operat ions cluded Contro's devices for TSP used are Fabric Filters of Wet Scrunbers. and dry solids handling (conveyance ard bulk loading) have not been in- The CO generated trom closed furnaces 1s etther used as fuel for other processes of Flared In the therms’ reduct ton reducing atmosphere the offgases containing the NO, are reacted with excess fuel in aModel for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d Sice process UWCT (UTS $0 NO, CO VOC ko/U kg/U kgf kg/d kg/V ReFining, Drying, Cooling, Storing Controtted (Fabric Friter) Lead ANky Manufacture Electrolytic Process Sodiun/Lead ATey Procese Process Vents Tetracthy? Lead Production Uncontro! led Low Eneray Wet Scrubber High Energy Wot: Scrubber Fabric Filter Tetramethy] Lead Product ion Uneontre Hed Low Eneray Wet Scrubber High Energy Wet Serubber Fabric Filter Sludge Pits Uncontro Ted Low Energy Wet Scrubber High Energy Wet Serubber Fabric Filter Recovery Furnace ncontre ed Low Energy Wet Scrubber High Energy Wet Scrubber Fabete Fitter Meleic Anhydride by Oxi Uncont raed Carbon adsorp fon Thermal or Catalytic Incineration Terephthal te Acid uscontralTed Carbon Adsorption Thermal Oxidation 3812 Manufacture of Fert !Tizers and Pesticides Urea Production (fron Hj & 0p)19 Solution Format en & Concentration UncontroMed fis 9.12 Emission sources are generally eentrolled with wet scrubbers due to easy recycling of the dissolved Urea collected. Emissions from the bagging operat ions are controlled by Fabric FA1- ters. Enissions from the solution synthesis and concentration operations, from the s0]tés screening and coating are spall and are generaily not controlled.‘ic Emission inventories and Conols 3-21 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd Sloe PROCESS OMIT (UV) TSP Sp MO, CO. OC kg/v kg/d Kg/U Kal Kg/ $0108 Format ion Non Fluidized Bed Pritting Uuncentroiled wet Scrubber Fluidizes Ged Fri ling Agricultural Grade Uncontrolled Vat Serubber Animal Food Grade UncontraT ed Wet Scrubber Drum Grenuletor Uncontrot ed Met Scrubber Retary Orum Cooter? Uncontrotied Vet Serubber Bagging ~ Uncontrotted Armor iva Witrete {From HNO & Wig) High Density Fri Ting Process Uncontroied Wet Scrubbing Low Density PriTling Process Uneontro) Ned Wet: Scrubbing Rotary Drum Granulator Process Uncontreed Wet Scrubbing Pan Granulatars Process Uncontrolled Vet Scrubbing amen un Suifate?t Rotary Driers Uncontra led Wet Scrutbers Fividized Ged Dryers Uncontra Ted Wee Scrubbers. 20. Required only for Pan granulation and for sone agricultural grade pris. 21. Produced as 2 caprolactam By-preduct, a a coke aven By-praduct, or synthetically by reacting amonis with sulfuric acfd.3-22 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r SIC PROCESS. WNT (U) TSP $0 NO, co. vO. kg/ kg /V ke/U kg/U a/d Freon tum Phosphates (From HPO, & Anhydrous controled Normal Superphosphates (fron Phosphate rock & S04) GontroNed te of Product 0.76 tn of P05 content 4.20 ‘Triple Superphosphates (from Phosphate Rock & HsP0,)22 Run-of-the-Pile ‘controled tn of Product 0.08 te of Pg content 0.10 Granular Controt ed ty of Product 0.10 to of Pg content 0.28 Nanufacture of Synthetic Resing, Plastic Materials and Mon-Hade Fibhors Except Glass Styrene-Butadiene Copolymer (Rubber) Emulsion Crunb Product Monomer Recovery Uncontraties Absorber or Flaring Blend/Coaguat ion Tenk & Dryers Enulston Latex Product Polypropylene & Copolymers Uncontra Ted Vapor Recovery and/or Flares Polyviny! Chlorides & Copolymers Uncontra Ted Vapor Recovery and/or Flares Rayon Merufacturing ~ Viscose Process Cellulose Acetate, Filter Tow Cellulose estate & Triacetate (yarn) Enissions from the eeactor, den and granulator are contralied by scrubbers using recy led gypsum pond water Enisetons From the ayer, cooler, screens, mills, product transfer systems & storage buildings are controlled by cyclones for the renoval of dust, before thay are sent to wet ecrubbers. Fabric Filters are used in the preliainary ground rock handling activities.‘ir Emission inventorios afd Controle’ 3-23 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls = Cont’d i Sica pRocess UIT (L) TSP Sp MO, 00 WOE: ko/W kg/l kg/d kg/W kg Polyesters (e.g. Dacron), Melt Spun Staple Yarn Aerylic, Dry Spun Uncontra Ned Controed?3 Nodacrylic, Ory Span Aerylie and Hodacrylic, Wet Spun Aerylic, Inorganic Wet Spun Wonopo Tyner Copolymer Nylon 6, MeTt Spun Staple Yarn Nylon 68, Melt Spun UncontieT ted Catalytic Incinerators ete Polyolefin, Melt Spun Spandex {polyurethane Fibber) Dry Spun Reaction Spun Vinyon, Sry Spun Manufacture of Other Chemica’ Products Manufacture of Paints, Yarntehes and Lacquers Paint Manufacture Uncontrolled Afterburner Varnteh Nonufacture Uncontre Ted Aftarburnere 23. Scrubbers and Condensers are used in the spinning cells and in the dryers. Carbon adsorption te used in tank vents and in mixing and filtering operations. Oistillation colums are also Used to recover solvent from condenser, scrubber and wash water.3-24 Ropid Inventory Techniques in Enviconmertal Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r SICF PROCESS UNIT (v) TSP $0, 8, CO. Vor ka/U ko/U ko/U ko/Y ka/¥ 3523 Manufacture of Soap and Cleaning Preparat tons Spray-Dried Detergents Uncentrotted Cyclones Cyclones & Spray chanber Cyclones & Packed Scrubber Cyclones & Venturt Scrubber Cyclones & Vet Serubber Cyclones & Vet Scrubber & ESP 3829 Manufacture of Chemical Products not Elsewhere Class carbon Black Main Process Vent O47 Furnace Process Uneontra} ed 0.28 1400 75 Flere We. 1.88 0 Boiler & Incinerator 4.65 0.88 0,98 Thermal Process . 0. 8 NL Other Syston Fabric Fiiters 0.73 Printing Ink UncontrolTed Serubber/Condenser & Afterburner ‘Trinitroteluene Batch Process Nitration Reactors With Fuse Recovery With Acid Recovery Nitric Acid Concentrators Sulfurte Acid Concentrators ESP ESP & Scrubber Red Water Incinerator Uncontrelied Wer Scrubber 7 Sellite Exhaust 29.5 Cont inuous Process With Fume Recovery 0.13 0.12 With Acid Recovery 0.13 0.92 Nstroce Nlutose 87 ksi‘i Emission Invontories:and Controls. 9-25 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont!d F SIC# PROCESS: UNIT () TSP $0 WO, coe 7 ko/ ka/D ka/D kal kg/¥ 353 Petroleum Refineries Petroleum Ref ining? Mise Operations? om} of crude Fluid Catelytic Cracking (Fcc) Uncaitfo Tee wi of FOC feed 0.895 1.413 0.208 39.2 00 Boiler am of FCC feed 0.695 1.413 0,204 ESRB C0 Boiler ww of FOC feed 0.126 1.413 0.204 Desulfurization of Sour Gase® ka of Sulfur in Gas 2(100-e)/100 k kg of Sulfur Recovered ——2(100-0)/e at} Tank 8 Tank Trucks FiTting Gasoline Loading ‘Splash Loading =? of Gasoline th of Gasoline Sutwerged Loading®? + Noma} Service: m! of GasoTine : ° th of Gasoline Vapor Balance Serv nm? of Gasoline 4 tn of Gasoline MMapor‘ControVed = of Gasotine te of Gasoline Jet Naphtia Loading ‘Splasti Loading — 3 of Gasoline > . tn of Gasoline 0.58, Submerged Leading Normal Service 1 of Maphtha 0.18 tn of ‘Naphtha 0.28 Vapor Balance Serv m3 of Naphtha 0.30 tn of Naphtha ry) Loading of Barges Gasoline 9 of Gasoline oat ‘tn of Gasoline 0.55 Emissigis, due te fuel burning are not accounted for and should be canputed separately (see SIC Wo 0) Xe emissions fran typical sources within 4 ratinery, such as storage tanké, #P7 seperatrs, Blowdown, fugitive sources ete sre ‘Included. The Tisted factor ts based on devetTed VOC emissions estimates in several refineries. 4s the nercent efficiency of the sulfur recovery plant. Typical Wsives sie for 2-stage plant cqntrel fod 92-958, for stage plant uncontrolled 95-87.5%, 4-stage plant uncontrolled 96-888, and for controlled plant 99-99.9% In the Wapor Balance Service the cargo truck retrieves the vapors ctaplaced during the under- around tark FiT2ing:Frvshovice stations (see below, SIC 620). hie operst ion increases, the Voc concentration snthe'atr-within the empty trick anit causes higher VOC énissions when the truck Sa" 1916 Te shoutd be noted ty-this regard that must of the’ VOC emissions reduction schleved through the balanées vapor #iTVing ofthe: service stations sibeeraod tanks is offset by “the wend TtaneYrerendédenisb ions n‘the Truck Filling Station, unless of course 2 vapor recovery system is used in the Totter3-26 Rapid inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls. - Cont’d rc SICH PROCESS UNIT (U) TSP $0) Ny Ovo: kgf kg/V ka/V ka/¥ aU rude 011 13 of Crude Ost tn of Crude 017 Jet Naphtha am? Jet Naphtha to oF Aaphthe Loading of Ships/Ocean Barges Ga801f00 1 of Gasoline to of Gasoline crude 011 of oF Crude O11 tn of Crude 011 Jot apnea det Naphtho tof Naphtha 358 Manufacture of Hiscellaneous Products of Petrotem and Coal Asphaltic Concrete Plants? Convent ions Hot-Mix (Batch & Cont inuous mx proces: Uncontrolled tn 22.5 1465, Proclesner tn 7.5 1485, High Efficiency Cyclone te 0.88 1465, Spray Tower te 0.2 735 Baffle Spray Tower tm 0.18 738 Mure tple Centrifugal Scrubber tn 0.035 735 Orifice Sorubber tm 0.02 735 Venturt Serubber tn 0.02, 735 Baghouse tr 0.0) 1485 Oryer Drum Hot Mix Uncontre Ted tn 2.45, Cyclone or Hult eyetone te 0.38 tow Energy Scrubber tr 0.08 Venturt Serubber tn 0.02 Asphalt Roof ing? Asphalt Blowtng Saturant Uncontra Ted of Asphalt ControTed of Asphalt oat ing Uncontrolled of Asphalt 1.87 Controted of Asphalt on Shingle Saturat on UncontroTed of Aspha tt 0.13 of Shingle 0.01 (a) "8" 4s the weight percent content of sulfur in the fuel of1 used. (b) Fugitive dust emissions are not included in the listed factors (c) Fuel burning emissions ere included in Conventional but not in Drum Kix plants, (4) WoC emission factor for Orum Hix plans is not available. Control devices nelude afterburners, high velocity air filters, Tow voltage ESP and wet scrubbers. Blowing operat ions are controlled by afterburners.Air Emission Inventories anci Controls 3-27 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r Sice PROCESS URIT (Y) TSP 50 A, 60 VOC kg/U ke/t ka ka/U_ko/ Controtied tn of Shingle 0.08 9.09) Cola Praduct ion (By-product Method) 3° oa) Crushing cyclone tn of Coke ont Preheat ing? Uneontro ed tn of Coke serubber tn of Coke wet ESP tn of Coke et Coat Charging / Larry Car Uncontro ed tn of Coke 0.01 0,015 0.8 1.25 sequent a) Charging 1 oF Coke Serubber tm of Coke ueoor Leak tm of Coke 0,27 0.005 0.005 0.3. 0.75 cake Pushing uncontroT ed tn of Coke 0.035 0.1 er tn of Coke Yenturt Scrubber ‘tn of Coke Baghouse tof Coke opie Queneh-Car Serubber tn oF Coxe Coke Quenching ‘Quenching with Dirty Mater (25000 mi/1 TDs) UnoontreTTed ta of Coke 2.62 aatties tn of Coke 0,65 Quenching with Clean Water (21800 mI/1 108) UncantroT Ted tn of Coke 0.57 aatries in of Coke 0.27 Const ion of Coke Oven Gas ‘neontre led tn of Coke 0.234 2.92 DIVISION 36, MANUFACTURE OF NOMMETALLIC MINERAL PRODUCTS EXCEPT PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM & COKE 362 Manufacture of Glass and Glass Products 36201 Glass and Gass Products®S Wetting Furnace Container Glass Uncontrolled Low Energy Scrubber Verturt Scrubber Fabric Filter or ESP ‘One ton of bituminous coal yields apprextmately 0.7 tn of Coke and 280 to 350m? of gas Goa} preheat ing is used only in few plants, Typical $0, factor bated on the ascunptions of 0.8K S content of coal & on 33% of S transfer from coat to coke oven gas. Enissions fron the combustion of fuel are inctuded3-28 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd sice PROCESS wiIT (0) Flat Glass Uncontra ted Low Energy Serubber Venturi Scrubber Fabric Filter or ESP Pressed or Blown STass Uncoatral ed low Energy Scrubber Venturi Serubber Fabric Filter or €5P Forming and Finishing Container Glass Pressed and Blown Glass Glass Fibber Manufacture’+ Woo! Glass Fibber (UncantroTied) Raw Materials Handling Glase Furnace Electric Gae-Regenerat ve Gas-Recuperat ive Gas-Unit Metter Forming Oven Curing (Flame attenuation) Toxtile Glass Fibber (Uncontrolled) aw Materials Handing Glass Furnace Gas-Regenerat ve Gas-Recuperat ive Gas-Unit Melter Forming Oven Curing and Caoling te tn tn to tn t tn to tw tn tn tn te 269 Manufacture of Other Wor-Hetal lic Mineral Products, 3691 Manufacture of Structural Clay Products Bricks and Clay Products Raw Naterals HendTing35 orying Uncontrotes Cyclone CycTonesSerubber tn of material drsed tn of materia! érted tn of materiad drted Ga) (e) 19° kar 19 0.25 1 1. 45 1. 3 19 1 a 3. os 0.8 35 8 3.8 802 NO 6d vor kad kg/V kg/U kg/d 0.02 0.14 0.025 5. 2.8 0.13 5. 0.85 0.13, 0.3 0.18 0.13 1a 1s 15, Emissions from the conbustion of fuel are included. Contre? techsotogies employed include wet ESPs, low and high pressure drop wet scrub- bers, low and high tenperature thermal incinerators. 35. pletely onitted Because of process variations, sone raw material handling steps may be partially or comAir Emission Inventories and Contro's 3-29 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r Stee pRacess UIT (U) TSP §0p MO, CO VOC kg/V kg/I kg/d kag/U koi Grinding ‘Uncontrad ied raterial ground ye Tone raterial ground CyelonesSerubber raterial ground storage oncontroNee material stored cyclone material stored CyelonesSerubber raterial stored curing and Firing’ Tunnel Kins Gas Fives of bricks 0. 0.080.030.0045, 011 Fires of bricks 4,985 0.525. 0,060, 0185, Coal Fired of bricks 3.858 0.78 0.71 0.008 oal/Gas Fired of bricks 0.315 0.81 Sawdust Fired of bricks Periodic Kilns Gas Fired of bricks 0.038 0, 0.25 0.075 0,015 041 Fires of bricks 2.998 0,81 0,095 9.025 oa) Fired of bricks 8.085 1-18 1.19 0.015 3692 Manufacture of Cenent, Lime and Plaster Lime Manufacturing®? Coal Storage and Processing (If Coe] is used as fuel) Coal Storage Open Piles tn lim 05 Semt-Enelosed i les tn Vine 0.25 Compartments tn Time 0.1 Silos: tr Vie O.1 Coal Crushing and Screening Vncontralled tn Mime 0.18 FF ‘tn Vime 0.002 Coal Grinding (Semi) Direct Fired Syst tn lime 0.0 Indirect Fired Systen UncontraTTed Lime 30 Fabric Filter Lime 0.1 Row Material Storage Lime 0.36 Crushing & Screening Uncontro’ ied Lime 1.5 Fabric Filter Lime 0.0005 8 the percent evifur in the Fuel. “RY Sp the percent ash in the coal Emisetons from the combustion of fuel are included. (d) Contro? of the kia gases by servbbers can reduce fluoride enisaiens by 95% Coa? fived Ki Ins are rather rare since coal tends to affect product quo lity is the percent sulfur in the fuel Emissions fron fuel combustion, e9 well oe Fugitive dust entastons are included.3-30 _ Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r SIC ROCESS. WNIT (U) TSP S09 WO, co. vO ka/U ko/V ka/U g/t kg/d Crushed Material Storage Open Pi tes Seni-Enelosed Piles Compartments Silos Raw Mater {e1 Conveying Uncontrolled Fabric Filter Raw Hater ial Caleining Vertical Shaft KiTn Uncontro Ned Lime 3.00.98 Cyclone Lime 1.0 0.98 Mutt eye lones Lime 0,750.98. Vert ica] Double IncTined KiIns Uncontrol ted Lime 10.5 0.98 Cyctone Line 3.6 0.95 Mult teyclones Line 2.6 0.95 ParalTe! Flow/Counterf Yow Regenerative KiTos Uncontrolled tr line 8. 0.95 Cyclone tn Line 2.8 0.95 Hult icyc Tones tnLine 2. 0.98 Anuar K3Ins Uncontrolled inline 12. 0.88 ‘cyclone tnlime 4.2 0.95 Walt icyc tones: ta Line 3. 0,95 Rotary Short KIIn/Air Suspension Prehestor Uncontroted ‘tr Line 40. 0.365 cyclone th Lime 14, 0.365 Mutt icye Tones tn Line 9, 0.365 esp tn Lime 0.6 0.365, Fabric Filter tn Lime 0.2 9.365 Rotary Long Kiln Uncontro} Yee tn Line 140, 0.368 cyclone tn Line 49, 0.65 Muteteye Tones th Line 38, 0,365 ese tn Lime 2. 0.385 Fabric Filter tm Line 0.4 0.385 caletnatie 11 Uncontro) les tn Line 25, 0.95 cycTone tn Line 8.7 0.95 Molt icyctores: tn Line 6.2. 9.95 Line cooing Grate Cooler Uneontre Ted fyelones Nutt eye Tones Fabric Filters Planetary, Rotary, oF Vertical Shaft Coolers‘Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-31 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d rc sice pRocess WIT {U) TSP $0 My 00 VOC a/U ko/ ke/ kad ka/t Line Packaging / Shipping tm Lime 0.12 Lime Hydration Uncontrolled Scrubber Cenent: Manufacturing’? Typical MelI-Contro¥ied Plant tn of coment «1.9 1.02 2.15 Coal Storage and Processing (If Co21 is used as fuel) Coal Storage (Gnly if Coal fs Used as Fue?) Open Pres tn clinker 0.5 Seni-EneTosed Pies fn clinker 0.25 Compartments tn clinker 0.2 silos tn olinker 0.1 Coal Crushing and Screening (Qnly if Coal is Used as UncontreT tee tn clinker 0.18 Fabric Filter ‘tm clinker 6.002 coat Grinding (Semi) direct Fired syst Clinker 0. Indirect Fired Systen Uncontre ed Clinker 10. Fobrig FiTter Clinker a. Raw Materials Storage clinker 0.14 Raw Material Crushing & Screening Primary & Secondary Crushing Uscontre led clinker Cyetone clinker mult ieye tone eVinker Fabric Filter linker Tertiary Crushing39 Uncontrelleé linker cyclone eninker Kulticye tone oVinker Fabete Filter linker Raw Material Conveying Uuncontral Ted einkor ‘Good Control (FF) clinker Emissions fron the cenbustion of fuel are included, Tertiary crushing of the raw materials to a fairly small size facilitates grinding. However, plugging or gumaing of the crushers due to the presence of sticky materials often prevents tertiary crushing.3-32 Rapid inventory Techniques in Enviconmental Pollution Mode] for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r sce process UNIT (U) TSP 50: HO, co YOR. ko/ ke/V kg/U kg/U kg/d Raw Material Grinding & Cateining®® Dry Process Kiln UncontrelTed clinker Mutt teyclonesese linker Baghouse clinker Wet Process Kiln Uncontro1Ted Tinker Esp clinker Beghouse clinker Clinker Cooler Grate Cooter Uncontrolled eNeker Cyctones clinker Mutt eye lones clinker Gravel Sed Fitters Tinker esp clinker Goghouse clinker Planetary or Rotary Cooler clinker Clinker Storing Oven Piles clinker Seni-Enelosed Piles clinker Compartments linker Silos clinker Clinker Grinding Tube 311 / Open cyeTe Uncontrolled tn clinker ESP or FF tn clinker Tube M\TT / Closed Cycle oF Rotter M11) Uncontrolled linker ESP or FF clinker Coment Storing tn Stoe clinker Cement. Shipment BuTk Leading elleker Packaging Uncontrol Tas elieker Fr clinker 40. (2) In typical dry-process installations, a portion of the hot gases fron the calcining Kilns ts fed im the grinding miT1s for drying the raw meal. Gas fron grinders-dryers land kins 1s thus coxbined and treated in a ccanen insta? lat ion {b) The listed $0) emtssion Factor is based on German studies indicating $02 revovel effi- clencies through reactions with alkaline dust from 88 to 100K. Higher S02 emissions dare obtained only sf the $0, exceeds the aTkaTine content of the raw mea. The U.S. EPA, on the basis of Himited data, reports $0 removal fron 2i% to 45% and suggests the use of the following $0, enissions factors: For coal fired kilns: 5.443.6°S, for fue) of) fired kilns $442,248 and for Gas fired kilns 5.4, where $ ts the weight % sulfur in the Fuel used.‘ir Emission inventories and Controls 3-33 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd Sice process WIT (U) TSP 8p M,C VoE. o/U g/l keV kg/U eel 3699 Manufacture of Non-Metallic Mineral Products not Elserhere Classit ted Gypsum Manufacture Rotary Ore Dryers Uncontre) ied Fabric Filter Raw HiN8 Roller MITT Uncontre) led Fabric Filter ESP Impact mie ‘Uncontro ed Fabric Falter caletners Flash caleiners ‘Uncontro ed Fabric Filter Cort inuous Kettle Caleiner Uncontralied Fabric Filter ese Concrete Batching Process Emissions (Uncontroviea) 9.05 Wind Erosion Sand & Aggregate Storage (1000 méy*yr 142, Vehicle Traffic {Unpaved Road) Vehicle kn Travelled 4.5 Perlite Manufacturing Parlite Expansion Vertical Furnace Uncontrolled Fabric Filter DIVISION 37. BASIC METAL INOUSTRIES S71 Tren and Stee? Basic Industries Gray Iron Founériee4l cupotaA2s A Uncontral ted tn 6.9 0.68 cn Single Wet Cap tm 40 0.38 2 (2) For one ton-of gray iron product, about 143 kg of Coke are required. (b] The emission factors account also for the fugitive dust sources, as well op for the ‘emissions caused by the burning of coke. ts the percent sulfur In the coke: €0 emission factor of 7.0 must be used in cases where afterburners ard insta led.3-34 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pottution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r SICr PROCESS UNIT (UV) TSP $02 My 00 YOr ko/U kg/U ko/l ka/ ko/¥ Impingenent Serubber 2.8 0.38 cd Scrubber 1.6 0.38 2 Nigh Energy Scrubber 0.4 0.38 7 Baghouse 0.3 0.65 B Afterburner + £5P 0.7 0.68 7 Electric arc Furnace Uncontrolled 0.18 9.75 0.08 Baghouse 0.16 9.75 0,09 Etestefe Induction Furnace Uncontrel ted Bagnouse Reverberatory Furnace Uncontro! Ted Baghouse Iron aed Stee? MITT Sintor ing Windbox UncontroTed sinter Ory ESP inter Wet 65? sinter Venturi Scrubber sinter Cyctone sinter Fabric Filter sinter Braker and Hot Screens Uncontroted sinter Venturi Scrubber sinter Baghouse sinter Bost Furnaco4S, 46 UncontroNed Casthouse4?” tm Furnace with Local EvacuTat ton te Sintering (s used in sone plants to convert fine size raw saterials (iron ore, ecke breeze, Tinestone, mil} scale & Flue dust) into agglomerated product of suitable size to be charged into the blast furnace About 2.5 tons of raw materials, including water & fuel, are required to produce 1 ton of product sinter. Product ion of one ton of iron requires 1.4 tons of ore, 0.5 to 0.65 tons of Coke, 0.25 tons of Mmestone or dolonite, and 1.8 to 2.0 tons of Air. By-products consist of 0.2 to 0.4 tons of slag and 2.5 to 3.5 tons of blast furnace 48 containing up to $0 kg of dust (c) Emissions from the use of the bTast furnace gas (after dedust ing) are not ineTuded in ‘the factors listed here and need to be computed separately. (a) Blast Furnace Gas controts, typically (settling chanber or cycTone)+{wet scrub- ber]e(high energy wet scrubber or £5}, are often considered part of the process since cleaning of the Blast Furnace Gas is required before it can be used as a fuel, (b) The Tisted 18? emission Factors do not include these fron blast furnace slips (39.5 kg/tn of hot motel per s1ip) Typical of older furnacesAir Emission Inventories and Controls. 3-35 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r site PROCESS UNIT (U) TSP $0, MO 60 vor ka/U kof kg/d ka/¥ kai Baste Oxygen Furnaces Furnace for Melting & Ret ining Uncontrolled ‘Open Hood with ESP pen Hood with Scrubber Closed Hood with Scrubber Charging, Tapping, Transfer Electric Are Furnaces UncontraT ted Carbon steer 8 ATToy Stee? 5.05 Control of Prinary Emissions 0.15 Control oF Primary & Secondary Emtssfens 0.0218 Open Meavth Furnaces Uncontrol ted 10.55 Fabric Filter of Es? 0.22 Ferroalloy Production (Electric Smal seg Furnaces) 4 Fesi (50%) Uncontroted ~ Open Furnace to Uncontroted ~ Covered Furnace eo Bagheuse tn High Energy Scrubber tn Low Energy Serubber tn FeSi (75%) Ucontreled ~ Open Furnace tn Uncontroled - Covered Furnace tn Low Energy Serubber to Fest (90%) Uncontroted ~ Open Furnace tn Si Metal (98%) Uncontrolled - Open Furnace a Baghouse tn Felis (80%) Uncontroled ~ Open Furna tn Baghouse a igh Energy Scrubber tn Felis (8 $1) Uncontrolied ~ Covered Furnace tn Uncontrolled - Sealed Furnace tn igh Energy Scrubber tn Fecr (High Carbon) Uncontro) ed = Open Furnace te ese tn 48, Given percentages in the alloys refer of the main stleying element in the product.3-36 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Polttion Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r Stee pRacess UNIT (U) TSP $0 NO, 60-VOC ko/U kg/U kg/U k9/ ko/U Sinn Uneontraied - Open Furnace Uncontralled - SeaTed Furnace High Energy Scrubber Low Energy Serubber Stee) Foundries Electric Arc Furnace ‘Uncontre ed ESP Baghouse Venturi Serubber ‘pen Hearth Furnace Urcontre Ted ese Baghouse Ventur Serubber Open Hearth Oxygen Lanced Furnace Uncentra ed esp Saghouse Venturi Scrubber Electric Induct ion Furnace UncontroTTed 372 Non-Ferrous Netal asic Industries Primary Copper SneTt ing Uncontra led ‘in of Copper Ore tn of Copper Hot ESP (200-340 ¢) tn of Copper Ore ttn of Copper cold ESP (120 ¢) tn of Copper Ore ‘tn of Copper Single Contact HpS0, Plant tn of Cooper Ore tn of Copper Double Contact HyS0, Plant ta of Copper Ore tn of Copper Secondary Copper Smelt ing and ATToying Copper Scrap Cupota (Uncontrolled) Reverberatory Furnace ‘Uncontro Ted Fabric Filter Electric Are Furnace Uncontralied Fabric FilterAir Emission Inventories and Controls 8-37 Nodel for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Contd r S1ce PROCESS Electric Induction Furnace Uncontral Ted Fabric Filter Copper Insulated Wire Cupota Uncontre? ted ese Copper and Brass Scrap Cupola Uuncontrol ea esp Brags and bronze Reverberatory Furnace Uncontrolled Faprie Filter Rotary Furnace UncontrotTed ese Crucible or Pot Furnace Uncentratled EP Electric Are Furnace Uncontrolled Fabric Falter Electric Induction Furnace Uncontroted Fabric Fitter unit (uy) Atumina Product fon (Bayer Process from Bauxite) 48 Bauxite Grinding uncantra Ted Spray Tower Floating bed eerubber Quench TewersSpray Screen Alumina Hydroxide Cale ining ‘Uncontre lee spray Tower Floating bed scrubber Quench Tower Ese 23, From hater yields 526 kg of Aluminum, tn of Bauxite tn of Bauxite tn of Bauxite tn of Bauxite to of Alumina of Alumina ‘tn of Alumina ‘oF Alumina tn of Alunina TS? $0, CO vor kg/d kg g/l) ea/ kg/d 4 to 3.3 tons of Bauxite Gre processed, one ton of Alumina is produced. One ton of the3-38 Rapid tnventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r Sice PROCESS UNIT (U) TSP 502 HO, CO WO. kal ko/V ko/V ko/U afd Primary Aluminum Product 1on (fron Alumina) 5° Prebakes C211 ethod ‘Anode Being Furnace neontre Ted of Arian Spray Tower of Aaninur es? of Alunious Ory Alvaine Serubber of Aluminum Peebaked Reduct ion Ces UncontroTTed (tota1) Atuminen Fugitive unseat ‘Aurtiple Cyclones Alumieon Ory Aluainus Serubber tuntoun Ory ESPeSpray Tower uno Spray Tower Aan Flost ing Bed Scrubber ain Coated FF Dry Scrubber tate Cross Flow Packed Bed unin OryeSecondary Scrubber luntrus Vertical Sodeberg Ce1T Method ert cal Sodeberg Cel 1s uncontrotted (tetet) Atuninen Fugitive Alun Spray Tower tun Venturi Scrubber Anu Wuleiple Cyclones Ain Bry Alumina Serubber Alun scrubberefSPeSprey Sereen and Serubber Ain Morton Sedebarg Cel) Hethad Hor‘zontal Sodeberg Cells ‘uncontroled (tota?) of Anima Fugitive of Alunioun Spray Tower af Alanna Floating B04 Scrobber of Aluminum Serubbereer ESP of ATuninun is the weight percent sulfur in the preboked anodes. The listed TSP factors include particulate fluorides. The Tisted F° factors include gaseous, as well 9s particulate Fluorides. If controls are applied, the fugitive, 26 well as controlled steck anissions need to bbe conputed. In older plans cells may not be constructed with covers for the collection of funes land this may increate drasticatly the fraction of the uncontro}ed fugitive emissions, For the production of one ton of Alusinun the basic energy and materiel requirenents are as follove: Electricity 13.2 to 18.7 MH Atunina 1,29 to 1.92 tone (2.7 to 6.3 tone of Bauxite) Carbon Electrodes 0.45 to 0.88 tons Electrolyte Fluoride 0,03 to 0.10 tonsA Emission Inventors and Controls 3-39 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d c SICH PROCESS. UNIT (U) TSP $0 Ny 60 VOC kg/Ukg/ g/t ka/U koi Wet ESP tn of Aluninin 0.8 Ory Alumine Sorubber tn of Aluninun 0.9, Secondary Aluminua Product ion Pretreatment Sweat ing Furnace Uncontra} Ted ‘tn of AT pretreated Fabric Filter tn of Al pretreated Seetting Crucible Furnace Uncontrotted tn of AY Reverberatory Furnace UncontreNled th of AT Fabric Filter or £5? tn of Al Denagging (ChTor‘nat on) ‘Uncontrolled tn of Cly Fabric Filter tn of Cl Primary Lead SneTting Fugitive Emissions tn of Po Ore Crushing Urcontro}ed tn of crushed ore Fabre Fie tn of crushed ore Sintering (updraft) Uncontrot ted tn of Pb Centrifugal Codector tn of PD ESP tm of Pb Fabric Filter tm of Po H,804 Plant (Single Contact) tn af Po H$0q Plant (Oual Contact) in of Po ETanental 5 Recovery Plant tn of Pb Dimethylanitine Absorption ‘of PD Jemoo'a Adsorption tn of Pb Bact Furnace Uncontre Ned tn of Po Centrifugal CoVector ‘tn of Po ese tn of Po Fabric Filter ‘tn of Po W804 Plant (Single Contact) tn of Pb 804 Plant (Dua? Contact) tn of Po Elemental § Recovery Plant th of Pb Dinethylant Sine Absorption tn of Pb ‘Armeon'e Absorpt ton tn of Pb Dress Reverberatory Furnace Uneontrodee te of Pb Gentrifugs? Cottector tn of Pb Fabelc Filter tn of Pb Materials Hand}ing Uncontrolled te of Pb8-40 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Polution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d SCE PROCESS Fabric Falter Secondary Lead Processing Pretreatment sweating Furnace Fugitive Emissions Uuncontro! ted Controtled spelt ing Fugitive Emissions Reverberatory Furnace Uncontra Ted Contra led Blast (Cupola) Uncontro Ned Contra Ned Refining Kettle Ref ining Uncontrolled Control ted Kettle Oxidat ion Fabric fi ter Storage Battery Production Uncontro ted! Coutratied Primary Zinc Snel ing Pyronetallurgical Process Fugitive Emissions Roast ing Moltiple Hearth Roaster Uuncontre Ted cyclone + 65? $04 Plant Suspension Roaster Uncontre ied Cyclone + ESP p84 Pant Fluidized Ged Roaster Uncantre ied Cyclone + £5? HSDg PTant Sinter Plant Uncontratiea cyclone cyclone + ESP Sl, fi Fabric Filter {8 considered an integra? wait (W) 1000 Batteries 1000 Batteries of of of of of of of of of of of of Zine Zine Bine Tine Tine Zine ine Line Tine Zine ine Bine TSP $0) NCO WOE kg/U kg/U kg/U gM kal 33 1100 4. 1100 32 38 62.5 10 za. ud 8.25 110 part of the lead oxive mill, if any Po 20.0‘i Emission Inventories and Controls. 3-41 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d t SIC# PROCESS RIT (U) TSP $0 M,C vor ka/Y ko/U ka/Y ka/V kof Retort ing (Uncontro} ied) Vertical Retort tn of Zinc Electric Retort tn of Zine Frectralytic Process Fugitive Emissions tn of Zine Roast ing Multiple Hearth Roaster Uncontrat ted tn oF Zine Cyclone + €SP tn of Zine 80g Pont tn of Zine Suspension Roaster ‘uncontroDed tn of Zine Cyclone + ESP tn of Zine H,80, Plant tn of Zine Fiuidized Bed Roaster uncontra Ned tn of Zine cyclone + €5P tn of Line S04 Plant tn of Zine Electrolytic Process Uncontre ed tn of Tine Secondary Zine Snaiting Pretreatment Sweat ing Reverberatary Furnace Clean MetaTic Serap tn of Scrap Genera) Metallic Scrap Uncentrotted tn of Serap Fabric Filter tn of Serap Residual Serap UncontroTTed tn of Serap Fabric Filter ty of Serap Rotary Furnace Uncontrolled tn of Scrap Fobrig Filter ‘tn of Serap toffle Furnace Uncontral lee ‘tn of Serap Fobric Filter tn of Serap Kettle Furnace Clean Netalli¢ Scrap tt of Serap General Hota T1¥¢ Scrap Uncontrolled tn of Scrap Fabrie Fitter ‘tn oF Serap Residual Sorap UncontroTled te of Sorap Fabric Filter tn of Serap Electric Resistence Furnace Uncontrotled tn of Serap Fabric Filter tn oF Serap3-42. Rapid Inventory Techniques in Eaviconmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventortes and Controls - Cont’d Sica recess Ruta more kgf kg/Y kg/U kg/U kg/U Crushing & Screening Uncontra ties of Scrap Fabric Filter of Scrap Sodiun Carbonate Leaching Crushing & Screening Uncontrolled of Scrap Fabric Fetter of Scrap cateining Uuncontrotied of Scrap Fabric Filter of Scrap Netting Kettle (Pot) Melting Uuncontrales Refining Retort & Wuffle Dist lation Uncontrolled min Fabric F4)ter than Graphite Rod Dist lation min Retort Dist! at Son/Oxidat ion tn 200 Muff Ye Dist! Vat Sen/xiat or te 100 Retort Reduct fon Uscont rol lea min Fabric Filter than Galvanizing ‘tn In Used MAJOR DIVISION 4.__ ELECTRICITY GAS AND, WATER 410 Electricity Gas and SteanS? Gaseous Fuels Natura 62053 Utility Boilers 1000 fim 0.048 15.658, 0f54 tn 0.081 208 11.36 Industrial Bot lers: 1000 Nee? 0.048 15.65 2.24 tn 0.08 208 2.87 Dorestic Furnaces 1000 Ww? 0,088 15.65 1.6 ty 0.061 208 2.05 Stationary Gas turbines 1000 re? 0.228 15.65 6.62 te 0.287 208 8.9) (2) "ST ts the weight percent of Sulfur in the fuel (b) "AT 18 the weight percent of Ash in the solid fuel (c) "WT 45 the weignt percent of Nitrogen in the fue? ‘Typical sulfur content of Satara? as 1s 9.000615 %. For tangentially fired boilers use 5.6f kg/1000 Nn?, The load reduction coefficient “f* is computed from Equation f = 0.3505 - 0.005285 L + 0.900173 L2, where L Is the mean boiler Toad, %. A typical mean boiler load $s 87 2.‘Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-43 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d c SICH PROCESS WNIT (U) TSP $0, MO, cD vor g/t g/l kg/t ko/Y kg/V WH 0,138 9.65 4.08 3.18 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPS) Industrial Bos ters: w? (L1q) 0.031 0,004 1.51 0.37 tm 0.080 0.007 2.9 0,71 Danest fe Furnaces vm? (Lig) 0.031 0.004 1.07 0.22 ‘tn 9.950 0.007 2.08 0.42 Liguie Fuels Diets Tlate Fuel 017 Industria? & Comercia} Sot Tere tr 0.28 205 2.88 Resident al Furnaces tn 0.3685 205 2.60 Stationary Gas Turbines tn 0,710 208 9,62 Pw 0.389 10.48 5,01, Residual Fue? 01158 Uutsnity Botlers Uncontro Ted P 20s 8.597 ESP - Low Eff icteney 0.57 205 8.5 ESP - High EFFictency 0.1 205 8.5 Serubber 0.45 1.58 8.5 Industria] & Comercie] Boi lers®® P 208 7.089 Neste Lub 01160 Industrial & Comercial Bolters BIA 208 27 Domestic Heaters BEA 20S 2.7 Solid Fuels Anthracite Coa 61 Pulvertzed Coal Furnace In the absence of botter I/M programs. sncke enission factors may be closer to 1.6 kg/tn. “P", the uncontrolled TSP emission factor, is function of the sulfur content of Fue) ot} and ‘s computed fran Equat ion P = 0.4 + 1.32 § Use 5.3 ka/tn for tangentiaTly Fired botlers, 13.3 for vertical fired botlers and 8.5 for al] ‘other boiler types. {a} In the absence of boiler 1/M programs, the average smoke emission factor can exceed that in the table by about 60%, Econoxopcules (1987) {b] In coses where very effective boiler 1/M programs are implemented, the average smoke emission factor can be lower by up to 45% of that listed in the table, EconenepouTos i991) If the mitrogen content of the fuel is known, the NO emission factor can be computed more accurately fron the empir{caT formula (3.25¢89.2 M2) {2} Typica) values of "AY and "5" in lub of]¢ sre 0,85 % and 0.5 &. (b] __"P" ts the woight percent of Lead (Pb) in the fuel, The value of P depends on the Yead ‘content of the gasoline used. In the U.S.A. the average values of P dropped from { % in 1970 (catalytic cars ans unleaded gasoline were not in use) to 0.11 % in 1982-83 (three years after the introduction of catalytic cars and unloaded gasoline) and to 0.06 % in 1985-86 (six years after the introduction of catalytic ears and unleaded gesoline) Typica? Ash and Sulfur contents are 8.1% B 0.9% for Mets Anthracite, 9.4% & 0.6% for An= thracite, and 12.2% & 2% for Semianthracite respectively (dry basis)8-44 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Enviconmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd c SICH PROCESS WNIT (U) TSP 502 WOy kai kg/U kg/V Uncontrolled 5A 19.98 9.9 cyclone 19.88 9.0 ESP - High EFFictency 13.85 9.0 Fabric Filter 13.58, Travelling Grate Stoker Uncontra led 19.85 cyetone 19.55 Hand Fed Units 19.55 ituminous & Subbitunsnous Con182 Pulvarized Coal / Ory Bottom Furnace Uncontre led 5A 19,5510.553 9,3 0,055 multiple Cyclones 1.25 19.58 10.$ 0.3 0.058 ESP ~ High Efficiency = ew § Coa No Cond’ ning 0,38 19.55 10.5 0.3 0.055 = Otherwise >0.01A 19-5 10.5 0,3 0,055 Fob ic Filter 0.018 19.58 10.5 0.8 0.085 Flue Gas Besulfurization 0.054 1.955 10.5 0.3 0.055 Pulver ized Coat / Wet dotton Furnace Uncontra) ted 35h 19.95 17 9.085 MuTtiple CycTones tn 0.888 19,5817, 0.085 ESP ~ High Efficiency = Low § CoaTsNio Cond’ ning tn 0.2278 19.58 7 0.085 + Otherwise tn0.007A 19,55 17 0.055 Fabric Filter tn 0,0078 19.5517 0.085 Fue Gas Desulfurizatton ‘en 0.0358 3.955 17 0.085 ye lone Furnace Uncontrol ted tn A19.S5 18.5 0.3 0.085 ESP = Migh Efficiency tn 0,065A 19.55 18.5 0.3 0,085 Fabric Filter tn 0.0028 19.55 18.5 0.3 0.055, Spreader Stoker Furnace Urcontrad ied tn 4019.58 7.0 2.8 0.055 Nutt spe CyeTones tn 8,519.55 7.0 2.5 0.055 Overfasd Stoker Furnace Uncontreled th 8,019.55 3.0 0,055 Wortiple Cyclones te 4.5 18.55 3.0 0.085 Underfeed Stoker Furnace Uncontra Ted th 1515.58 4.75 5.5 1.05 Multiple Cyctones tn §.5.15.58 4.75 5.5 1.05 Hand Fired Furnace te 7515.85 1.5 45.0 9.0 In astuninous coals. typtea! Ash and Sulfur contents are 4.9% & 0.8% for Low Yolatf1~ ity coals, 2.9 & 0.6% for Medium Volatility coats, 6.5% & 1.2% for High VolatiTity A coals, §.0% & 1.4% for High Volatility B coals, and 9.1% & 2.6% for High VolatiTity © coals respect ively (dry basis) In Subbituninous coals typica) Ash and Sulfur contents ore, 4.7K & 1X for A type, 2.8% 0.5% for B type, and 12.2 % & 0.4% For C type respectively (dry basis) 63, For tangentielly Fired boilers use 7.5 kg/tn.Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-45 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d Garis ig tar iat cv kg/U kg/U kg/U kg /U kg /U Lignitet Pulverized Coal Furnace Uncontrotted tr $.14 19555 6.98 0.3 0,055 Cyclones th 0.85A 1556. 0.3 0.055 ESP ~ Older Units th 016A 158 0.3 0,085 ESP - High Efficiency tm0.0164 155 6.0.9 0.055, Fabric Filter tm 0.0164 158 6.0.3 0.055, Flue Gas Desul Furizat on th 0.081A 1.58 6. 0.3 0.055 Cyclone Furnace Uncontrotted te 3.3k 188 0.3 0.085 Cyclones th Ak 188 0.3 0,085 ESP = Older Units tn 0.165% 155 0.3 0.085 ESP = High Efficiency tre0.017A 155 0.3 0.055 Fabric Filter th 0.017 158 0.3 0.055 Spreader Stoker Furnace UncontrotTed th 215s, 2.5 0,085 Multiple Cyclones m A 155 3.0 2,5 0.055 Overfood Stoker UncontroVed th 15k 188 9.0 3.0 0,055 nuletple Cyclones tn 0.84 185 3.0 3.0 0.058 Underfeed Stoker Uncontro¥ied th 13k 3.0 5.5 1.05 Rultipte CycTones tr 305.5 1.05 Wood & Bark Wood BotTers te 84 13.0 0.85 Wood-Bark Mixture Bollers Uncontrotled tn 0.05 Hulttcyetone tn 0.88 Bark BoiTers Uncontrotled tn . 0.85 Multiple CycTones tn . 0.95 ood Stoves Conventional Units tn : 46.0 Low enitting non-catalytic, th Low emitting catalytic te a ae Residential Fireplaces tn 93.0 fagasse tn (a) “A" 1s the weight percent of Ash in the fuel (wet basis as fired) (b) "S" 4s the wetght percent of Sulfur in the fuel (wet basis as fired) (©) Typical Ash and Sulfur contents are 5.8 to 9.5% B 0.8 to 1.1 X (dry basis) Fer more accurate estinate coopute the $0 enisston factor fron the relation (20- 1.447220), where HlagO is the percent content of the ash in alkaly congtituents Use 7.0 kg/tn for front wall fired and horizontally opposed wall fired units. Use $.0 kg/tn for opposed wall fired units. Lignites with very high tumidity and low ealorific values may yield significantly lover NO, eatssions3-46 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Potiution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d ¢ SICH PROCESS WET (U) 18 $0 M0, CO vor 9/0 ko/V kg g/t kg/t avon DIVISION 6, MOLESALE AND RETALL TRADE Wholesale Trade Quik Fuel Termine Storage of Fuote6? Float ing Root Tanks Gasoline (ni? torage capacity) "year Cride 011 (#2 storage capec ty} "yen Jet Naghtha (92 storage capacity)"ye9r Jet Kero (in? storage capecity}"ye0r DistiNate O11 (w? storage copscity)*year Fixed Roof Tanks GaroTire (a! storage capacity)"ye2r Crude 011 (n° storage capec ty) "year Jet Naphthe —(n? storage capacity) "year et Kero (a? storage capacity) "year ist sTlate OST (v8 storage capecity)"yeer Truck FATT Ing Stat tons Sasotine Leasing splash Loading of Gasoline of GasoTine Submerged Loading®® Normal Service of GasoTine of Gasol ine of Gasoline of Gasoline Vapor ContraTed of Gasoline of Gasoline Jot Naphta Loading Spiash Loading of Basoline tn of Gasoline Submerged Loading Normal Service 1 of naphtha tn of Naphtha Vopor Balance Serv dof Naphthe 1 of Naphtha The listed enission factors yield the VOC enlestons in kg/yeer. In the Vapor Balance Service the cargo truck retrieves the vapors displaced during the under- ground tark Filling in service stations (see below, SIC 620). This operation increases the VOC concentration in the air within the enpty truck and causes higher YOC enissions when the truck {5 f4Mled. It should be noted in this regard that most of the VOC enfssfons reduct ion achieved through the balanced vapor filling of the service stations submerged tanks is offset by the resultant Increased emissions in the Truck FIl0ing Station, unless a vapor recovery system is used in the latterA Emission Inventories and Controls 3-47 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r sce PROCESS WHIT (U) TSP 502 NO, CD. VOC ko/U kg/U ke/U ko/t 620 Retat] Trade Service Stations Operat ion Filling the Underground Tanks Splach FITIng wm of Gasotine tn of Gasoline Submerged F111ing 1m? of Gasoline ty of Gasoline BaTanced Vapor Fitting a of Gasoline tn of Gasoline Vehicle Refuetling Uncontrotied ® of Gasoline ‘tn of Gasoline Balanced Vapor Filling am? of Gasoline 4 of Gasoline8-48 Rapid inventory Tachniques in Environmental Polution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d rc 1 SICé pRacEss WIT (U) TSP S0p NO CO VOC ka/¥ ko/V g/t kg/d ka/t koi 230 DIVISTON 7. TRANSPORT, STORAGE AND COMMUNICATION TL Land Transport ®® Light Duty Basotine Powered Cars «3.5 tr Evaporative Emissions7@ Hot Soak Emissions? ‘cars with Carburetors cars with Foe} Inject ion Aunning Losses Diurnal Losses Uncontrolled Evaporative Controle? a se the weight percent of sulfur im the fuel. Typical values for Gasoline are 0.039% to 0.18% & for Diese) 0.2% to 0.5%. (b) "PP Je the average Lead content of the Gasolines used in gr/Tt, In Untended Gaso] ine Lead concentrations are Tow (<0.013 gr/It), while typical values in Premium GasoTines are 0.15 to 0.6 gr/liter. (a) The evaporative enissions can be divided into the Running Losses (occurring while the Vehicle 1s being driven), the Hat Soak Losses (evaporation of ual, mainly fron the carburettor bow! and tark, aach time the vehicle stops with hot engine) and Diurnal Losses [expansion and enise on of vapor, mainly fron fue) tank, due to the datty étur- nel temperature variations) (b) The relevant emission factors depend en onbient temperature and on gasoline volat {t= ‘ity, To account for these effects, the sted factors should be multiplied by appro~ priate “correct ion factors”. Ae a guidance for the choice of the latter, the applica bble “correction factors" for the EC countries are given below: Diurnal Hot Soak Running Losees Emission. Losses Belgium, France, Luxenboure 1.0 0.9 0.9 Portuga1, Spain 13 08 0.8 Greece, Italy 24 Lz 12 Ireland, UK. 25 22 2.0 Denmark, Germony, Nether ands 1.0 10 Lo {(c) Estimates oF evaporative emissions based on the Tistod factors are considered high. An alternative node] allowing assessment of eveporative emissions as functien of the c}i= metic conditions and Gasoline volatility 's given in Section 3.3.2. “Lerip” 1 the average distance, in kn, © car is driven each time its engine starts Evaporative controls enploy canisters fiTled with activated carbon, to which alt fuel systen vents are connected. Any diurnal or hot soak VOC emissions will thus be absorbed by the ear bon and retained in the canister, The carbon is purged ef VOC during driving by drawing air back through the canister and into the engine, where it is burnt,Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-49 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r Sice PROCESS WIT (U) TSP 80 NO, cD WOE, kal kg/d kg/d G/U Kafe Exhaust Emtss ons?3 Car Preduct ion Period up to 1971 Urban Driving train «1400 ce 1000 ke 48.6 3.86 of Fue? 480.6 40.69 Engine 1400-2000 1000 ke 45.6 3.86 of Fuel 411,634.85 Engine > 2000 1000 kn 45.5 3.86 of Fuel 382.8 28.17 Suburben Driving Engine < 1400 1000 bo 25.13 2.08 of Fuel 437.4 38.32 Engine 1400-2000 1000 ken 25.13 2.08 of Fusl 208 36.91 359.7 29.05 Engine > 2000 1000 ion 28,13 2.08 of Fuel 208 36.50 202.5 24.43 Highway Oriving Engine < 1400 ce 1000 ken 1.28 2.02 16,68 1.32 of Fuel 208 33,59 277.0 23.94 Engine 1400-2000 ce 2000 ka 1.498 3.13 16.66 1.32 of Fuel 208 42.06 228.1 17.76 Engine > 2000 cc 1000 ke 181s 3.59 16.66 1.32 of Fuel 208 99,84 183,7 14.55 Car Preduction Period 1972-1997 Urban Oriving Engine < 1800 ce 1000 ke 0,07 1.665 1.64 $9.42 3.07 of Fuel 0.84 205 19.75 402.4 36.95 Engine 1400-2000 ce 1000 koe 0.07 1.928 1.87 33.42 3.07 of Fuel 0.73 205 19.43 347.5 31.90 Engine > 2000 oc 1000 km 0.07 2.28 2.25 38.42 3.07 of Fuel 0.6% 205 20.42 309.3-27.85, Suburban Driving Engine < 1400 cc 1000 kn 0.05 0.945 2.01 16.96 1.81 of Fuel 1.05 205 42.73 360.3 32.0 Engine 1400-2000 ce 1000 km 0.05 1,118 2-81 18.98 1.51 fof Fuel 0.90 208 48.02 $04.¢ 27.03 Engine» 2000 ce 1000 kn 0.05 1.245 3.05 16.96 1.51 fof Fuel 0.81 205 48.84 273.2 24.26 Highway Oriving Engine < 1400 ce 1000 km 0.05 0.988 2.02 19.98 1.19 fof Fuel 1.02 205 42.10 406.8 24.33 ‘The enissfon factors listed are based on a aean anbient temperature of 20 °C & on the following assumptions: For Urban Oriving: Av speeds 28 kn/h; Av trip length = 8 kn; Cold/hot starts: 75/25 Far Suburban Driving: Av spued= 60 km/h: Av trip length =12 kn; Cold/hot starts: 75/25 For Highway Driving + Av speedeL0D km/h; Av trip length >20 kn: Cold/hot starts: 75/25 Use Model of Section 3.2 for emissions under Tocat climatic & driving conditions3-50 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r SICK PROCESS wart (0) TSP 802 My CO ko/U g/t kg/ o/t Engine 1400-2000 ce 13 19.98 41 335.1 Engine > 2000 ee 345 3,59 19.98 73 298.7 Car Production Period 1978-1980 Urban Driving Engine < 1400 ce 1000 kn 398 1,50 28.40 of Fuat 65 410.0 Engine 1400-2000 1000 kn 68S 1,72 28.44 of Fuel 47: 337.6 Engine > 2000 1000 ke 97 28.44 of Fuel 48 266.5 Suburban Driving Engine < 1400 1000 kn . 13,54 of Fuel 307.5 Engine 1400-2000 1000 kon 13,54 of Fuel 248.4 Engine > 2000 1000 kon 13.56 of Fuet 5-88 201.1 Highway Or swing Engine < 1400 ec 1000 kn 7 10.47 of Fue! 202.7 Engine 1400-2000 ce 1000 kn 10.47 of Fuel 170.2 Engine > 2000 ce 1000 ken 10.87 of Fuel 142.3 Car Production Period 1981-1984 Urban Driving Engine « 1400 ce 000 km 0,07 1.398 of Fuel 1.09 205 Engine 1400-2000 ee 1900 kn 0,07 1.685 of Fuel 0.83 205 Engine > 2000 ce 1000 km 0.07 2.138, of Fuel 0.68 205 Suburban Oriving Engine «1400 ee 1000 kn 0,05 0.885 of Fue) 1.18 208 Engine 1409-2000 ce 1000 km 0.05. 1.15 of Fuel 0.91 208 Engine» 2000 ce 1000 ke 0.05 1.358 of Fuel 0.7% 208 Highway OF ving Engine « 1400 ce 1000 kor 9.05 3.088 of Fuel 0.97 208 Engine 1490-2000 ce 1000 kee 0.05 1.238 of Fuel 0.81 208 Engine > 2000 ce 1000 kn 0.05 1.475 of Fuel 0.68 205Air Emission inventories and Controls 3-51 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r SCE PROCESS WIT (U) TSP $0, m0 ko/W kg/D kof kal Cer Production Period 1986-1992 Urban Driving Engine < 1400 co 1000 km 0.07 1.278 of Fuel 1.10 208 Engine 1400-2000 ce 1900 km 0.07 1.625 of Fue) 0.86 205 Engine > 2000 c 1000 km 0.07 1.855 of Fuel 0.76 205 Suburban Detv ing Engine < 1400 eo 1000 km 9,05 0.808 6.99 fof Fuel 1.25 205 $1.26 173.7 Engine 1400-2000 oc 1000 kn 0.05 0,975 6.99 of Fuel 1.03 205 47.82 144.3, Engine > 2000 ce 1000 kn 0,05 1.175 6.99 of Fuel 0.85 205 119.9 Highway Oriving Engine < 1400 cc 1000 kee 0.05 0.965 3.58 tn of Fuel 1.08 205 7.9 Engine 1400-2000 ce 1000 km 0.05 1.088 3.58 ‘tn of Fuel 0,93 208 57.21 65.85 Engine > 2000 cc 4000 fos 0.05 1.265 3.56 tn of Fuel 0.78 205, 92.5 cars with Uncontrolled S-vay Catalytic Converters7® Urban Driving Engine < 1400 ce 1000 km 0.07 1.748 1.31 10.24 of Fuel 0,89 205 15.13 128.0 Engine 1400-2000 ce 1000 km 0.07 2.055, 646 of Fuel 0.68 208 52.9 Engine > 2000 ce 1000 km 0.07 2.385 6.48 of Fuel 9.60 208 9 5.1 Suburban Driving Engine € 1400 ce 1000 kn 0.05 1.105 5.15 0.81 of Fuel 0,91 208 93.4 110 Engine 1400-2000 6 2000 kn 0.05 1.238 2.96 0.28 of Fue) 0.81 208 23.18 48.18 4.49 Engine > 2000 66 1000 km 0.05 1.485 2.98 0.28 of Fuel 0.68 208 40.0 3.73 Highway Detving Engine < 1400 oc 000 km 0.08 1.328, 2.58 0.40 of Fuel 0.76 205 38.1 6.00 Engine 1460-2000 ce 1000 km 0.05 1.378 1.83 1.23 0.17 of Fuel 6.73 208 18.8 2.41 Engine > 2000 ce 1000 ke 0.05 1.728 1.29 0.17 of Fuel 0.58 208 15.0 1.92 14. Hot 8 Cole Urban Driving Cysle and Extra Urban Driving Cycle enissfon and fuel consitpt ion rreasurenents of TNO (THO, 1990), modelled by A. Econanopoules.‘3-52 _ Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont'd r SIGH PROCESS WaT (Uv) TSP 50pm, 0D VOR: ka kgf kg/D Ka kgf Cars with Controlled 3-way Catalytic Converters?® Urban Driving Engine «< 1400 ec 2000 km 0.07 1.615 0.20 1.7L of Fuel 0.87 208 2.46 21.21 Engine 1400-2000 ¢¢ 2000 kn 0.07 1.985 0.25 1.49 of Fuel 0.72 2052.57 15,39 Engine > 2000 ee 1000 kn 0.07 2.288 0.25 1.49 fof Fue! 0,62 205 2,28 13.41 Suburban Drtving Engine © 1400 ec 1000 kn 0.05 1.025 0.33 1.33 of Fue} 0.98 208 6.82 25.96 Engine 1490-2000 ec 1000 km 0.05 1,165 0.34 1,04 of Fuel 0.88 208 §.79 17.88 Engine > 2000 ec 1000 km 9.05 1.405 0.34 1,08 of Fuel 0.71 208 4.81 14.87 ighway Oriving Engine < 1400 ce 1000 kn 0.05 1.288 0.24 0,90 ‘tn of Fuel 0.8% 208 3.89 18.76 Engine 1490-2000 ce 2000 ka 0.05 1.308 0.25 0.54 tn of Fuel 0.77 205 2.91 86.29 Engine > 2000 ce 1000 kn 0.05 1.688 0.25 0.54 tn of Fuel 0.61 205 3.12 6.60 Heavy Duty Gasoline Powered Vehicles > 3.5 ta Urban Oriving 1000 ka 0.8 4.55 tm of Fuel 3.5. 205 Suburban Driving 1000 ke 0.45. 3.75 tw of Fuel 2.4 208 Highway Driving 1000 ke 0.6 3.38 tno Fuel 3.6 208 Light Duty Diese? Powered Vehicles < 3.8 tn!6 Urban Driving too km 09.21.1685 0.7 1 0.15 tof Fuel 3.5 208 12 18 2.8 Seburban Driving 1000 ke 0.15 0.888 0.55 o4 tnof Fuel 3.5 205 13 20 9.5 Highway Ortving Loo ke 0.3 138 oe tn of Fuel 4.7 205 15 18, 8.1 Wot & Cold Urban Driving Cycle and Extra Urban Driving Cycle emission and fuel consurpt fon reasuremants by TNO (TNO, 1990), modeled by A. Econceopoutos. {a) In the case of 2 flect of old vehicles with poor state of maintenance and pocr fuel quality, the emission factors Vsted need to be multiplied as follows: 180: 16 co: rat voc: 10.0 Nox: 0.8 Based on the Central Bureau of Statistics, Netherlands, the TSP (Sacke) emissions from Urban, Suburban and Kighway driving are 1.1, 0.55 and 0.5 kg/1000 km respectivelyAi Emission Inventories and Contro's 3-53 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r SICH PROCESS WIT (U) TSP 80 MOCO OC kg/d kg/l kgf kg/t kgf Heavy Duty Dicsel Powered Vehicles 3.5-16 tn’? Urban Driving 1000 kn 0.9 4.298, snof Fuel 4.3. 208 Suburban Drivieg 1000 ke 0.9 4.185 tn of Fuel 4.3 208 Hsghway Orsving 1000 kn 0.9. 4.155, tn of Fuel £3. 208 Heavy Duty Diesel Powered Trucks > 16 tn7@ Urban Driving 1.8 7,268 co 4.3208 Suburban Driving 1.8 7.488 n 43 208 Highway Driving 13 8.5 tn 43 205 Heavy Duty Diese? Powered Suses > 16 tn? Urban Driving yoo kn 1.4 6.68 tn of Fuel 4.3. 208, Suburban Driving Yoo km 1.2 $.615, tmof Fuel 4.3 208 Highway Deiving 1000 ka 0.9 6.115, tnof Fuel 4.3. 208 Light Duty LPS Powered Vehicles < 3.5 tnf Witheut Catalytic Converters Urban Driving 1000 kw tn of Fuel Suburban Driving 1000 kn tn of Fuel Highway Oriving 1000 kn ‘tr of Fuel With S-vay Contra) led Catalytic Converters Urban Detving 1000 ‘tn of Fuel Motorcycles Engines < 50 cc 2+Stroke 1000 kn 0.12 0,385 0,05 10 G tnof Fuel 6.7 20S 2.8 550 380 Based on the Central Bureau of Statistics, Netherlands (1983). the TS? (Smoke) entsstons from ‘Urban, Suburban and Highway ériving are 5.4, 2.0 and 1.4 kg/1000 ke respectively. As above. fased on the Central Bureau of Statieties, Netherlands (1982), the TSP (Smoke) emissions from Urban, Suburban and Wighway driving are 5.1, 1.8 and 1,0 kg/1000 km respect ively, The Tisted emission factors are valid only for properly converted (into LPS use) and wel ad- justed engines. Otherwise, the emission fectors are ia the sane order as these for Light Outy Gasoline Ponered Vehicles « 3.5 tn.9-54 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Polltion, Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d SCE PROCESS UNIT (U) TSP $0) Ny 09 VOR: keg/ kg/V ke/U g/L g/d Engines > 50 ce 2-Stroke 2000 km 0.12 0.65 0.08 22 15 of Fuel = 4 2082.7 730 $00, Engines > 50 cc 4-Stroke 1000 kn 0.765 030 20 3 of Fuel 20s 8 82880 Fugitive Oust from Vehicle Traffic® Unpaved Rosds®2 Plant Roads. Copper Smet ing 1000 ka 12.5F Iron & Stee? Product ton 1000 km 5.97 Sand & Gravel Processing 1000 km 3.5F Stone Quarry ing/Processing 1000 km 10.4F Coal Himing / Access Road 1000 ke 3.8 Coal Mining / Hau! Road 1000 ke 8.2 (Coal Mining / Scraper Road 1000 ke 12.56 Rural Roads Gravel 1000 kn 3,7F Dire 1000 kn 21. Crushed Limestone 1000 km 7.1 Paves Reads® city Roaga® Lecal Streets (Widthe10n) « 500 vehicles/d 2000 kn 15 Collector Streets (Widthel0n) 500-1000 vehicles/d 1000 kn 10 Major Streets / highways, 210000 vehicles/d 1000 kn 4.8 Entssion factors account for entrained particles with diameters < 30 p. (a) £ = 5tW0-7)(W0:5), were 5 is the average vehicle speed in kavhr, W is the average ve= hicle wetght in tons, and w 15 the average number of wneels per vehicle (0) The Visted emission Factors apply per 1000kn driven tn dry weather (during days with < 6.25 1m of precipitation) (c)_ The enission factors for PMs or Phyo particles are SOX and 36% respectively of the sted TSP emission factors (Pkyp & Phys are particles with diameters <10 8 <15 y re spectively). (8) ersodie (nonthly) application of petroleur resin products over dust contro} season (e.g. four sumer morthe) yields typical control efficiencies of the order of 60% for ‘the TSP and 708 for PMO particles The enisston factors for PMjs or PMyg particles are AOK & 35% respectively of the Visted 1S? temission factors for local and collector streets, 85% & 41K respectively of the listed TSP mission factors for major streeto/highwaye and GOL & 5é% respectively for Free- vays/Expressvays (PMyp 1 Pays are particles with diameters <10 2 <15 » respectively) Limited data suggest contre} efficiencies of Sk and 37% for Pay particles fron Vacuum Sweeping and Improved Vacuum Swooping respectively (PAyg are particles with aerodynamic dian- eter «10 p).Air Emiasion Inventories and Controls 3-55 Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d r STO# eRocess WIT (U) TSP $0. NO, CO VOC ke/ ka/ kg/ kas kg/¥ Freomays / Express ways 350000 vehicles/d 1000 ke Indust eta Roads®5 1000 kn 712 Water Transport Shipa tn BorthO6s87 Motorships im berth 6.8 1368 90.7 0,086 4.1 Steanehtps in berth 7.5 19.5 22,7 20.8 TAY Air Transport Landing and Toke off of Aircraft Typical Carrier®® Landing+Take off Rireraft Refueling Jet Hophtha we te TO Services ATTied to Transport Tie Storage and Varehous ne Grain Elevators Country Elevators Inland Terainal Elevators Export Elevators For Pls particles, limited data suggest contro] efficiencies of up to SEK for vacuum sweep ing (46% for TSP), (69-0.2817V)% ofFtciency for Mater Flushing and (96-0,263°V)% efficiency for Water Flushing foVToned by Sweeping, where V is the cunker of vehtcle passes since app}\- cation. "3" tg the weight percent of sulfur in the fuel used ‘The number of steanships and matorehipe days-ineberth, if rot directly know, can be cowputed rem the cunber of ship cals per year and the average roaring tine. Typical mooring times in hours are as follows: § for passenger ehips, 45 for freighters and general ships, 24 for con- tainer vessels < 40000 GRT, 36 for container vessels > 49000 GRT, 40 for bulk transport ves~ sels < 40000 RT, §0 for bulk transport vessels > 40000 GRT, 38 for tankers < 40000 GRT, 48 For tankers > 40000 SRT. Given Factors are overall averages for a typteal airport, Feononopoutes (1980)3-56 _ Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Model for Air Emission Inventories and Controls - Cont’d i Slee paocess WUT (V) TSP 80, Myc vor kV ka/t ka/t Kgl Kgl MAJOR DIVISION 8. COMMALTY. 920. Sanitary and Sinilar Services Municipal/Oonest ic Type of Wastes Open Burning Municipa) Refuse Autonob iTe Components 9 Municipal Waste Conbust ion Wass-Burn Comtustors Uncontrolled 41.10.0832 ESP or FF 1, 10.0532 Nodular Starvad-Air Conbustors Uncontrolled 0,170,0582 ESP or FF 0.170.882 Refuse Derived Fuel (ROF) Fired Conbustors Uneontro Ned 1.80.08%2 ESP or FF 1.80,0592 Industriat / Comercta1 Refute Conbust ion Mult ipte Chanber/Uncontro Ted 3 5.0 15 Single Charter / uncontrot led n 10.0 7.5 Trench / Uncontrolled Wood Rubber Tires Nunicipa Refuse Pathological Mastos Uscontralted Sewage Sludge Incinerators Nuitiple Hearth Incinerators Uncontrai Ted tn of deted sludge 42 5.5 36 3.15 Scrubter90 tm of dried sludye 0.89 2, 2.8 2 3.15 Fluldized Bed Incinerators ncontro Ted tn of dried sludge 7 Scrubber tn of deted sludge 0.33 Electric Infrared Incinerators Uncontra led tn of dried sludge Serubber th of dried sludge 352 Laundries, Laundry Services, and Cleaning and Dyeing Plants Dry Cleaning (Capita)*(year) eee 89. Upholstery, belts, hoses and tires bumed together. 80. Inpingenent, Yentur! and/or cyclone sorubber.Ar Emission tnventories and Controls 3-57 3.2.3 Working Table for Assessing the Air Emission Loads Data and Calculations Sheet for Air Emissions (# of —) Load act] jtn/yfea/4 Sub Total (from Present Sheet) Sub Yote) (fren Previous Sheets| Sub Tote) Wore: Uo =Unit Focts¥aste Load Factor3-58 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Polkution Example The Problem: A lime manufacturing plant operating within our study area is to be sur- veyed. Determine the data requirements, collect the necessary informa- tion and assess the emission loads: Solution of the Problem: 1. From Appendix II we find Lime, a non metallic mineral product, clas- sified under the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code # 369. Use of Appendix II facilitates the finding of a particular ac- tivity in Section 3.2.3, - From Section 3.2.3 inspection of the Lime manufacturing emissions model yields the following data input requirements: (a) Are the kilns using coal or other type of fuel? (b) If Coal is used: (4) Quantity of Coal used (tn/year if annual emission es- tinates are desirable) (14) Coal Storage (Open piles, Semi-enclosed piles, Com- partments, or Silos) (iii) Control system for the Coal crushing and screening {uncontrolled or Fabric filter) (iv) The system used for Coal grinding (Semi Direct, Di- fect, or Indirect fired) (v) If Indirect fired grinding systems are used what con- trols are installed (uncontrolled or Fabric Filter). Quantity of Lime Produced (tn/year if annual emission esti- mates are desirable) Sulfur content of fuel used, in weight %. (for estimating the S02 emissions) Control system for the Raw material crushing and screening (uncontrolled or Fabric Filter) Storage of crushed material (Open or Semi-enclosed pile, Compartment or Silo) Control for the raw material conveying system (uncontrolled or Fabric filter) Type of kiln used for the Raw material calcining (Vertical shaft kiln, Vertical double inclined kilns, Parallel flow/counterflow regenerative kilns, .... Controls used in the calcining kiln (Uncontrolled or con- trolled and in the latter case, which of the Tisted controls is used) Type of Lime cooler used (Grate, Planetary, Rotary or Verti- cal Shaft cooler) Control used in the Grate cooler (if used) (Uncontrolled, Cyclones, Multicyclones or Fabric Filter)Ait Emission Inventories and Controis 3-59 3. Assume that from the plant survey visit the following data were ob- tained in relation to the above questionnaire: 'a) Coal is not used as fuel c) Lime production is 18,000 tn/year d) The sulfur content of the residue oi] used is 4 % (S = 4) e) Raw material crushing and screening is uncontrolled f) Crushed material is stored in open piles g) Raw material conveying systems are uncontrolled h) The calcining kiln is of the vertical shaft type i) The calcining kiln is controlled by multicyclones J) Lime “cooling is by vertical shaft cooler (lower part of n). The above plant survey data, along with the necessary information from the emission load model (see Section 3.2.2), can be inserted in the working Table given in Section 3.2.3. The latter can be used for computing the annual emissions from each major source within the Vime manufacturing plant. Table 3.2.41 shows how data and information can be entered and how emissions can be computed. It should be noted that in the Working Table the emission factors are expressed as kg/Unit, while the ac- tivity of each source is entered in 1000 Units/Year. As a result, multiplication of each emission factor by the source activity yields the emission load expressed in tons/year. For example, the TSP emis- sion factor for the raw material conveying is 1.2 (kg TSP per ton of Lime) and the source activity is 18 (thousand tons of Lime produc- tion per year). Their multiplication yields 21.6 tons of TSP emis- sions per year.Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Polkaion Table 3.2.4-1 Example use of the working table of Section 3.2.3 Data and Calculations Sheet for Air Emissions (# _1_ of _1_) source] se | sop | a0, co voc, omer se wut Fact|Load) Face Fact| Load} Pottu) Fact (0) [rouy| fk9/U) tr/y}ka/u ka/| kg/u| 692 Manufacture of Cement, Lime Lime Menutacturing Raw Hat Storageh tn) Crush & Screening Uneontrotied || tn} a9 Crushed Hat Storage Open Piece | Raw Har. Conveying Uncontrotied | to faw Mat. Cateining ort Shaft Kitne Wryctonest tn Line Packaging & Shipping | Sub Total (from Present. Sheet) ‘Sub Tota] (from Previous Sheets| Sub Tota? Note: UV aunts FactsWasto Load FactorAir Emission Inventories and Controls 3-61 Model for the Exhaust and Evaporative Emissions from LDGP Vehicles Under Specific Oriving, Climatic and Gasoline Volatility Conditions 3.3.1 Introduction Light Duty Gasoline Powered (LDGP) vehicles are the dominant source of Nox, CO and VOC emissions in most large urban areas. All three of the above pollutants are precursors to photochemical smog, which appears with increasing frequency and intensity in many urban regions and af- fects large populations. Photochemical smog (ozone, nitrogen dioxide, peroxy acetyl nitrate and many other substances in small amounts) is’ formed through atmospheric reactions, under the influence of sunlight and heat, from the primary pollutants NO,, CO and VOC. The speed of the reactions leading to smog formation increases significantly during the summer, when both the intensity of the sunlight and the temperatures are elevated. The NOx, CO and VOC emission factors are considerably dependent on the daily mean temperature and on the driving patterns (average vehicle speed, percent of engine starts with cold engine, and mean length of each trip). During the peak ozone months all of the above parameters may deviate considerably fron their annual averages (temperature is obvi- ously higher, while the driving patterns are often affected by the sum- mer vacations and/or tourism) and may deviate even further from the typ- ical conditions on which the derivation of the emission factors listed in Section 3.2.2 was based. Yet, the calculation of the seasonal emis- sions may be important if the problem of photochemical pollution is to be addressed. Because of the particular importance of. LOGP vehicle emissions in urban pollution, their significant regional and seasonal variability, and their special importance during the ozone peak season, two models are presented in Sections 3.3.2 and 3.3.3 that allow users to custom fit the emission factors on the basis of the Jocal and seasonal. ambient con- ditions and driving patterns. The model in Section 3.3.2 focuses on exhaust emissions, while that of Section 3.3.3 on Evaporative VOC ones. 3.3.2 The Exhaust Emissions Model 3.3.2.1 Description of the Model The basic input for our exhaust emissions model for LOGP vehicles is from the original ECE CORINAIR report (1980), as well as from the Ex- haust emission measurements provided by TNO (1989-1990). From the former, information about exhaust emissions from conventional non catalytic cars was obtained, while from the latter, laboratory measurements relevant to the catalytic cars were used.3-62 _Ropid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Based on the TNO measurements, an exhaust emissions and fuel consumption mode? for catalytic cars was developed (Economopoulos, 1992), which sup- plemented the exhaust emissions information for ‘conventional cars Provided by the ECE CORINAIR report. The above extended model, which is capable of predicting the emissions for all types of LOGP vehicles, was used in the analysis of the func- tional dependence of the exhaust emissions on all parameters that are known to exert a significant effect (daily or seasonal mean temperature, the average vehicle speed, the fraction of cold engine starts, fos, and mean length of each trip, L, the age of a conventional vehicle or the type of catalytic system used, and the cylinder displacement of its en- gine). The end product of this analysis is described by the following relations (Economopoulos, 1992): 0.75 - 1 en ehot p14 te, Bot), (3.3.2.1-1) 0.75 ehot = (Average speed, (3.3.2.1-2) Cylinder displacement, Year of conventional car manufacturing or type of catalytic system used) m9,75 = (Mean temperature, (3.3.2.1-3) Average trip length, Conventional or catalytic technology used) The hot-start NOx, €O, VOC and fuel consumption factor ehot can be con- veniently obtained as a function of the average speed, cylinder displacement, and year of car manufacture from the graphs ‘in Figures 3.3.2.1-1 to 3.3.2.1-4. These factors represent the emissions and the fuel consumption for the distances traveled while the car engine is hot (cooling water temperature above 70 °C), While the car runs with cold engine its emissions and its fuel consump~ tion are different from the hot-start ones. This difference is espe- cially pronounced in the case of cars equipped with catalytic convert- ers. As most of the times the cars are ignited with cold engines, and yun a fair fraction of their average trip before their. engine gets hot, the hot start emission and fuel consumption factor eMt need to be cor: rected so as to compensate for the cold start effects. This correction is achieved by Equation 3.3.2.1-1 through the use of the emission or fuel consunption factor multiplier mg, 75. If fcs=0.75 (meaning that in 75% of the cases the cars are ignited with cold engines and in 25% of the cases with hot engines) then, from Equa- tion 3.3.2.1-1 we obtain:Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-63 e = (2hot) (my, 75) (3.3.2.1-4) The value of fcg=0.75 is considered reasonable and, in the absence of Jocal data, it can be accepted. In that case, mg.75 is a direct multi- plier of eMot according to Equation 3.3.2.1-4 Oe this justifies its name (emission or fuel consumption factor multiplier). For the computation of the actual (cold-start compensated) emission and fuel consumption factors, e, the values of mo 75 are needed. These can be conveniently obtained through the graphs "in Figures 3.3.2.1-8 to 3.3.2.1-8 for NOx, CO, VOC and fuel consumption, as a function of the daily, seasonal or annual temperature, the average length of each vehi- cle trip, L, and the technology used (conventional or catalytic). In summary, for the estimation of the NOy, CO, VOC and fuel consumption factors we need information about the foTlowing: Average speed Cylinder displacement, Year of manufacture for conventional cars or type of catalytic system used Mean daily, seasonal or annual temperature, Average length of trip, Technology type (conventional or catalytic) Based on the above we obtain the values of eft and mg.75 for NOx, CO, and VOC and fuel consumption using the diagrams of Figures 3.3.2.1-1 to 3.3.2.1-4 and 3.3.2.1-5 to 3.3.2.1-8 respectively. The above values of ehot and o.qp #72, ‘nsarted in Equation 3.3.2.1-1 to obtain ‘the sought XK factors for CO, and VOC emissions and fuel consumption.3-64 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution \LECEND 1977 1978-80 pi — 1981-84 7 e+ 1985-92 lo —Cat oft ls Cat Hot-Start NOx Bmission Factors, g/km : Soachotoende-doarnfeonprndioete Wao ao" 70" 80 80100 110 180 130 140 150 Average Speed, Km/h Figure 9,3.2.1-1a Hot-start MOx emission factors for LOGP cars with < 1400 cx engines (Cat 0/1 = catalytic Say open Toop, Cat = catelytic Sway ebntroMed) g S 3 § 3 é & 5 g 3 a f g 10 20° 904 66 80 70 80 96 100 110 120 190 140 160 Average Speed, Km/h Figure 3.3.2.1-1b Hot-start WO, emission Factors for LOGP cars with 1400-2000 oc engines (Cat of = catalytic 3-way open loop, Cat = catalytic 3-ay controled)‘Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-65 weceno 907 = 1970-40 “ oor-ae fas 88 eat oft Je eat Hot-Start NOx Emission Factors, g/km Figure 8 90" 4060 60 70 80 80 100 150 180 180 140.150 Average Speed, Km/h Wotestart WO emission factors for LOGP ears with > 2000 eo engines (Cat of = catalytic 3-way open loop, Cat = catalytic 3-nay controlled) LEGEND lo —-r971 lp — 1972-77 In — 1978-80 lo — 1981-84 lo 1985-92 rat w/o Cat Hot-Start CO Emission Factors, g/Km. ° Figure 3.3.2.1-2 10 20 80 49 50 60 70 80 0 100 110 120 180 140 150 Average Speed, Km/h Hotestart 0 emission factors for LOS cars (Cat o/1 = catalytic Sway open Toop, Cat * catalytic 3-way controled)8-66 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Polltion - Hot-Start VOC Emission Factors, g/Km ° 1020 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Average Speed, Km/h Figure $.3.2.t+2 fot-start WOE enisston factors for LOGP cars (Cat of1 = catalytic 2-way open Toop, fat » catalytic 3-vay controlled) \LECEND ~197t jo =~ 1972-77 — 1978-84 see 8 3 50 . es ” a 20 § § 3 z é § 2 5 ae & 3 3 g g a 4 3 8 10 2086 46" 80" 80708096 100 190 120 130 140 750 Average Speed, Km/h Figure 3.3.2.1-4a Mot-start fuel consumption Factors for LOGP cars with < 1400 co engines (Cat of) = catalytic 3-way open Toop, Cat = catalytic 3-vay controled)g Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-67 333 LEGEND 1999 jp — 1972-77 = 1978-84 I> — 1985-92 io —Cat oft eat Bo88 Ee Hot-Start FUEL Comsumption Factors, g/Km e358 Figure 9.3.2.1-40 g ‘Wo 89" 60 7080 00 100 110 120 130 140 150 Average Speed, Km/h ‘art Fuel consumption factors for LOS? cars with 1400-2000 ce engines (Cat catalytic S-way open loop, Cat = catalytic 3-way controlled) g \LECEND lo ——197 le 1972-77 1978-84 1985-92 E § ; : ; i : S ' 3 ° Figure 3.3.2.1-4¢ 102030 40. 60 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 180 140 150 Average Speed, Km/h Hotestart Fuel consumption factors for LISP cars with > 2000 oc engines (Cat of 1 catalytic S-vay open Toop, Cat = catalytic 3eway controTled)8-68 _ Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 3 NOx Bréission Factor Multiptier ° 10 Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.2.2.1+Sa MO enfesion factor multiplier for conventional (noa-estalytic) LOG? cers, as furetion of the average tenperature and trip Tength NOx Emission Factor Multiplier 10 Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.3.2.1-Sb MO, emission factor multiplier for LDGP cars with 3-way open Toop catalyst and < 1400 ce engine, as function of the average teeperature and trip lengthAir Emission trventorios and Controls 3-69 NOx Emission Factor Multiplier ‘30 0 Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Wy, emission factor multiplier for LOS? cars with deway open Toop catalyst and > 1400 ce engine, as function of the average tonperature and trip length NOx Ernission Factor Multiplier Figure $.3.2.1-8¢ ° 10 2 Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Wo, ertssfon factor multiplier for LOGP cars with 3-way controled catalyst and << 1400 ¢¢ engine. Funetion of the average tenperature and trip length8-70 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution eeEND le —b=4 Kim le —Z=6 Xm la Le8 Kn tor Multiplier geeecsse Fae! Reg NOx Emission a Mean. Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.3.2.1-5e Mdy emission factor multiplier for LDGP cars with S-way controlled catalyst and > 1400 cc engino, as function of the average texperature and trip length a9 28 gk sEepere BaSE CO Emission Factor Multiplier 0 ~ Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.9.2.1-61 CD esission factor multiplier for conventions] (non-catalytic) LOGP cars, es function of the average temperature and trip lengthAir Emission Inventories and Controls 3-71 8 is iB CO Emission Factor Multiplier ° 7 ‘90 Mean Ambient Temperature,-o6 Figure 3.3.2. ©0 envision factor multiplier for LOGP cars with 3-may open Toop catalyst and < 1400 ce engine, as function of the average temperature and trip length CO Emission Factor Multiplier 1 40 ° 30 ” Mean Ambient Temperature, o€ Figure 3.3.2.1-8¢ CD emission facter multip)ier for LOS cars with may open Toop catalyst and > 1490 cc engine, a function of the average teaperature and trip length3-72. Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Poliution CO Brission Factor Multiptier Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.3.2.1-68 €0 emission Factor multiplier for LOG? cars with Seway controTled catalyst and < 1400 ce engine, as function of the average tenperature and trip length 0 Emission Factor Multiplier ‘0 Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure $.3.2.1-Ge CD emission factor multiplier for LOGP cars with S-way controlled catalyst and > 1400 cc engine, as function af the average temperature and trip lengthAir Emission Inventories and Controls 3-73 » a VOC Emission Factor Multiplier 5 1 Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.3.2. WOC enission factor multiplier for conventional (non-catalyt ic) UDG? cars, as function oF the average daily, seasonal, or annus! temperature and trip Tength a 12 YOC Emission Factor Multiplier uw 10 @ 10 Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 2.3.2.1-7b WOC emission factor mult iptigr for LOGP cars with 3-may open Toop catalyst and < 1400 ce engine, as function of the average teaperature and trip length3-74 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution lp —La12 km Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.3.2.1-72 OC emission factor multiplier for LOGP cars with Sway open loop catalyst and > 1400 ce engine, as function cf the average temperature and trip Tength VOC Bmission Factor Multiplier 0 10 20 0 Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.3.2.1-74 WOCvemission factor eultipliar fer LOGP care with 3-way controlled catalyst and ‘< 1400 c= engine. as function of the average temperature and trip length‘Air Emiasion Inventories and Controls 3-75 fb —L=12 km Lat4 Km VOC Emission Factor Multiplier o a7) ° 0 20 30 70 Mean. Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.3.2.J-7e VOC emission factor multiplier for L038? cars with 3-Way controlled catalyst end > 1400 ee engine. a8 function of the average temperature and trip Tength Puet Consumption Factor Multiplier ° Mean Ambient Temperature, oC Figure 3.3.2.1-8° Fuel consumption factor multiplier for LOGP cars, as function of the average temperature and trip lensth3-76 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 3.3.2.2 Example The Problem: Assume that we need to compute the NOx, CO and VOC emission factors, as well as the fuel consumption factor, for small (<1400 cc engines) convent ional {non catalytic) cars manufactured in the period 1985- The factors are to be computed for an average speed of 25 km/h, for a mean ambient temperature of 20 °C, for an average trip length of 8 km and for a cold start fraction 0.75 (fcs~0.75). Solution of the Problem: From Figure : From Figure 3.3.2. From Figure 3.3.2. From Figure . -la we obtain ehOt for Noy 1.5 g/km -2 we obtain ehot for co 12.8 g/km -3 we obtain ehot for voc 1.89 g/km ‘a we obtain ehot for fuel cons. 59.9 g/km 4 From Figure 3.3.2.1-5a we obtain mo,75 for NOy 1.00 From Figure 3.3.2.1-6a we obtain mg.75 for CO 1.23 from Figure 3.3.2.1-7a we obtain mg’75 for VOC Lig From Figure 3.3.2.1-8 we obtain mo.75 for fuel cons. 1.06 Introducing the above ehot - my 75 pairs in Equation 3.3.2.1-1, along With fcs=0.75, we obtain: Emission factor for NOx 1.5 g/km Emission factor for CO. 15.7 g/km Emission factor for VOC 2.2 g/km Fuel consumption factor 63.4 g/km It can be seen that the emission factors listed in Section 3.2.2 are identical to the above. This is because the ambient temperature and the local driving conditions assumed here are the same as the de- fault values used in the model in Section 3.2.2. The Evaporative VOC Emissions Model 3.3.3.1 Description of the Model The evaporative VOC emissions model for LDGP vehicles presented in this section is based on the data published by CONCAWE (1987). It should be noted that the factors listed in the inventory model of Section 3.2.2 are based on the CORINAIR study, ECE (1989), and that predictions based on the above data sets differ considerably.Ait Emission Inventories and Controls 3-77 The reason for employing a different data set in our present model than that used in Section 3.2.2, is that the latter allow only a qualitative assessment of the impact of the local climatic and gasoline volatility conditions. In addition, while data from CONCAWE report are rather scant and their extrapolation had to be based on 1970 & 1972 data from the U.S. Bureau of Mines, the origin of the CORINAIR data is rather unclear. In conclusion, the completeness, and probably the accuracy, of both data sets leaves a Tot to be desired. Under such conditions, one may wish, to predict the evaporative emissions by both methods so as to have a better idea of the prediction discrepancies, as well as to define the limits of a probable valid range, with the predictions from the CONCAWE set being closer to the lower limit and these from the CORINAIR set to the upper limit. At any vate, the data in the CONCAWE report are better founded and the resulting predictions appear more reasonable. As in the inventory model of Section 3.2.2, the evaporative VOC emis- sions have been divided into three categories: The Hot Soak losses, which occur when its hot engine is turned off, due to evaporation of fuel, mainly in the carburetor bow! and tank; The Running Losses, which occur while the vehicle is being driven; The Diurnal Losses, which occur while the vehicle is stationary with its engine off and are due to the expansion and emission of vapour, mainly from the fuel tank, as a result of the daily diurnal ambient tenperature variations. The emission factors for all three categories depend on the average daily, seasonal or annual temperature, Tgean in °C, as well as on the gasoline volatility as expressed by the Reld Vapour Pressure, (a stan- Gardised vapour pressure measurenent, made at 38 °C with a vapour/liquid ratio 4:1), RVP in kPa. In addition, the Hot Soak emissions per kn de- pend on the average distance a car is driven each time its engine Starts, Ltyap in km, while the Diurnal Losses depend on the average daily tenperdeure variation for the day, season or year of reference, OT ‘in °C, The emission factors for the Hot Soak and Running losses are listed in Table 3.3.3.1-1 below as a function of the Trean» gasoline RVP and Ltyj Le rk (or as. kg/1000 kn). The Visted figures were derived from the original data given in the CONCAWE report and were converted in a form compatible with that in Table 3.2.2. The emission factor for the diurnal losses, ediyrngl, expressed as kg/(car*year), can be easily computed from Equation 3.3.3.1-1) below: ediurnal ~ -9-125+0.1862*DT#0.2263* (TpeantDT/2)+0.0803RVP (3.3.3.1-1) The predictions from the above model apply for cars with carburettors and with no evaporative controls.8-78 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Table 3.3.3.1-1 Hot Soak and Running Losses as Function of Climatic Conditions & Gasoline Volatility for LOGP cars Tnean RvP RVP RvP RVP RVP RV. 60 kPa 70 KPa. 80 kPa. -90 kPa 100 kPa 120 kPa Small Cars ( < 1400 cc) Hot Soak Emissions 10.0) 5.0 = 05 F47/Ltpip 35 876/Lerip 8.0 500/Lpeip 794iLty ip 2S .06MLérip LO grip 17.0 S7VUtpip LS8/Lenip 21.5 1.38/tepip 2.4 gesp Running Losses 10.0 0.027 -5.0 0.0209 +05 0.075 = 0.01 0324 25 4.007 0.0125 0.0349 a0 o.0ms 0.01 o-ones 12.5 ors 0.025.175, 110 aos = oer ouozre us 02 0.03 0.082 Large Cars ( > 1400 cc) Hot Soak Emissions 10.0) 5.0 = 0.5 12MLersp as 1.35/kersp 8.0 882/eeip 1.56/Lerip 12.5 LASMLenip 2.00/Ler sp 17.0 1.59/L pap 2.98 tesp 1.3 22Msrip 4AM Lrsp Running Losses -10.0 75.0 05 35 8.0 12.5 10 2.8‘Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-79. 3.2 Example Application The Problem: Compute the annual mean emission factors for Hot Soak, Running Losses and Diurnal Losses, as well as the annual evaporative emis- sions from the LOGP car fleet in Athens using the Models of Section 3.2.2 and 3.3.3.1 for both small and large cars. The following climatological and gasoline volatility data are given: Country: Greece City: Athens: Vehicles: 950,000 (80% with engines < 1400 cc) Milage: 8,000 kn/yr (within the city) Tyeant 17.4 9 of Joo 9 Leni 3 Rvp? 70 kPa (65 kPa from 1/4-31/10 & 80 kPa from 1/11-31/3) Note: Cars with carburettors and with no evaporative controls can be assumed Solution of the Problem: From Table 3.2.2 we get both the emission factors, as well as the correction factors for Greece as follows: Chot-soak ~ (9-4/8)*1.2 = 1.41 gr/km erunning 0.55*1.2 = 0.66 gr/km ediurnal 2.636*2.1 = 5.53 kg/car-year From the above emission factors, the number of cars and the annual milage we get: Ehot-soak = 1-41*8000*950000/108 = 10716 tn/yr Evunning. = 0.66%8000*950000/108 = 5016 tn/yr Egjurna 5,53*950000/103 = 5253 tn/yr Total Evaporative 20985 tn/yr From Table 3.3.3.1-1 and Equation (3.3.3.1-1) we can obtain the sought emission factors for the given Tmeans OT, Ltrip and gasoline RVP values as follows:3-80 Rapid inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution For small cars ( < 1400 cc): Phot-soak = (1.12/8) = running For large cars ( > 1400 cc): Chot-soak = (1-94/8) = 0.242 gr/km running = 0.047 gr/kn For both small & large cars diurnal = ~9.125+0.1862*10+0.2263*(17.445)+0.0803*70 = 3.43 kg/car-year From the above emission factors, the number of cars and the annual mileage we get: For small cars ( < 1400 cc): Ehot-soak = 0.14*8000*760000/108 = 851 tn/yr Erunning ~ -02*8000*760000/106 = 122 tn/yr For large cars ( > 1400 cc): Ehot-soak = 0-24248000*190000/108 = 368 tn/yr Erunning = 0-047*8000"190000/108 = 71 tn/yr For both small & large cars Ediurnal = 3.43*950000/103 = 3259 tn/yr Total Evaporative 4671 tn/yr Comparison of the predictions between the two models shows consider- able discrepancies, the CORINAIR data set yielding 20985 tn/yr and the CONCAWE data set 4671 tn/yr. The latter appears closer to real- ity. . Model for the Flue Gas Volume from External Combustion Sources 3.4.1 Introduction The emphasis so far in this section is in the presentation of models allowing the assessment of the emission loads from a given source. Loads alone however, may not be sufficient for estimating the impact of the sources in the environment. Indeed, the following additional information is required for the appli- cation of air quality models in the case of point sources (see Section 8.2): Exit gas volume, Exit gas temperature, Stack physical height, Stack internal diameter,Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-81 For area sources (e.g. road traffic, space heating furnaces, small in- dustrial activities etc), the relevant information is somewhat relaxed as only the release height is required. This section presents a model which allows convenient assessment of the flue gas volume from external combustion sources as a function of the easily measured (or assumed) COg concentration. As the vast majority of point sources for which air quality models are applied, are industrial or utility boilers, the material presented here should cover a significant part of the gas volume data requirements. 3.4.2 Description of the Model The major parameters which affect the normalized flue gas volume (actual m3/s at 200 °C per ton/hour of ash free and moisture free fuel used) are the fuel type and the CO concentration in the flue gas. The fuel type defines to a large extent the fractions of the Carbon, Hy- drogen, Oxygen and other elements which are present in the fuel and as such affects, through the reactions that take place during the conbus- tion, the volume of the flue gas, The C02 concentration is a good indicator of the excess air used, as the excess air dilutes the COz combustion product. The lower the C02’ concen- tration, the higher the excess of air used and the larger the Volume of Flue gas. A quantitative expression of the above dependencies is provided by the graphs in Figures 3.4.2-1 to 3.4.2-5, produced with the help of a boiler Simulation model, and which, for various common fuels allows direct reading of the normalized flue gas volume as a function of the C02. In cases where COp measurements are not available, one can always make an assumption considering the following maximum COp concentrations (corresponding to combustion zero excess air), the type and size of boiler, and the operating procures:3-82 Rapid inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Table 3.4.2-1 Maximum CO concentration in the flue gas for vari- ous fuels eee eee eee Maximum CO Fuel_type (Vol %, Dry Basis) Natural Gas (NG) or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) 12. Liquefied Petroleum Gas 12. Distillate Fuel 017 13. Residual Fuel O17 15. Meta Anthracite Coal 19. Anthracite Coal 19. Semi Anthracite Coal 19. Bituminous Low Volatility Coal 18. Bituminous Medium Volatility Coal 18. Bituminous High Volatility Coal ig. Subbituminous Coal 19, Lignite 19. Peat 19. Large industrial and utility boilers under close supervision operate with 10 to 20% excess air, Poorly operated boilers, or some types of boilers where control is difficult (e.g. underfed stokers or hand fired units) may operate with much higher percentages of excess air. For the limiting {609)max concentration from Table 3.4.2-1 above and for any assumed Excess Air percentage, the corresponding COz concentration can be computed from the following relation: 7900*(COp )max a... (3.4.2-1) (Excess Air Used, %)*(100-(CO2)max) + 7900Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-83 FLUE GAS RATE, m3/s at 200 o€ per t/h of Fuel Te ee coz IN FLUE GAS, % by Volume on Dry Basis Figure 3.4.2-1 Flue gus volune from external corbust ion sources firing Natural Gas (NS), Ligue- fied otural Gas (LNG) or Liquefied Petroteun Gas (LFS), 08 function of the CO concentration (value % on ¢ dry basis) in tha flue gas “I uN isd a n 5 oe 8 8 eS C02 IN FLUE GAS, % by Volume on Dry Basis z $ 5 z 3 2 8 z 3 & g é gy g a Ez Figure 3.4. Flue gas volume fran externa) corbustion sources firing Distillate and Residue Fue D1, as function of the CO, concentration (volume % on 8 dry basis) in the Fue gas.3-84 Rapid inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Figure 3.4.2-3, Figure 3.4.2-4 i 16 | o7 FLUE GAS RATE, m3/s at 200 o€ per t/h of Fuel we a te 1s 6 17 18 C02 IN FLUE GAS, % by Volume on Dry Basis Flue gat volume from externa} combustion sources firing Meta Anthracite, An thracite of Semi Anthracite cos}, ax function of the COp concentrat fon (volume X ‘on a dry basta) in the flue ges. The quantity of coal fs on an ash free and rotsture free basis 3 é 8 $ % 8 g 7 & é a y 3 Z 68 7 e Wo is we ay ie C02 IN FLUE GAS, % by Volume on Dry Basis Flue ges velune from external combust ion sources firing Bituminous Coa] of Tow, rrediat, or high volatility (Legend: BITUM Iv, mv and hy respectively), and Sub= bituminous Coal, as function of the COp concentration {volume % on 8 dry basis} jn the Flue gas. The quantity of cos? {s on an ash free and moisture free basis.Air Emission Inventories and Controls ‘ —] 3 oe 7 8 9 40 Mae io Ma is 48 47 3B C02 IN FLUE GAS, % by Volume on Dry Basis Figure 3.4,2-5 Flu gas volume fram external combustion sources firing Lignite and Peat, as fanation of the Cp concentration (volute & on a dry basis) in the flue gas. The quantity of coal #5 on an ash free and moisture free basis. FLUE GAS RATE, m3/s at. 200 o€ per t/h of Fuel 3.4.3 Example The Problem: A utility boiler firing residue fuel oi] consumes 37.5 tons of fuel per hour. Compute the actual flue gas volume for an exit gas temper- ature of 180 °C, Solution of the Problem: As the COp concentration in the flue gas is not given, it will have to be assumed. The boiler is large and is firing 013. Under the cir- cumstances we can assume an operation with excess air of about 10%. From Table 3.4.2-1 the limiting CO, concentration is 15.7 %. From Equation 3.4.2-1 we compute that for 10 % excess air the corre- sponding COz concentration 14.2%, From Figure 3.4.2-2 we obtain that the normalized flue gas volume is 5.7 (An3/s at 200 C per ton/h of fuel used).3-86 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Considering that the boiler uses 37.5 tons/hour of fuel, the actual rye gas volume at 180 °C is then 5.7#37,5*(273+180)/(273+200) = 205 am3/s. 3.5 Nodel for the Temperature Drop Through Stacks 3.5.1 Introduction The need to assess the flue gas exit volume and temperature so as to be able to use air quality models has been discussed in Section 3.4.1. From the nature of the source, or through direct measurement, the tem- perature is usually known, at the boiler exit or at stack entrance point. For the application of the dispersion models however, we need to know the gas temperature at the stack exit point and also therefore the tenperature drop of the gas as it passes through the stack. 3.5.2 Description of the Model A fair number of parameters affect the temperature drop through the stack, such as the composition of the gas, the length and the diameter of the stack, the gas rate and the gas temperature at the stack entry point, the ambient air temperature, the stack thermal insulation etc. To simplify the procedure and to present the results in graphic and easy to use form, some simplifying assumptions have to be made. The most important one is the assumption of 2.5 cm of fibreglass equivalent insu- lation in cases of insulated stacks. The results are plotted in Figures 3.5.2-1 and 3.5.2-2 and allow direct reading of the normalized aT (temperature drop per 10 m of stack height when the temperature differ- ence between the inlet gas and the ambient air is 180 °C (inlet gas tem- perature 200 °C and ambient air temperature 20 °C)). The graphs were produced with the help of a stack model which, depending on the physical stack dimensions and the presence or absence of insula- tion, it computes through an iterative scheme the temperature and the velocity profiles, the physical properties of the flowing gas, and the heat transfer rates, so as to eventually yield the exit gas temperature and the corresponding normalized temperature drop. In conden to use the graphs correctly, the following procedure can be used: (a) Compute the exit gas volume at 200 °C {b) Use Figures 3.5.2-1 or 3.5.2-2 to obtain the normalized AT.‘Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-87 (c) Compute the actual AT through the entire stack length from Equa- tion: (Stack height, m) (Tintet gas-Tair) AT=(BT) normalized > (3.5.2-1) z q q 8 3 a 2 2 2 = & 8 x a 3 E 2 10" Figure 3.5.2-5 180. oe 10 10 0 FLUE GAS RATE, Am3/s Normalized temperature drop though non-insulated stacks (texperature drop per 10 1 of stack height when the tesperature difference between the inlet gas and the ambient air is 180 %) as function of the flue gas rate, stack physical height and stack ineige diameter,3-88. Rapid tnvemtory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 10 & Normalized DT Through Stack, o€ 5 g 10" 10% 10" 108 10" 10° 10° FLUE GAS RATE, Am3/s Figure 3.5.2-2 Normaltzed temperature drop though tnsutated stacks (temperature drop per 10m ‘of stack height when the temperature difference between the inlet gaz and the anblent air 18 180 °C) as function of the flue gas rate, stack physical height and stack inside diameter. 3.5.3 Example Problem: The gas from the utility boiler considered in the example in Section 3.4.3 goes though a non-insulated stack of 5 m in diameter and 150 m height before being released into the atmosphere. Compute the temperature of the gas at the exit point when the tem- perature at the inlet point is 180 °C and the ambient air tempera- ture is -10 °C. Solution: In Section 3.4.3 we calculated that the exit gas volume at 180 °C is 205 Ans. The gas volume at 200 °C is 205*(273+200)/(273+180)=214 am3/s. Figure 3.5.2-1 yields (AT)normatized=0-4Air Emission Inventories and Controls 3-89 Equation 3.5.2-1 yields AT = 6.5 °C, The exit gas temperature is thus 180-6.59173.5 °C. It should be noted that considerably higher temperature drops are ob- tained in the case of smaller boilers, where the ratio of stack surface to gas rate is much higher. Bibliography Commission of the European Conmunities (1989). Environment and Qual- ity of Life. Corinair Working Group on Emission Factors for Calcu- lating 1985 Emissions from Road Traffic, Volume 1: Methodology and Emission Factors. Report EUR 12260 EN. CONCAWE (1987). An investigation into Evaporative Hydrocarbon Emis- sions from European Vehicles. Report No. 87/60. Central Bureau of Statistics (1983). Fleet Emission Factors, Road Traffic. Netherlands. Economopoulos, A. P. (1987). Control of Emissions from Cement Manu- facturing Plants, Volumes I and II. Commission of the European Com- munities, 0G XI. Economopoulos, A. P. (1987). Control of Emissions from Lime Manufac- turing Plants. Commission of the European Conmunities, DG XI. Economopoutos A. P. (1987). Development of the Five Year Air Pollu- tion Abatement Plan for the Greater Athens Area. JAPCA, Vol 37, No. 8, p.889-897. Econonopoutos A, P. (1991). Inspection Strategies for the Control of External Combustion in Urban Areas by Local Authorities, Commission of the European Communities. Directorate General for Energy, Con- tract No VKII/706/90.40. Economopoutos, A.P. (1992). Unpublished work. |. Ministry of Environment, Housing and Public Works (1980). Typical Jet Emission factors derived from a detailed emissions inventory for the Athens Airport. Greece. . Ministry of Environment, Housing and Public Works (1987). The Use of LPG as a Taxi Fuel In Athens. Greece. - Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection (1980). Handbook of Emission Factors, Part 1 - Non Industrial Sources. Government Pub- Vishing Office, the Hague, Netherlands.3-90 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution 12. TNO (1990). Steekproefcontroleprogramma, onderzoek naar luchtveron- treining door voertuigen in het verkeer (jaarrapport 1989-1990), Lucht 89. Netherlands. . U.S. EPA Compilation of Air Emission Factors (1990). AP-42, Part A, with Supplements A through C. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. EPA. RIP.CHAPTER 4 LIQUID WASTE INVENTORIES AND CONTROLS 4.1 Compilation of Liquid Waste Inventories Under Present and/or Strategy Target Conditions 4.2 Model for Compiling Liquid Waste Inventories and Assessing the Effectiveness of Applicable Controls 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 Introduction Model for Liquid Waste Inventories and Controls Working Table for Assessing the Liquid Waste Loads Example 4.3. Bibliography4-2 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution al Compilation of Liquid Waste Inventories Under Present and/or Strategy Target Conditions The liquid waste loads and controls model given in Section 4.2.2 pro- vides four columns listing the conventional pollutants B0Ds, SS, Total N, and Total P, as well as a sixth column reserved for toxic and other ‘important substances, as the case may be for each source considered. In addition to the above, the model in Section 4.2.2 is supplemented by Ta- bles 4.2.2-1 to 4.2.2-5, providing more detailed data and information about waste load factors’ and treatment efficiencies for municipal waste- waters (SIC 920), waste load factors for rain and land runoff, control efficiencies for agricultural industries (SIC 1110 to 1134), and the composition of leachates from municipal solid waste landfill sites. In the model in Section 4.2.2, if a waste load factor does not appear in the appropriate place in the table, this usually (but not always) means that its value is either small or zero. However, lack of a penetration factor does not mean zero penetration, but rather that the value of this factor is not known. Missing waste load and/or penetration Factors for the sources and pollutants of interest could be completed by the study team on the basis of information which might be available from literature or other sources in the study area. The procedural aspects of the calculation of liquid Toads released from various sources in the study area are presented in Section 2.3 and demonstrated through an example in Section 4.2.4. Before concluding the discussion on liquid waste inventories, some ref- erence to the important category of distributed sources is warranted. Indeed, such sources are known to significantly affect the quality of water receivers, especially surface ones. The nature of runoff water from various types of land (urban, forest, pasture, agricultural) is addressed through the data in Table 4.2.2-3, and factor ranges are provided to give an idea of the rather significant variations encoun- tered fron North Anerican and European areas. Even wider variations could be expected from areas with different rain patterns, different fertiliser use, different vegetation and soil types, different popula- tion densities, different street cleaning procedures, etc. The above information allows users to make preliminary assessments of the polluting loads from Tand runoff, and this facilitates the prelimi- nary analysis of lake or river pollution problems. As these water bodies provide the natural drainage of large catchment basins, the contribution of the surface and underground water runoff to their pollution problems is often dominant. It should be added that rain runoff from urban areas emerges as a significant, if not a dominant, source of pollution in cases where municipal effluents are treated. In conclusion, the assessment of the polluting loads from land runoff should be viewed only as a preliminary indication of the magnitude of the problem. In cases where sources of this kind appear significant, more detailed analysis may be necessary.Liquid Wastes Inventories and Controls. 4-3 Model for Compiling Liquid Waste Inventories and Assessing the Effectiveness of Applicable Controls Introduction The quantities of effluent loads released into the environment from ur- ban areas or any industrial or other activity depend, in the general case, on a number of parameters. Thus, as in the case of effluents, the Toad E of pollutant j could be expressed in a mathematical form as fol- ows: Ej = f( Source type, (4.2.1-1) Unit of activity, Source size, Process or design particularities, Source age and technological sophistication, Source maintenance and operating practices, Type and quality of the raw materials used, Type, design and age of the control systems employed, Ambient conditions, etc.) The source type defines the kind of pollution generating activity in somewhat broad terms, e.g. poultry processing or beer production. Wore precise definition is provided through other parameters as discussed below. Obviously, the source type is closely related to the types and to the quantities of pollutants generated. From the source type information alone, it is possible to exclude, right from the start, numerous activities with relatively minor effluent problems and in this way, to simplify significantly the source inventory and liquid waste management tasks. The unit of activity, defines an acceptable way of expressing the magni- tude of a given source. Suitably defined units can be used to pro- vide a measure of the source (e.g. population of an urban area) or the activity of an industry (raw materials consumed, or products manufactured) . Selection of the most suitable unit for each type of activity is important, as the unit must have a direct relation to the effluent Joads generated, and must offer convenience in obtaining the required data during the field work. For example, the magnitude of a tannery source could be characterized by the electricity or the water consumed, by the number of people employed, by the land area occupied, or by the quantities of the hides processed. The latter is much ‘closer related to the effluent loads generated, can be easily obtained, both during plant survey visits and from government sources (usually as a compounded total for all tanner- jes), and is thus the unit of choice.4-4 Rapid inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution Source size, although a key parameter, is only indirectly related to the normalized load rates (pollutant loads per unit of activity). In general, economies of scale allow better design and operation, as well as stricter effluent controls for larger size units. Noreover, for industrial sources, selection of the particular process to be used is some times dictated by plant size. It is for these reasons that effluent standards are generally significantly stricter for large plants. In the context of the present methodology the effects of plant size on the normalized Toads can be taken into consideration only in cases where the source size affects the process selection. Process or design particularities depend on local factors and on the source size, and may affect the kinds and to the quantities of pollutants generated from industrial sources. For example, depend- ‘ing on the country and on the size of the factory, different pro- cesses with different design features are likely to be involved in textile finishing mills. Little information is available in the literature so as to allow quantification of the impact of such effects on the normalized Joads generated from a particular source. Source age and technological sophistication are important parameters, as they often significantly affect effluent loads. The aging of a source causes higher loads as systems tend to fail more frequently and their operation tends to depart from the new equipment specifications. In addition, older systems do not take full advantage of technological innovations, which tend to yield envi- ronnentally friendlier performance.’ Naturally, technological sophistication does not only depend on the age of the source alone, but also on environmental legislation, as well as on enforcement aspects. Quantification of the impact of these parameters is possible for some important sources, as for example in the petroleum oil refining category. Source maintenance and operating practices is another parameter significantly affecting effluent loads. Fortunately, for the vast majority of industrial sources proper maintenance and operation is also intimately related to production quality and costs and for this reason is usually practiced to acceptable standards. For smaller sources however, improper maintenance and operation is the rule rather than the exception, despite the associated economic osses. Unfortunately, few data are available in the literature to allow the derivation of quantitative relations regarding the impact of maintenance procedures on effluent loads. The type and the quality of the raw materials used is in may cases inti- mately related to the types and to the quantities of pollutants emitted. In industrial processes the type and the quality of rawLiquid Westes Inventories and Controls 4-5 materials available often dictate the process to be used and the effluent loads released. by them, and this is.generally covered by the effluent loads model of Section 4.2.2. The type, design, and age of the control systems employed determine the removal efficiencies of the effluent loads and are thus intimately related to the impact of the discharges on the final receivers. The type of control system employed defines by itself the ca- pabilities and limitations (and hence the control efficiency tange) for the source under consideration. Analysis of the control system performance through appropriate models could, in principle, provide a better insight and a more accurate assessment of control System efficiencies. However, as the performance of the control systems depends significantly on the nature of the particular wastes, reliable predictions are not always easy to generate. Moreover, the detailed design data and performance analysis re- quirements burden the inventory and strategy formulation process very significantly . The age of the control system may affect the efficiency due to the progressive downgrading of the performance with time, but, most importantly, due to the generally more relaxed design specifica- tions of the past. Old age of equipment tends thus to be associ- ated with lower design efficiencies. In our inventory model the type of control system is used as the leading parameter for assessing a typical control system per- formance. Detailed assessments on the basis of specific design characteristics are however not addressed, as typical design prac- tices are assumed. The ambient conditions may significantly affect the rate of the effluent Toads, For example, the performance of most treatment processes, especially biological ones, is affected by the ambient temperature. However, this sensitivity is usually compensated by proper sizing of the treatment processes. ‘The above discussion leads into the important practical question of. how the effluent Toad £; can be expressed as a direct and explicit function of all the parameters that may affect it for all pollutants j of inter- est. The first step in this direction is to define the effluent load factor ej for pollutant j, through the following relation: £3, ko/yr ej = 2 _______— (4.2.1-2) Source activity, Units/yr4-6 Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution The effluent load factor ej is normally expressed as kg/Unit and is as- sumed to be independent of source size and of source activity (or production) level. The basis for this assumption is the way the activity units are selected. Indeed, as discussed above, a key criterion in the selection of the activity units is their direct and proportional relation to the effluent loads generated. From the above and from Equa- tion (4.2.1-1) we obtain: ej = F( Source type, (4.2.1-3) Process or design particularities, Source age and technological sophistication, Source Maintenance and Operating Practices, Type and quality of the raw materials used, Type, design and age of the control systems employed, Ambient conditions, atc.) The dependence of the emission factors ej on the parameters discussed above and listed in Equation (4.2.1-3), Cannot, in most cases, be ex- pressed in a continuous function form due to the discreet nature of some parameters (e.g. alternative types of treatment systems), and to the frequent lack of sufficient information in relation to the remaining parameters, A discreet functional form yielding a series of emission values, each valid under a specific set of common and important parame- ter combinations, is used instead. The discreet rather than the continuous nature of the emission factor values explains the tabular construct of the Model in Section 4.2.2, into which the source types are organized on the basis of the UN Stan- dard Classification of Industries and Services. Under each activity listed, all typical alternative processes are included (e.g. under Tar neries and Leather Finishing (SIC 3231), the Hair Pulp/Chrome Tann: Hair Save/Chrome Tanning, Hair Pulp of Shave/Non-Chrome Tanning, Re-tai ping and Wet Finishing Only), and for each such process all major con- trol alternatives are provided (e.g. Primary Sedimentation, Sulfide Oxi- dation/Sedimentation, Coagulation/Sedimentation, and Activated Sludge) . The waste load factors are always listed for each uncontrolled source, For the computation of the load factors which are applicable after each alternative treatment installation, two methods are followed: (a) For single sources, load factors for the treated wastes are di- rectly Tisted for each alternative type of treatment plant (see for example the Iron and Steel source category, SIC 371). (b) Multiple sources of similar nature and wastes with similar treata- bility characteristics are placed in a block, following which, typ- ical treatment processes applicable to all sources in the block, are listed and penetration factors for each pollutant are provided (see for example the tanneries block, SIC 3231). The waste factors for a given source with a given wastewater treatment scheme may beLiquid Wastes Inventories and Controls: 4-7 thus computed as the product of each uncontrolled waste factor and the corresponding penetration factor. The impact of the raw materials type and quality is expressed indirectly through the listing of alternative processes (the process selection of- ten depends on the raw materials available), or described in footnotes. Similar provision is made for remaining parameters, whenever their in- pact becomes important and relevant information exists. The tabular structure and the form of Section 4.2.2 provides the basis for an elaborate effluent loads model by introducing the impact of all major parameters into the assessment of the pollutant load releases, as well as by providing a precise definition of the data requirements from field surveys. The model in Section 4.2.2 is thus a valuable tool for source inventory studies, not only for computing effluent loads, but also for providing guidance on the data to be collected during the field survey work, as well as for organizing and presenting such data in a concise manner (see also Sections 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 below). In addition, the model in Section 4.2.2 should be a valuable tool in wa- ter pollution management studies as it provides a clear picture of the existing sources and the effluent load generation and, along with it, a fairly comprehensive list of the available alternative control options for each activity. The above constitite key elements in the analysis of the water pollution problems and the formulation of effective contro} strategies for any given urban or industrial area. The model in Section 4.2.2 is also useful in Environmental Impact Assessment Studies as it provides, in a convenient form, quantification of the impact of alternative process and emission control system selections for most sources and activities of interest. The model in Section 4.2.2 is supplemented by Tables 4.2.2-1 to 4.2.2-5, providing more-detailed data and information about waste load factors and treatment efficiencies for municipal waste-waters (SIC 920), waste oad factors for rain and land runoff, control efficiencies for agricultural industries (SIC 1110 to 1134), and the composition of jeachates from municipal solid waste landfill sites.4-8 Rapid inventory Techniques in Envizonmental Palktion 4.2.2 Model for Liquid Waste Inventories and Controls!.2 800g TSS Tot N Tot P other Pollutants wit @ VOLUME g/t Kg/U kg/U kg/Y Name kg wy Ptr Pitre Petr Pte Pate As08 OLVISION 1. ASRICULTIRE, HUNTING, FORESTRY AND FISHING DIVISION 11, AGRICULTURE AND HUNTING 111 AgricuTtural and Livestock Produet ion? Beof Cattle, 360 kg aver: Slotted feor/Shallow pit Headyr Dairy Cattle, 590 kg aver.5 Froe stall barn Mead yr Nitking Center Head yr Swine feedlot, 45 kg aver.8 Solid Fleor/water washed Head yr Slotted fleor/Pit manure Headtyr Sheep, 68 kg average Housed/Solid eanure Head*ye Housed/Liquid manure Head yr If a waste load factor does net appear in the appropriate place, this often (but not elways) means that {ts value is either sma1l or zore. However, lack of a penetration factor for a westenater treatment plant does not mean zero penetration, but rather that the value of this factor is not known The listed waste volune factors do not account for cooling water discharges, which may be very significant. The underline assumption here is that, unless otherwise nated, the cooling voters are recycled and only a snall portion of then, the blowdown, is discharged along with ‘the oFFluents Low density pasture units represent zero level of waste problens, along with the recovery of ful} Fertilizer veTue, However. the waste from high density confined operations approaches the total toads and thus requires cons erable manegenent, In beef cottle Feedlots calves enter weighing 270 kg, and after a period of 130 to 180 days ‘they leave as market aninals weighing about 477 kg Beef Feedlots incTude shallow and deep pit systens, dirt-Flat to moderate slope, dirt-steep slope and paved open slots. The listed factors for shallow pit systens represent the highost ood, a5 the manure 1s collected aleost daily. In 211 other systems the manure remains on the floor fer » period of tine and undergoes decomposition, loosing sone of its original or- genic lood strength. For exemple, in deep pit systens where the manure may remain for 6 to 12 vronths, the 800 can be reduced by about 40 %, the total Nitrogen can be reduced somewhat due to ammonia Tosses, but the total phosphorus remains unchanged. In dairy farms each cow produces 8 to 25 kg of milk daily and 1 calve per year In swine FeedTots, Feeder pigs enter weighing 25 kg, and after a period af 23 to 25 weeks they leave as 100 kg hogs to be slaughtered.