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    012 Child Growth. Barry Bogin

    Uploaded by

    joan piettro
    crecimiento

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 10
    Biviava'QRDEN = Agivate Ua Ee Encyclopedia of i Medical Anthropology r = Match and flness in the World’s Cultures Volume I: Topics Volume tl: Cultures Eckited by Carol R. Ember Human Relations Ares Fils at Yale University "New Haven, Connecticut and Melvin Ember Human Relations Area Files t Yale University New Haven, Connecticut Child Growth Barry Bogin Why Do ANTHROPOLOGISTS STUDY Human GrowtH?! ‘The study of human growth has been a part of anthropol- ogy Since ThE-founding Of THE discipline, European tnthropolegy of the ery to llth een was Bas. cally anatomy and anthropometry, the science of human body measurements (Tanner, 1981). Early practitioners of ‘American anthropology, especially Franz Boas (1892, 1940) are Known as much for their studies Of hurnan growth as for work in cultural studies, archeology, or to the United States, Tithe time of those studies, around 1390-1920, most ai pologists and anaiomists bebigvée That Slature, and other measurable dimensions of the body suchas head shape, “could be tiged as “racial” markers js set in inverted commas here Decause it refeté 16 the sciemitically discredited notion that Human beings can be arganized ino DioTWgically distinct groups based on phenotypes (the physica) appearance and behavior of @ person). According to this fallacious idea, nonbern European “races” were tall and had relatively long and narrow heads, while southern European races vwere shorter and had relatively round skulls. Boss found that, generally, the children of Italian and Jewish European migrants 10 the United States were The word “racs Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers New York + Boston - Dordrecht * London » Moscow ZOOS 238 significantly taller and heavier than their parents. The children of the migrants even changed the shape of their heads; they grew up to have long narrow heads. In the new environment of the United States, the children of recent southern European migrants grew up to look more like northern Europeans than their own parents Boss used the changes in body size and shape to vironment snd culture"are ior importent than genes in determining the physical appeatanceof people. Tn tems of environment, if in the United Staes afore beim, nes fhe unt an the vitiety of food, There were also greaer apporwaities for education and wage-paying Tabor. These nutritional {abi praclEE there were ter changes. In much of Europe infants usually were wrapped up tightly and placed on their backs to sleep, but the American practice | atthe turn of the century was fo place infans in the prone position, In order tobe “rmodera” the European immigrant parents often adopted the American practice. One effect on the infant was a change in skull shape, since pressure applied tothe back of the infant's skull produces a rounder head, while pressure applied to the side of the skull produces a longer and narrower head (Walcher, 1905). 7 The work of Boas and his colleagues shows that an interest in Raita grOWON 5 natural Tor_arihropologiss This is because the way in which a homan being grows is the ‘ora species, ihe physical environment in which we live, and the ‘culture creates, Moreover a living people share the basic attera of human growth. That pattem is the outcome of the {fear million year evolutionary history of the hominids (.e., living human beings and our fossil ancestors). Thus, human growth and development reflect the biocultural nature and evolutionary history of our species. Human Growth and Medical Anthropology ous argued for nearly.50_years that the study of human growth provides a mirror of the human condition. It is at the patterns of growth of human” pepulations renee The “Tiaterlal and moral conditions ofthat society” (Tanner, 1986), Those material afd moral conditions Ste, in large parts, determinants of human health, in terms of physical, social, and emotional socialleconomie/political environment that every human 2 Child Gra * well-being. Viewed in this perspective, the study of human growth in its cultural context contributes to many interests of medical anthropology. Biocultural Models of Human Growth Suman growin rp of the biol oa of or species, Since the HVE Totrcencury, aMtnropolOgst (such as Boas) have ised local human devel- opment. By the taie=20th century, the discovery of the aailfé of DNA and other fundamentals of developmental ould be 8 presi soc aad cultura) environment “BY the. late 20th century, the bigcultural m revised 10 show that there is_a recurcing interaction between the bolégyot Fvitan development and the sock tural eavironMeNT, Not only does the latter influence the former, but human developmental biology modifies social and cultural processes as well. Global trends toward taller stature.over the past 150 years aind toward overweight and obesity‘in the past 20 years ace just two examples of these inerictions. Increases in the average height and weight of human individuals and populations have consequences for health, the manufacture of cloth- ing and furniture, physical work capacity. perceptions of desired or ideal body shapes, food uction and con- suuipion, demographic structure (ferulity, migration, and ‘morialify), and social behavior (Bogin, 2001). Furtherinore, i i pow underst jronmen- Soe Te ee isnot environment, RUlale WE expression of DNA as much, of ‘moreso, than DNA regulates the growih process. One peal ein aisles at co acai the primates. Bipe in, by a pattem Of growth that alters the size-and shape of the skeleton (@g, legs longer than arms anda relaive short and broad pelvis) without adding or deleting any bones found in our ape cousins. It is hypothesized that many crucial feeding, reproductive, social, and-caltoral adaptations oF Our species are both a consequence and cause of bipedalism (Morbeck, Galloway, & Ziiman. | 1997). These Behavioral adaptations selected for the expression and regulation of genes that bring about the hhomen patie of growth allowing for bipedalism. In a mied- :, Bipedalism also brings about many physical Mii y tie ailm the Tiabi and aye Life History Theory and Human Growth ailments, including lower back pain, fallen arches of the feet, ahd ingvinal hernias. People respond to these liabilities of bipedalism. witb 9 wide variety of medical and cultural behaviors, fanging from diet to surgery to psychological and spiritual counseling. Lire History THEORY AND HUMAN GROWTH ‘The biocultural nature of human growth is best viewed fro a life history perspective. Th theory is ihe scientific study, of life cycle strateg their evolution (Stearns, 1992). Life history’ refers” major eveiié that occur between the conceplio of an ofan: Is UenRed as he Sialegy an organism uses to allocate i wih, maintenance, reproduction, Gising offspring to independene®, and avoiding death. Living tm i have-greitly dit. feicnt life history strategies, and differences in life history characteristics can have profound effects on the growth dynamics, ecology, and evotution of populations, Some key elements of life history theory are shown in Table 1. These key points are divided is snide the evolution of life hi column fists the irade-offs th biological or behavioral traits. An example of the fist type of trade-off is competition between organs oF issues of the tody during growth, For example, should energy and mate- rials be devoted to growing a large set of muscles ora larger brain? An example of the second type of trade-off is the hoice of producing one large offspring or many, smaller offspring’ All living things face these trade-off decisions. ‘Sone oecur on a day-to-day basis, others occur over longer periods of time, Those that have reproductive conse- ‘quences and occur over generations are subject to natural selection, ané the effected traits may evolve over time Human beings are no exception to the dynamics of life history. People share many life history waits end trade-offs with other mammals. As for all mammels, people have evolved strategies of when to be born, when tobe weaned, how many and what type of pe-reproductive stages of development to pass through, when to reproduce, and when to die. Human growth serves as a good example of life history tats and trade-offs. In contrast to most ‘Table {, Life Mitary Principal Trais and Trade-cffs Principles “rade-offs 2 sosmptre cna ‘+ Nombér of life eycle stages > ee bat maces Riis iat otros waeen retain 4 Pritt 4 tetyraeienal | Bo 5. Nomber vs. sie of offepring parnenogenesis? Parental codivon s,offspring Sireatmatutity 6. Number, sie, and ex aio growh ofoffpring 2. Gtlepring grows, condvon 1. Agesekeand size-specfic _andsurvval repradvetveinvesmens—& Parenl v.offipring 8 Age.serandsize- specific reproduction morality schedules, Length of ife © Reproductive iespen + Rate of aging/senescence “From Bopn 2001). Ts pil at he param as. The 8 based on te iusion ia Cole (1984) sed Saunt (1999, whe provide ul ates other mammals, people grow Asay Jos take almost 20 years to reach maturity. tween conception and matusity is. in part, Crade-off between speed and qualify. Slow human growth delays boih the independence Euererayes off in adults with better health and reproductive fitness. The.cvolution of human.life-history can be studied in many ways. One, way, js,t0,examine the staged of the life eJcle, One of the many possible orderings of the events in the human life cycle is shown in Table 2. ‘The remaining discussion is confined to the postnatal life cycle stages, with an emphasis oc siages are defined in terms of function behavidrAl, $6855, Gnd cognitive characteristics. One of these is Change in the YAP‘OF growth, as shown in Figure 1. The human “distance” curve, showing the amouint of growth in height from birth to age 22 years, is Jabeled on te right side ofthe graph. This curve has three phases: an initial phese of rapid growth during infancy, 2 second prolonged phase of moderate and near-constant ‘growth during the childhood and juvenile stages, and a third phase with the adolescent growth spur. ‘These phases are more clearly seen in the velocity curves. The increment of the velocity curve, which 238 ‘Table 2. Siagesin the Human Lil Cycle suage Growth evensluraiion (appronimate or average) Prenat! Lie Fertilization First trimester Fertleston to 12h week: embryogenesis Second trimester Fourth through sixth nar moth: apd powth in length ‘Third trimester Seventh lar monthio inh rapid growth in weigh and organ maturation Bieth “Traniionoexra-sierine life Postal Life Neonatal period Birth (0.28 days: extrasteine adaptation, most ‘rapid ents of postnatal growth ard maturation Infancy ‘Second month endef lactation, wsualy by age ‘36 month: rapid growth velocity, seep Aeeeeration in velsity wih time, feeding by Jactaton, deiduous woth eupion, many developmental milestones in physiology, behavior, nd eogniton “Third to seventh year maderte growth a, dependency for and feeding, mid prow sp, upton of ist permanent oar ad inci, cessation of bin growth by endoF sage Juvenile ‘Ages sevento 10(or if, oF 12 fe boys: slower ‘growth le, ost permanent eth erupt, capable of elf-feading, cognitive transition leading to leaming of economic and social shils Chitdnood Adolescence. Five toeight yeas afer the onset of puberty: ‘Adolescent growth spurt inheightand weight. Pemmanea! cot eruption vinualy complete, eveloproct of secondary sexual characteristics, sacinsexal maturation, intensification of oterest, and practice adult social. economic, and sexual ‘Aetiood Prime and Free 20 yearsofageioend of child-bearing yeas wranson homeostasis in physalogy, behavior, and cogritiog. menopause for wemat by age 80 years Oldageand —_—_-Framendof child-bearing years death decline seneszence he Freon of many body issues or systems Frm Boia 1908), represents the rate of growth in height during any year, is labeled on the left side, Changes in the velocity of growth may be divided into five phas oF human developer arei_(I) infancy: (2) childhood: (3) juvenile; (4) adolescent: and (5) adult stages. Below the velocity curve are symbols indicating the average ich siage of development. irth and lasts until about age three Chile Grown AGE, years Figure 1. Distance and velocity curves of growth for human bbaings. Boy-solid line, gte-broken line. The stages of postnatal crowih are abbreviated as folows: l= infancy, C= chilthood, J= JWenve, A= adolescence, M = mature adult (Bagin, 2898), cele ky he jf’ grout cure i co ination ofthe fetal patie, in which the rate of grow’ in length actally reaches « peak in the second trimester of gestation, and then begins 2 deceleration tht lasts until childhood. The childhood stage encompasses the ages of about three t6 seven years. The growth deceleration of infancy eds at the beginning of childhood, and the rate of gr es off at about 6 cm per year. This leveling- off in growth rate is unusual for maminals, as virtually all ‘other species continue 2 pattern of deceleration after ‘The human ju years, and is chardetefized by the slowest ra ice birth In girls, tbe juvenile period ends, on average, a1 si Tago 10, wo years before i ual ends in boys. The difference reflects The earlier 0 is ceaee in in” girls. Human agplascenge is the stage of life when soc en social and ‘and sexual maturation takes place, In terms of growth, both id aceel- eration in the gi lacity-of virtually all of the bones of the body. This is calle. the adolescent growifr spun. Rtiakesceite ends when skeletal growth is complete, This

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