THE NEED FOR A WATERTIGHT DRAINAGE SYSTEM:

ITS ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS TO THE PHILIPPINE SETTING

Henry P. Turalde
Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges

Abstract: Watertight drainage system presents superior quality over the traditional non-watertight scheme.
Environmental issues such as infiltration and exfiltration are addressed. It also answers the technical issues. It seals and
shields the line from the possible permeation of water, preventing the soil fines to seep into the pipeline and eliminating
settlement at the bottom of the drainage pipe. It prevents the loss of soil fines from the pipe-surrounding aggregate that
may void the ground that may eventually become loose. However, the watertight method would bring significant
implications to the countrys construction industry. It would require new materials and alternative construction
methods. It must introduce essential amendments to the existing specifications and would require performance of
appropriate quality tests. It may present economic impact owing to the costs of new materials and modified
construction methods.
Keywords: drainage system, wastewater, sewage, watertight, infiltration, pressure test, leakage

INTRODUCTION

Our generation, this present generation in the history of

mankind is confronting undoubtedly the most significant,
if not the most crucial and complex global environmental
challenges, whether we accept it or not. Whatever this
generation does or fails to do will certainly define the
course of civilization in terms of sustainable
development.
One of these enormous challenges we face is the search
for the appropriate wastewater disposal system design
and construction, and parallel with this, the accurate
response to the issues brought about by inappropriate
wastewater disposal practices. The concerns of sewage
disposal has taken increasing importance as a result of
the issues expressed about the enormous problem of
pollution of the human environment, the contamination
of the air, rivers, lakes, oceans and groundwater by
wastewater.
Methods of wastewater disposal date past from ancient
times. Various processes were involved in the collection,
treatment and sanitary disposal of wastewater domestic
and storm-water sewage from urban and industrial
areas. New processes were developed to treat sewage,
analyze wastewater, and evaluate the effects of pollution
on the environment. In spite of these efforts, however,
increasing population, industrial and economic growth
caused the pollution and health difficulties to escalate.

The civil engineering profession should show concern to

this ever-growing sewerage problem. It is about time that
we, the PICE, as a professional institution, ought to
respond to this crisis by getting involved in the design,
planning and construction of an effective sewerage
system.

WATERTIGHTNESS

The primary purpose of the processes involved in the

wastewater disposal is, first, to contain the sewage and to
prevent it from contaminating other valuable resources
necessary for human consumption. Second objective, is
to treat it appropriately as needed, and third, to dispose it
off safely.
Development in other countries long recognized that
domestic sewage must be segregated from storm water
sewage, consequently resulting to the separate lines
distinctly designed and built. Domestic sewage is
collected and conveyed to the treatment plant before
being disposed off while storm-water sewage may be
directly discharged to the stream or river.
Watertight pipe and structures may have historically been
considered with sanitary systems in some countries
including the Philippines. However, growing concerns
related to the effects of infiltration and exfiltration have
brought wastewater system in general both sanitary and
storm-water sewer to careful scrutiny.

Drainage works should be specifically designed to

perform its primary function of collection, treatment and
disposal. In order to contain wastewater and prevent
pollution, the best way to effectively take care of it is by
keeping the drainage system watertight in order to keep
wastewater isolated and be appropriately treated as
necessary before discharging it to the open.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

If the drainage system is not watertight, infiltration may

potentially occur when sewer lines are placed below
water table or when rainfall percolates down to the depth
of the pipe.
As pipe joints permit infiltration, the groundwater or the
surrounding water drains through these pipes. When
located adjacent or through a wetland, over time, they
will drain the entire wetland and adversely affect the
very sensitive ecology of the area. When storm drainage
system is placed in the area with contaminated soils or
industrial complexes, polluted waters can leach into the
system through these openings. The outpour of heavy
rain can flush these contaminants into the river
consequently damaging the quality of the water.

time, this hardened soil fines would accumulate and

eventually block the pipe. More frequent cleaning of the
pipeline would be required to keep the sewer effectively
functional. Unfortunately, untimely cleaning and
maintenance works may render the sewer ineffective.
In a watertight drainage system, extra-burdensome
maintenance works could be avoided.
When joints in the pipelines are not watertight and no
control over the amount of infiltration into the pipeline,
the slow but sure loss of soil fines would create void
spaces around the pipe, subsequently rendering the pipesurrounding material loose and unstable.
When the sewer is under the road, this failure may result
to the eventual collapse of the roadway. As this happens,
this presents a safety hazard to the traveling public to the
minimum. Potholes, sinkholes, roadway collapse and
unstable surfacing are examples of this type of problem.
In a watertight drainage system, costly damages and
painstaking repairs of these defects could be prevented.

IMPLICATIONS TO PHILIPPINE SETTING

If there is a cause, there is a cost, there goes the saying.

Ex-filtration may potentially happen when the pipe is
placed above the water table.
In exfiltration, the opposite happens but works in similar
fashion. As the wastewater leaks through the joints,
pollutants can leach out anywhere along the length of the
storm drainage system. Surface drainage pollutants
entering the system from catch basins far upstream seep
out through the leaking joints downstream. Over time,
continuous leak of wastewater may contaminate the
surrounding soil or the areas groundwater and may lead
to eventual irrevocable damage.

TECHNICAL CONCERN

Noteworthy for civil engineers, some technical or

structural issues are addressed through a watertight
drainage scheme.
Watertight drainage system seals and shields the sewer,
and prevents infiltration and exfiltration.
With non-watertight sewer, during infiltration, the inflow
of water carries soil fines from the surrounding backfill
material. The soil fines that seep through the joints or
other leaks would settle at the bottom of the drainage
line. Once soil fines are settled, it would harden. Over

With the shift from the traditional non-watertight sewer

to a watertight system, this condition shall not be made
possible without significant ramification to the existing
norms and standards in the Philippines construction
industry. As a consequence, this departure shall have
considerable transformation on project planning and
construction.
First, it would entail improved quality requirements to
materials characteristics or properties, meaning new
materials may be required.
Second, it may bring about alternative methods of
construction. Parallel to these, essential amendments to
the existing specifications would be required.
Third, it would require the obligatory performance of
appropriate quality tests not performed in the nonwatertight system.
Lastly, it may have also some economic impact owing to
the costs of new materials and modified construction
methods.

5.1 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

The main cause of the problems that caused infiltration is
the mortared joints and non-gasketed connections. These

types of joints do not provide watertight seal. The

mortared joint may appear initially watertight but they
can not accommodate pipe-to-pipe or pipe-to-structure
settlement resulting in cracking of this filler material and
subsequent leaking. The structural integrity of a system
can only be assured by preventing leaks which requires a
silt tight and watertight system.

C or better as defined in ASTM D-1784 (Rigid PVC

Compounds and CPVC Compounds).
Joints are provided with preformed rubber gaskets
conforming to ASTM F-477 standards or better, fitted
and fixed with suitable sealing compound. Solvent
cement shall be applied to pipe and fitting per ASTM
D2855.

Materials for a watertight drainage system require joints

that guarantee seal from construction phase and beyond.

5.2.3
5.2

DRAINAGE PIPES

Watertight drainage system uses pipes that are made of

reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) with rubber gasketed
joints, polyvinyl chloride pipe (PVC), high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) pipe, or other pipe material
approved for the specific application.

5.2.1

Reinforced Concrete Pipe (RCP)

Reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) is the most widely used

and accepted permanent sewer material because of its
durability. In the US, RCP dimension ranges from 6
(150 mm) up to over 120 (3000 mm) in diameter x 16
(4.80 m) long, produced conforming to ASTM C-14,
ASTM C-76 or ASTM C-655 standards or better, with
bell and spigot or tongue and groove ends.
Joints are provided with preformed rubber gasket to meet
the requirements of ASTM C-443 or ASTM C-361
standards or better for watertight sewer system. Joints
shall be watertight, conforming to the performance
standards of ASTM D3212.
In the Philippines, ungasketed RCPC which is
prefabricated in one-meter length has long been the most
widely used material for drainage projects. This material
possesses excellent quality in strength and durability, but
its vulnerability to leakage through the mortared joints
poses tough watertight concerns.

5.2.2

Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe (PVC)

Plastic pipes are widely used for its lightweight,

chemical resistance, non-corrosive properties and ease of
making connections. This plastic material includes
polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In North America, PVC pipes
come normally with bell and spigot ends, range from 100
mm (4) to over 900 mm (36) in diameter x 20 (6 m)
long, made of material coming from a single compound
with a cell classification of 12454-B, 12454-C or 12364-

High Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE)

High-density polyethylene is one of the most chemically

inert of all plastics and therefore is extremely chemical
and corrosion resistant. HDPE pipe material is made of
single compound manufacturer and conforms to cell
classification set by ASTM D-3350 standards or better.
This diameter of pipe is available from 6 (150 mm) up
to 48 (1200 mm) x 20 (6 m) long.
HDPE joints are equipped with elastomeric o-rings
gasket conforming to ASTM F-477. Joints shall be
watertight, conforming to the performance standards of
ASTM D-3212. A joint lubricant is used on the gasket
and bell during assembly.

5.3

MANHOLE AND APPURTENANCES

Manholes and certain appurtenances are necessary for

the proper functioning of the drainage system. These
may include manholes, catch basins and inlets and
others.
All manholes shall be reinforced concrete constructed of
Portland Cement Concrete. Typical Type A sewer
manhole (shown in figure 1) with a minimum of 48"
(1200 mm) diameter may be used for pipes up to 36
(900 mm) diameter. Larger diameter manholes Type B or
bigger may be used to accommodate larger pipe sizes.
No manhole or chamber shall be built using concrete
hollow blocks.

5.3.1

Pre-cast Manholes

Precast concrete manhole pipe shall conform to ASTM

C-478. Precast concrete manhole materials shall be in
accordance with the drawing of Standard Sewer Manhole
& Details (figure 1). Pipe openings in precast sections
shall be formed during casting operation.
The concrete base shall be cast integrally cast with floor.
A rubber gasket as specified in ASTM C-443 is used to
seal pipe to manhole. Any mortar works necessary to seal

the joints shall be done with extra care using approved

material and workmanship to ensure watertight quality

pipe must not be held at an angle when entry is started to

avoid the gasket being pinched between the shoulder of
the spigot and bell at the bottom of the pipe. With the
spigot carefully aligned at the entrance to the bell and
with the pipe to be installed held in line with the
previously laid pipe, the joint should be pulled home
slowly.
Inspect to make sure that pipes have not been crushed by
heavy equipment before completing the installation.
Make sure that the connections are solid and sealed.
Check the slope of pipe runs. Make a common practice
to water test your drainage before covering the pipes
with backfill materials.
Do the as-built measurements showing the manhole to
manhole line diagram with pipe diameter and inverts at
each manhole.

Figure 1. Typical Precast Sewer Manhole Type A

5.5

5.3.2

Other implications of a watertight drainage will be the

need of conducting leakage tests. These tests are
conducted to assure that leakage is within acceptable
limits. These tests shall be completed and approved prior
to placing permanent pavement or resurfacing.

Cast-In-Place Manholes

Cast-in-place manholes shall also be used for special

shape or as necessary to conform to site requirements.
Likewise, a rubber gasket as specified in ASTM C-443 is
used to seal pipe to manhole, and cast integrally in
manhole wall to assure watertight quality.

5.3.2

Other Sewer Appurtenances

Gulley pots, catch basins or inlet chambers shall be

precast or cast-in-place reinforced concrete conforming
to standard Portland Cement Concrete. Pipe openings in
precast sections shall be formed during casting operation.
Rubber gasket may be required as specified in ASTM C443 to seal pipe to manhole, and cast integrally in
manhole wall to assure watertight quality.

5.4

INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS

Drainage system installation should be done during dry

weather periods except in emergency situations.
Excavations can quickly be flooded with water making
proper joint sealing works difficult and dangerous.
In making the joint on rubber gasket sewer pipe, the pipe
being installed should be held by the lifting device
straight to line and grade with the pipe in the ground. The

TESTS FOR WATERTIGHTNESS

Leakage should be held to a minimum in sewers because

of its effects mentioned earlier. Low leakage
requirements can be met with well made concrete gravity
sewer pipe or other approved pipes with rubber gasket
joints. It should be recognized by the engineer, however,
that field performance represents the sum of the
manufactured joint characteristics and the contractors
installation practices.
To check on whether reasonable workmanship was
realized during the construction phase, maximum limits
of allowable leakage in terms of water infiltration or
exfiltration should be included in project specifications.
They should be stated in terms of both maximum
allowable rate per test section and maximum allowable
average rate for the total project. These project
acceptance tests evaluate the quality of the contractors
work.

5.4.1

Exfiltration Test

Each section of the drainage will be tested between

successive manholes by closing the lower end of the
sewer reach. This test shall be conducted by blocking off
all manhole or structure openings, except those

connecting with the reach being tested, filling the line,

and maintain a constant level in the manholes or
structures.
During this test, the average water level in the manholes
shall be at least at the elevation of the ground surface.
The maximum depth at the lower end shall not exceed 25
feet, and the minimum depth at the upper end shall be at
least 5 feet above the crown of the pipe or 5 feet above
the level of the ground water, whichever is higher.
The maximum exfiltration rate for any section of sewer
shall conform to the limit for the type of projects
specified according to ASTM C-969:
Type of pipe
Concrete
PVC

Max. Allowable Infiltration

200 gal/day/inch dia./mile length
(18.5 liters/day/mm dia/km length)
50 gal/day/inch dia./mile length
(4.6 liters/day/mm dia/km length)

For purposes of exfiltration leakages, manholes shall be

considered to be concrete pipe of the same diameter as
the manhole. Air pocket entrapment shall be avoided
when filling the line with water. Once filled with water,
the system shall be allowed to stabilize for a period of
one to two hours before starting the test.
Exfiltration rate is determined by measuring the amount
of water required to maintain constant level in the upper
manhole. Test duration is to be no less than two hours.
If the leakage as shown by the test exceeds the allowable
value, the contractor shall locate the leaks, make
appropriate repairs as approved, and shall continue to test
the sewer until it meets the requirements.

If the infiltration is found to exceed the stipulated value,

the contractor shall make appropriate repairs as approved
and shall continue to test the sewer until it meets the
requirements.

5.4.3

Prior to acceptance of any segment of newly constructed

sewers, the pipe may be subjected to air pressure test,
which will be conducted after compaction of the backfill.
This test shall conform to the recommended practice and
calculations of ASTM C-828. After manhole to manhole
reach of pipe has been backfilled, the line should be
flushed and cleaned with the interior walls moist. Plugs
shall be placed in the line at each manhole and low
pressure shall be introduced into this sealed line until
internal pressure reaches 4 psig (pounds per inch gage)
greater than the average back pressure of any
groundwater that may be surrounding the pipe. At least 2
minutes shall be allowed for the air pressure to stabilize.
Check exposed pipes and plugs for abnormal leakages by
coating with soap solution.
The test shall then be run with the drop in pressure from
3.5 to 2.5 psig. Leakage shall not exceed 0.003 cfm per
square foot of internal pipe wall. The time elapsed for 1
psig drop in air pressure shall not be less than:
t = 0.472d

Infiltration Test

If the project encountered excessive ground water during

construction of the sewer, the infiltration test for leakage
shall be used.
The maximum allowable infiltration rate for sewers
according to some specifications shall conform to
following limits for the type of projects specified
according to ASTM C-969:
Type of pipe
Concrete
PVC

Max. Allowable Infiltration

200 gal/day/inch dia./mile length
(18.5 liters/day/mm dia/km length)
50 gal/day/inch dia./mile length
(4.6 liters/day/mm dia/km length)

(in English)

where: t = time in minutes

d = pipe diameter in inches
or

5.4.2

Air Pressure Test

t = 11.99d

(in SI)

where: t = time in minutes

d = pipe diameter in mm
If the installation fails to meet the requirements, the
contractor shall at his own expense determine the source
of the leakage and repair or replace all defective
materials and/or workmanship.
Safety precautions shall be observed at all times. It is
extremely important that the plugs be installed and
braced to prevent blowouts. No one shall be allowed into
the manholes during testing.

5.4.4

Testing of Manholes

Manholes shall be hydrostatically tested for leakage after

installation, but prior to being backfilled. Prior to

hydrostatic testing, manholes shall be visually inspected

for leaks. Leaks or cracks shall be repaired prior to
hydrostatic testing. Pipes entering the manhole shall be
sealed at a point outside the manhole walls so as to
include testing of the pipe/manhole joints.
The manhole shall be filled with water to a level 2 inches
below the top of the frame. Safety lines shall be secured
to all plugs. After a period of at least one hour and when
the water level has stabilized, the manhole shall be
refilled and the water level shall be checked. The water
level shall again be checked after a period of 4 hours. If
the water level is reduced by more than 1/4-inch, the
leakage shall be considered excessive, and the manhole
shall be repaired and retested.
The exterior of the manhole shall be inspected during
this period for visible evidence of leakage. Moisture,
sweating, or beads of water on the exterior of the
manhole shall not be considered leakage, but any water
running across the surface will be considered leakage
and the manhole shall be repaired.

5.5 PROJECT IMPLICATIONS

There is no doubt that the watertight drainage system
poses inevitable changes in materials requirements and
construction methods respectively. Likewise, it will bring
about impact on project construction and, eventual
change in the project cost.

5.5.1

Project Construction

Fabrication or supply of watertight drainage materials

may pose logistical challenges to constructor during
project construction phase. Transporting, handling and
storage of these aforementioned materials may require
unprecedented concerns.
Since RCP materials are longer and heavier than the
usual RCPC materials, mounting and installation of these
pipes will need bigger equipments and more labor
personnel, though fixing the end joints may be done with
ease.

5.5.2

Project Cost

Given the foregoing discussion, and summing up every

point that makes the difference in the construction of
watertight drainage as compared to the conventional nonwatertight system, it is clearly evident that the cost of the
project will differ from the old (non-watertight) to new
(watertight) scheme.

When doing the detailed cost analyses, the following

perceived factors may take part in price consideration:
Watertight Drainage Vs. Non-Watertight:
A) Pipes
1. Using concrete pipes, same amount of materials
are needed. However, RCP (reinforced concrete
pipe) require better quality than the
conventional RCPC (reinforced concrete pipe
culvert) because watertight materials would
require more quality control and careful
performance during fabrication casting,
handling, curing and storage. Price of watertight
RCP will be higher than the conventional
RCPC.
2. Using PVC pipes instead of RCPC would be
more costly. Since PVC pipes can not be
subjected to heavy loads particularly below the
road under traffic, strengthening the sewer by
way of concrete-surrounding the PVC pipes
would incur bear additional cost.
B) Joints:
1. Gasketed joint at every 4 - 5m for RCP would
be cheaper than mortared joints at every meter
for RCPC.
C) Installation:
1. Longer RCP (about 5m) will be more difficult
to transport, handle and install than the meterlong RCPC.
2. RCP needs a joint every 5 m, easier than RCPC
which requires a joint every meter.

5.6 CONCLUSION
Watertight drainage system may require more meticulous
planning, design and construction stages than nonwatertight drainage scheme. However, the added job
offers extra quality controlling if not eliminating
exfiltration and infiltration.
Environmental issues related to infiltration and
exfiltration are vastly unnoticed through the ages. When
non-watertight sewer is located under the water-table of a
wetland, it will drain the wetland and adversely affect the
ecology of the region. When placed in the area with
contaminated soils, polluted waters can leach into the
system and flush these pollutants into the river. In
exfiltration, the opposite happens but works in similar
fashion. As the wastewater leaks through the joints,
pollutants can leach out anywhere along the length of the
storm drainage system. Surface drainage pollutants

entering the system from catch basins far upstream seep

out through the leaking joints downstream. Over time,
wastewater will contaminate the surrounding soil and
groundwater.
Most noteworthy for civil engineers, are the technical or
structural issues that will be answered by this scheme.
Watertight drainage system seals and shields the sewer,
and prevents infiltration and exfiltration. Watertight
sewer prevents the inflow of water that carries soil fines
from the surrounding backfill material, eliminating the
possibility that soil fines would accumulate, settle and
harden at the bottom of the line, and eventually blocking
the pipe. Extra-burdensome maintenance works are
avoided.
Likewise, the loss of soil fines would create void spaces
around the pipe, subsequently rendering the pipesurrounding material loose, unstable and not fit to carry
load. This failure may result to the eventual collapse of
the surfacing or roadway, if pipe is under the road. This
safety hazard would mean enormous medical
expenditures. In a watertight drainage system, costly
damages and painstaking repairs of these defects could
be prevented.
As the issues for the need of a watertight drainage
system are positively justified, its implications in the
Philippine setting can not just be simply put aside.

APPENDIX
Appendix 1
Standards for Reinforced Concrete Pipes:
Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain,
and Sewer Pipe
C 361
Reinforced Concrete Low-Head Pressure
Pipe
C 443
Joints for Circular Concrete Sewer and
Culvert
C 655
Reinforced Concrete D-Load Culvert,
Storm
C 822
Definitions of Concrete Pipe and Related
C 969
Infiltration and Exfiltration Acceptance
Testing
C 1103
Joint Acceptance Testing of Installed Precast
About the author:
C 76

Appendix 2
Acceptance Testing for RCP
ASTM C-969
Water exfiltration
ASTM C-969
Water infiltration
ASTM C-1103 Joint testing
Appendix 3
Standard
ASTM
D3034

ASTM
F679
ASTM
F789
ASTM
F794
ASTM
F949
ASTM
F1803
CSA
B182.2
CSA
B182.4

Standards for PVC Sewer Pipes:

Available ODs Structural Requirements
4-15 inch
Solid Wall
SDR 41, PS 28 psi
SDR 35, PS 46 psi
SDR 26, PS 115 psi
SDR 23.5, PS 153 psi
18-36 inch
Solid Wall
PS 46 psi
4-18 inch
Solid Wall
PS 46 psi
4-48 inch
Open Profile, Closed
Profile and Dual wall
PS 46 psi
4-36 inch
Dual Wall
PS 46 psi
18-60 inch
Closed Profile
PS 46 psi
3-27 inch
Solid Wall
SDR 41, PS 195 kPa
SDR 35, PS 320 kPa
SDR 28, PS 625 kPa
4-48 inch
Open Profile and Closed
Profile
Class IV, PS 70 kPa
Class V, PS 320 kPa

REFERENCES:
City and County of Denver, Storm Drainage and Sanitary
Sewer Construction Details and Technical
Specifications, 2000
Illinois Concrete Association, Concrete Pipe User
Manual
Kurdziel, J. M., The Evolution of Watertight Storm
Drainage System, ASCE (2002)
Standard Specifications for Materials and Installation of
Storm Drainage Pipelines in the City of Santa Maria,
California

Henry P. Turalde is a faculty of College of Engineering at the Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges. He advocates
ethics, quality, safety and sustainability in construction. A PICE specialist in Construction Management & Engineering
and Transportation Engineering, he is also a certified real estate professional, surveyor, master plumber and quality
control engineer. (E-mail: engineer_pluss@yahoo.com)