You are on page 1of 6



       "! #%$& '

( )*,+.-0/ /123-5476
:8 9;=<?>A@CBEDGF:HJILK7MON?PQIRDSNUTWV,P@RX=IZYY,TJ[]\JI^N`_aYXbDdcWVeMOKf?gh>aiWj=>lknm^op>59iqQ;=j=mLrsptuiavU9?mw;x>ygzmL{`;=< W |?} ;
mL9dvU9?m^;=>~<?>mLkn<;fiW9?{iqQ>;spt.j=>;OiW9?k }? ipjm^;=>5q
>ipO<sptgzmL{`;=<iW;zspqQ; W E <?>ys | >;xmwon>ymLq;=s
rUipOi ^ ;x<?>m^;=>5qumL9;xsl;x<?>qQ;=j=mLr;xsm^9?mLmL>h;x<`><?>mLkn<; } q=>{ E <?>m^;x>qui9?>5mw;x<?>j%son>j ipr
9?snj | >j=sp;xiW;x>{ E >y{?>q=j=m | >l<?>5jQ>i mLqQ;zsWt>0mL>9J; esp m^9?>%r?ipOJmL9?ki knsnj=mw;x<?q 5snsp9
ipr?r`j=sipO<mLq >op> :snjQmL>59;=>5{f;x<?>Amw;x>qlipjQ>&rUipOW>5{tej=sp >t;l;xsj=mLkp<J;5fm^9j=sgzqltesnj=mL9?kVRMSMxVLP
9;x<`>q=ip> >0on> fdi L mw;x>5qipj=>rUipOW>5{7qQs;x<?iW;%;=<?>5m^j | sp;Q;xsnqi m^kn9 . <?>vUjQqQ; >0on> mLqu;x<`>
spm^;=;=;=<?snmL
|r?jQ>omLs q spt>0;=on<?> >qQ;xjQmLsnrip>9?{i knq }?sp|j=m^qQ;=>5<? } >q~9JqQ; ;xip >jQop; > q%ipqQjQsn>jQ{?;=mL>09?vUk9?>;x{<?>| m^;=>5;=<?>q <?>5m^kn9?<sn;%9sW:tmL9`;x<?5j=>z>5;Oipi q=Lm^9?>kqQ;u<?mw>5;xm^>5kn<;spf.9;=<?;x<`> >
ipjQ> } q }} i L 9?ip >{>5j= >5ipq=m^9?k>5m^kn<;R|~~ <?>vUjQqQ;~;=<?j=>>~| i kpsnj=mw;x<?qzj=>om^>g%>5{ | > sg
ipjQ> >op> :snjQmL>59;=>5{ mwon>9ip9ipr?r?jQsdm^&iW;=mLsn9i kpsnj=mw;x<? f >;
ip9?{
{`>59?sp;=>a;x<?>
<?>mLkn <; } q=>{ | A iW9? {;=<?>spr`;xm^&i i kpsnj=mw;x<?fnj= >q=r>50;xm^op> AnfJte snjipA(I)
9m^9?qQ;xip9?> OPI T (I)
<`>~ipq]dr`;=sp;xm^
|;x<`s >l} 9?q];x{?jQq
mLrq];OmLiWq
;=sp>5t{ gz| mL> {d ;xs< gipqQq } >;x<?iW;;x<`>~gzmL{`;=<7spt,;x<?>q];xjQmLrip9?{A;=<?>m^;=>5qhm^q9?snjQ&i mL>5{&qQs;x<UiG;
1
m^j=q];Q m^;
>55jQ>ipqQmL9?k>mLkn<;  ~i knspj=m^;=<?
8Ct. 9?~s >oprU> iWO5ipq%9;x<?iW>~559`sp>0;
m^;=sd>5{? iW;xR> emLf?9&i9`9?sn>09dg :m^9?>5onjQ>> ipqQmLmLq
9?kj=><?iG>5;xm^kn>{<;busn9&;=<?>vUjQqQ; >op> gz<?>5jQ> R v?;xq
R

m ^> sn r >0dmw;:&spt   O(n


log n)
;=mLknr?<r?;lj=sWdmLiW;=mLsn9jxiG;xmLs` F F DH(I) OP T (I) + 1 ;=<?>iWqQrd;xsp;=mL | s } 9?{spt m^q

>0;Q m^;z>55jQ>ipqQmL9?k&>mLkn<;  ~zi knsnjQm^;=<?


 ;x<`~>5jQgzrUm^q=ip>WOf?J;xq<?>y;=<? >y9?j=j=>0>9;; m^;=>>5on > RmLq%R:mL 9sp9?q=>5sp{9dy:m^9?ip9?5jQ{>ipiqQmL9?9?>kg <?>>0mLonkn> <;Ohm^q
sn59jQ>;=iW<?;=>l>5{ } jQj=>59; >0on> mwt R v?;xq

m ^>snr >0dmw;:} O(n log


n)
;=mLknr?<r?;lj=sWdmLiW;=mLsn9jxiG;xmLs` N F DH(I) 2 OP T (I) + 1 ;x<?>ipqQr`;xsp;=mL | s } 9?{sWt 2 m^q

>qQ;] mw;z>5j=>5ipq=m^9?kA>5mLkp<J; ~i kpsnj=mw;x<?


~rUipOJqE;x<?>z9?>bd;%m^;=>5 emL99?sn9dCmL9?j=>5ipq=m^9?k<?>5m^kn<;bsp9;=<?> >0on> fJipsn9?k~;x<`snq=>
;x<?iW;
5ip 9ip5sns{UiW;=> R ftesnjygzR<?mLO<;=<?>&jQ>5qQmL{ } i <`snj=m^5sn9;Oi qQrUip>AmLqy;x<? >m^9?mL } 8Ctz9?s
>onm^> >ipsn9ipr 5>0sndmw;:EsG{U iW;=> R fUi9?>g >0on> m^q
5jQ>iW;=>5{
r?r?j=sdmLiW;= mLsn9Aj=iW;xm^s?uS

sW;=;xsp:>0t;l .  knspj=m^;=<?
vUjQqQ;snjQ{?>5jm^;=>5q | 9?sp9d:m^9?5jQ>ipqQmL9?kgzmL{`;=< y rUipOJq;x<?> 9?>0;mw;x>5ipq9?>ipj;xsA;x<`>
17
10

17
10

ipqhmw;hgzm v?;
iW9?{A;x<?>9ipqh snqQ>;xs;x<?> >t;hipqmw;h5ip97kns gzmw;x<?s ;son>j iWr?r?mL9`kgzm^;=<
|ip9sp7;=;=snr?
ipOp>{m^;=>5 L u sp;=>~;x<UiG; "mLq
9`sp;i >op> Csnj=m^>59;x>{7rUipOJmL9`k&i knsn} jQm^;x<`
)
m^r?r?>j=sdsnmLiWr ;= >0mLsnd9Amw;:j=iW ;xO(n
m^s? BL(I)
Zn
3 OP T (I)

Z CQe^Z5
iW p>5jq=q>5qliArsn sgz9m^9UiW;xm^~sn9zsWi t knsnjQm^;=<?ip9?{ iA kp>59?>jxi mLiG;xmLsp9spt ~ <`>gzmL{`;=<sWt;=<?>q];xj=m^r
ip9`{} ;x<?> m^;x>qip| j=>9?snjQ&i mL >5{q=sA;x<?iW;;=<?>qQ;=j=m^rmLqspt } 9?mw; gzm^{`;x< snjQ{?>5jQq;x<?> m^;x>q
m^99?sn9dCmL9?j=>5ipq=m^9?k&gzmL{d;x<ip9?{;=<?>59{?mwomL{?>q;x<?>amw;x>qmL9;xs&v`on>knj=s } r?q5f>ipO<gzm^;=<gzmL{`;=<
f
f
f
f ] <?>7qQ;=j=m^rmLqai q=s{?mwomL{?>{mL9;xsv?op>7j=>b
m^9;x<?>Aj=ip9?kn>
sptugzm^{`;x<m^9;x<`>ajxip9?kp> ( , ] ftesnj 1 i 4 f
knm^sn9?q R , ,(R, 1]y (ipqQ,mLi ]L p(fqQ, sn] >( m^;=,>5] q(0,
ipjQ>zrUipOp>{&;xslj=>knmLsp9 R | d mL9`5> >ion>qiyq=rUip>sWtmL9`5j=>5ipq=m^9?kgzmL{`;=<tejQsn;=snr;=s
sp;=;=sniG;;=<?>zj=m^kn<;uq=mL{`>sWt;x<`>q];xjQmLrf;OiWp>5qu;x<`mLqip{`oWip9;OiWkn> av?j=qQ;rUiWOm^9?ky;x<?>zm^;=>5
;=| s R tespj j = 1, , 4 Rm^9"snjQ{?>5jxtej=sn;=snr;=s | sp;Q;xsn 8Ct%;x<?>| j=>mLqy9?sq } O<"q=rUip>pf;=<?>
mw;x>5mLqrUipOp>{&;xs R | m^9Ui ^ nfpm^;x>qusptq=m^5>iW;snq]; ipj=>rUipOW>5{A;=sl;=<?>qQrUip>5qm^9
;x<`>7Rkp>59?>jxi mL5>{ i knsnj=mw;x<? h kipm^9m^t.;x<?>j=>mLq9?s&qQrUip5> mL9;=<?>5qQ>
R , ,R |
jQ>5knm^sn9?q5fd;x<?>ym^;=>5mLq
rUipOW>5{;=s R } q=mL9`k  ~
m^r?r?>j=sdsnmLiWr ;= >0mLsnd97mw;:j=iWE;xGm^s?
f?gz<`>5j=> H mLq
;x<?>liGdmL } <?>mLkn<;spt
OP T (I) + H
;=<?>ym^;x>q ;x<`>iWqQrd;xspU;=D(I)
mL | s } 9?{spt m^q;xmLkp<J;

>op>5i j=qQq=>0sv?9`;asnj=  i m^5i > qyknsp;=j=<?m^>&;=<?gzm^{` ;x< sWt


;x<?>qQ;xjQmLriW9?{;x<`>Am^;=>5qqQs;x<UiW;;x<?>qQ;=j=mLrmLq sWt 9?m^;
gzm^ {`;x<  vUjQqQ; qQ;xipOJqhi L mw;x>5qsptgzmL{d;x<knj=>5iW;x>j;x<Uip9 E >5ipmL9`mL9?k~mw;x>qEiWj=>zq=snj];x>} {m^9
9?sp9d:m^9?5jQ>ipqQmL9?ky<?>mLkn<;hip9?{gzm >rUipOp>{i sSop>;=<?><?>5m^kn<; jQ>ipO<`>5{ ;x<?spq=>knj=>5iW;x>j
;=<Uip9 7 <`>59 jQ>5r>iW;=q;=<?L?>| tes L sgzm^9?k7r?| j=s5>q=q  s } kp< HqQr>5ipJmL9?k`f | rUiWOq m^;x>q
tejQsn >t;
;xsj=m^kn<;
gzm^;=<;=<?>5m^j | sp;Q;xsni sp9?k;x<?> m^9?>~spt<?>5m^kn<; H } 9;=m ;x<`>5j=>lmLq
9`ssnj=>
jQsdsn <?>59rUiWOqEmw;x>qtej=snjQmLkn<;;=s >0t;Eip9`{ tej=sn;=snr;xs | sp;Q;xsnR5i L >5{j=>op>5jQq=>0 >0on>
} >9ip;=q]m ;b E;xsn<?9?>>~;xspspt;xi ;x<?>gzmL{d;=;xs <m^Oq <?>iGq; q= sn>ipq]>; mw;x> <?> >9sg ;x<?>j=<?>0>~on>5{?jQjQq=sn>brA >0{?ons> gz 97mLqym^qh{?q=jQspsnr?r>>5<?{sg{?sj=gz>5r9 >iG} ;x9J>5;={m iW9?iG{ ;
g% >yj=>te>j
;x<?>yj=>5ip{?>jz;=s} ,tesnj
spj=>{?>0| ;Oip m q 
m^r?r?>j=sdsnmLiWr ;= >0mLsnd9Amw;:j=iWE;xGm^s?


RF (I) 2 OP T (I)
S
 ;=;=>5>5m^m^99 | >5>5jQjQk?k?qq i i knknsnsnjQjQm^m^;=;x<?<`
iW9 } r`r>j | s } 9?{"spt;x<`>
<?>mLkn<| ; j=>5 m^j=>{;=sf,rU{?ip>O9?sp;=i >5{;xip<`q >7Mm^;x>m^9q;=q <?>O<r?ip;=r<U>iWj5;af.mw>5;qQ;=mLmLq r?iWj=;xs>onq >{
;x<UiW; ;x<?>Am^9?r ;m^;x>q
5ip9 | >HrUipOW>5}{m^9;xsijQ>50;Oip9?k L >7sptgzmL{`;=< W} ip9?{<?>5m^kn<; H <?>;=<?>59{?>0vU9?} >q=>op>59
r?jQsd>5{ } j=>5qgzm^;x<qQ>on>9&sn9?{?mw;xmLsp9?qObf>ipO<;xs{?mwomL{?>zir?jQs |? >m^9J;=s~;:ghslq=i ^ >5j.sn9?>q%iW9?{
qQs op>y;=<?>5j=>5 } j=qQm^op> 8C;<UiWq | >5>9qQ<?sgh>{;x<UiG;ip9A;xj=ip;xi |? >r`j=s |? >5q=iW;xm^qQvU>qzsn9?>yspt
;=<?>yq=>op>595sn9?{`m^;xm^sn9?q
m^r?r?>j=sdsnmLiWr ;= >0mLsnd9Amw;:j=iWE;xGm^s?
M (I) 2 OP T (I)

` W
 r m^{?;]m^o mLmw{`;>5i q knmw;xsn>5jQm^;=qh<?
m^9;xs ;:g%saknj=s r?q5f gzmw;x<Agzm^{`;x<Akpj=>iG;x>5j%;x<Uip9 ip9`{ iG;snqQ;
mw`;x >5qzspt L ipjQ>lvUjQqQ;rUipOp>{ | }  L~ <?>9;x<?>0iWj=>ipj=j=ip9?kn>{q=s;x<ULiW;i ^ mw;x>q
Egzm^;=L<
gzm^{`;x<spj=>y;x<Uip9 ipjQ> | > sg;x<?spq=>ygzm^;x<gzmL{`;=<iG;snqQ; <`mLq5j=>5iW;x>q~ij=>;OiW9?k > R
sptzqQrUip>&gzm^;=<gzmL{`;=< >5ipmL9`mL9?km^;=>5q m^9 L ipj=>;x<?>9rUipOp>{;xs R ip9`{;x<?>&q=rUip>

1 1
3 2

1
2

1 1
4 3

1 1
5 4

1
5

1
1
i+1 i

1
5

5
4

5
4

53
8

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

2
3

1
3

2
3

1
2

i | s on>;=<?snqQ>~rUipOW>5{gzm^;x< L } q=mL9`k  ~ d <`> >op> qh5jQ>iW;=>5{mL9 R ipj=>5sn9?qQmL{`>5j=>{7;xs | >


;x<`snq=>y5jQ>iW;=>5{i | sop>y;=<?>yrUipOJmL9`kspt L
| > m^ sSg
r?r?>j=sdsnmLiWr ;= >0mLsnd9Amw;:j=iWE;xGm^s?
;x<`>iWqQrd;xsp;=mL | s } 9?{spt mLq;xm^kn<;lG
SF (I) OP T (I) + 2

d >iW;=snj5qzi knsnj=mw;x<? n
sn9?q=m^qQ;=qsWttes } jaqQ;x>r?q5" i L m^;x>q sptgzm^{`;x<knjQ>iW;=>5ja;x<?ip9 ipjQ>
rUdiW>OiWp;=>5>5{jqsn9i ;=knsnsnrjQm^sp;x<`tu
sp9?>aip9?sW;x<?>jmL9;x<?> sp;Q;xsnsptE;=<?>qQ;=j=m^r r`rsnqQ> mLq;x<?><`>5mLkp<J;spt
;=<?>zj=>5q }? ;=mL9?kyrUiWOm^9?k L q }?| qQ>5 } >59;
r?| ipOJmL9?kygzm ^ s5 } jhi | ysdon} > h h >&ipm^9?mL9`km^;x>q
ipjQ>snj={?>j=>{ | 9?sn9dCmL9?j=>5ipq=m^9?k<?>5m^kn<;  >op> sptmw;x>qyipjQ>rUipOp>{Rm^99?sn9dCmL9?j=>iWq=mL9`k
<?>mLkn<;snj={?>jO
tej=sn >t;;xsAjQmLkn<;i sn9`k;x<`> m^9?>lsptE<?>mLkn<; h op>5jQ;=mL5i . mL9?>lmLqz;x<`>59
{?j=igz9mL9;x<?>m^{?{ >~;=s& } ;;=<?> q];xj=m^rm^9J;=s;:g%sA>5 } i <Ui on>qae9?sp;x>l;x<?m^q mL9?>yi } ;~ip9
mw;x>5;=<UiW;mLqrUipOp>{rUipjQ;=mi ^ &mL9;=<?> jQmLkn<;<Ui tO jxig;:ghs&<?snj=m^5sn9;xi mL9`>qQ>5kn>59;xqspt
jQ>5mLkn9?<kp;;=<<Ui sn9`tz>&R<Ui i >tf{sn;=9`<?>A>ipjQmLknj=<snqQ; q;xip<`q=> > m^ 9?>0t>; z<?ipi q tlsegi ip^q>{rsn;=q=<?qQ>m >>t; q | Oip<q=> ;x <?m^9?iW;>y;=<?ip>9?{;:g%sps 9?>Am^9?ip>5qj=sn{?qQsAq 9?;x<`sW>;
j=snqQqaip9mw;x> L lh<?ssnq=>| ;x<?> >t;snj jQmLkn<; | ipqQ> m^9?|?> gz} <`mLO<m^q spti sgh>j <?>mLkn<;aiW9?{
rUiWO7i >0on> sptmw;x>q%mL9;xs;=<?>5snjQj=>q=rsn9?{?m^9?k<Ui tsWt.;=<?>qQ;=j=mLr } 9J;=m ;=<?>9?>bd;zmw;x>mLq%;xss
gzm^{?> E 9?>g | ipqQ> mL9?>mLqutesnj=>5{7iW9?{ ;=>5r mLqj=>r>5iW;x>{7sn9A;x<`> sg%>5j | ipq=> m^9?> } 9;=m i L
mw;x>5q
ipjQ>yrUipOp>{
m^<?>l>ipr`snr?j=sr d mL>0diWmw;:;xm^sn 97O(n
log n)
x
j
G
i
x
;
L
m
sasWt d >iW;=snj5qzi knsnj=mw;x<?m^q 2.5 gz<`mLO<mLq;xm^kn<;l p

-54 /1l23-476
8:9;x<?>"@CBuDSFHJI^KMxN?P=IeDSNTWVycGILNY,TJ[]\JILNd_YXbDdcWVeMOKfg%>iWj=>knm^op>59ip9 } 9 m^mw;x>{9 } | >5jsptv?9?m^;=>
mL{`>59;xm^i j=>50;Oip9`k iWjcWILN?Pf,>ipO<<UiomL9?k7gzm^{`;x< ip9?{<?>5m^kn<; fip9?{i7q=>0;lspt XbM5[@CTWN`_UpVTWX
IC@:MOKPgzm^;=<BEIRH@R }?w W ip9?{MOI^_n@ h ftesnj 1W j n <?H>ar?jQs |? >5m^q;xs7r?nipOfgzm^;x<`s } ;
son>j iWrfi L ;x<?>ymw;x>5q
mL9;=s;=<?>mL9?m^ } 9 } | >jzspt | mL9?q E <?>ym^;x>q
5ip9?9?sW; | >j=sW;OiW;=>5{
snq];sptE;x<`>sp m^9?>li kpsnj=mw;x<?m^9;x<`> mw;x>5j=iW; } j=>ipj=>sptuknj=>>5{`;:r>Wf,ip9?{5ip9 | > ipq=qQm^vU>{
mL9;=s;:g%stRipm m^>5q5
DNMhYTWPbMTGV^_`DSXQIC@R?KP%{?mLjQ>50; &rUipO&;=<?>ym^;=>5q
mL9;xsa;x<`>yv?9?m^;=> | mL9?q

@CBEDYTGP0MTWVw_`DSXQIC@`KP
q];Oipj]; rUiWOm^9?k&;=<?>m^;=>5qm^9;xsAiq=mL9`k >qQ;xjQmLrfm > fi mL9<Uiodm^9?k

gzm^{`;x< W ip9?{ m^9`vU9?mw;x><?>5m^kn<; | 8:9 ;x<`>hq=>5sn9`{r?<UipqQ>pfp;=<?>hq];xjQmLr qQs L} ;xmLsp9m^q } q=>5 {;=s| sn9?qQ;=j } 0;
iarUipOJm^9?km^9;xsavU9?mw;x> | m^9?q
Q S~  u
d 
qQ;=<?j=m^>lrter?s ipL OsSJgzmL9?m^9?k k;:g%sAr?rr?sn<Uq=ip> qQ> i knsnjQm^;=<?iWq
j=>
;xip<?W>z> <?} >qQmL>kn<sW;=tEqq=sWsnt;=> <?> >jQop>5> q :sn;=jQmLmL9?>59k ;=>5>{on> i qu knspsptj=m^;x;=<?<?>qQqh;=j=;xm^srsr?| ip;xOipJmLmL99?k i
Ed} mL9?kqQs H ;=,mLHsn9, mLq ;=<?>59s ;Oipm^9?>5{ qQs om^9?k}?i
sn9`>0 :{`mL >59?qQmLsn9Ui mL9rUipOJm^9?k
r?jQs vU9`>m^;x > |gzmL9m^;x<r?ipmw;xO>5J
L

}
|
|

|
=
q
^
m
5

>
W
i
?
9
{
L
m

9


W
i
U
r
p
i
5

w
m
:
;

H
H
|?
|
z | j=mL{ m^j=q];Q m^;yR  ~
8:9;=<?>&vUjQqQ;ar`<Uipq=>WfuiqQ;=j=m^rrUipOJmL9`kmLqs | ;OiWmL9?>{ | ;=<?>  ~i knsnjQm^;x<` <?>AqQ>5sn9?{
r?<?ipq=>ip{?snrd;xqy;x<?> mLjQqQ;] mw;>5j=>5ipq=m^9?k  yi knsnj=mw;x<?fgz<`mLO<r?ipOJqip9m^;=>5;=s;x<`>
vUjQqQ; | m^9;=<UiW;zmw;
v?;xqzsnj
q];Oipj];i9?>0g | m^9sp;x<?>jQgzm^q=>
1

3
2

3
2

1
2

<?^m > >ipr`snr?j=sr d mL>0dmwiW;:;xm^sn 9O(n


log n)
>5q]; sgh>j s 9`{sWtj= iW;xm^s7spt%9`sSgz9 mLqm^q <?> | s } 9?{mLq9?sp;yr?jQsSop>5{;xs | >;xmLkp<J;5;x<`>
| | }


z | j=mL{ >0;Q m^;R ~


;x>{m^9;x<?>7vUjQqQ;r?<UipqQ> 8:9;x<?>q=>5sn9`{r?<UiWq=>pf;x<?>sn9`>0:{`mL>59?qQmLsn9Ui h| m^9
rUiW O~m^ 9?kAmLqr?jQips {`sn>5r`
mLqq=s on>5{ | ;x<`> >bd;] mw;~>55jQ>ipqQmL9?k ~i knsnj=mw;x<?f?gz<?m^O<rUipOJq
?
|

ip9mw;x>5;xs;x<?>y } j=jQ>59; | mL9m^t.m^;hv?;xqfUsnjzqQ;OiWjQ;ia9?>g | mL9sp;=<?>5j]gzmLq=>


log n)
m^<?>l>ipr`snr?j=sr d mL>0diWmw;:;xm^sn 97O(n
x
j
G
i
x
;
L
m
sasWt mLq 3.382

z | j=mL{ >qQ;] mw; h ~


8:9;x<?>vUj=q];&r?<?ipq=>Wf ~qQ;xj=iW;x>kpmLqip{?spr`;x>{ <?>qQ>5sn9?{r?<UiWq=>iW{?snr`;=q;=<?> >qQ;]
qQ&mw;yi >>qQ5;
j=>5qQiprUq=ipm^59?> k> t;b%;=<UiW;zi mwkn;
snv?jQm^;x;xqz<`snj
fq]gz;Oip<?j]mL;O<"iarU9?ip>0gOJqm^ip99"spmw;x;x<?>>jQgz;xm^s7q=> ;=<?> | >5q]; | mL9Rsp9?>agzm^;x<;x<`>
|

m ^^> snr >0dmw;: EG


r?r?j=sdmLiW;=mLsn9Aj=iW;xm^s?uS
sdspj]]h>m mL9?k&

i kpsnj=mw;x<? f
hsn9`q=mL{`>5jir?ipjQ;=mL ipj >op> f?;x<?>y<?snjQmLsn9;Oi mL9?>{`>vU9?>{ 7;x<`>y;=snr"RjQ>5q=r sp;Q;xsn&%>5{`kn>
spt.;x<?>y;Oi L >qQ;zmw;x>5 }` m^qzi ^ >5{7 ;=<?>[MOILV^ILN`_ej=>q=r  DDSXOspt.;x|<?> >0on> 8:9;x<?>lvUj=| q];r?<?ipq=>Wf
rUiWOqip9mw;x>5mL9;=si >op> >m^;=<?>5jtejQsn >t;;=saj=m^kn<;gzm^;=<A;x<?>mLj | sp;=;=sn>5{?kn>ysn9A;=<?> >0on>
 ssnj.snjtej=sp jQmLkn<;;=s >t;5fWgzmw;x<;x<`>5mLj.;xsnra>{?kn>
sn9;=<?> >0on> 5>m m^9?k <?>
vUjQqQ;Emw;x>5rUipOW>5{
sn9i&5>m m^9?k } q]; | >sn9?>lgz<?mLO<5ip9?9?sW; | >rUipOW>5{sn9;=<?>  ssnjmL9;x<?>q=ip> >0on> <?>
snjQ{?>5jusptr?j=>0te>5jQ>59?>gz<?>9 rUiWOqhip9m^;x>m^9;=<?>
vUj=q];hr?<?ipq=>WzRmsn9&iy5>m mL9?ker?j=somL{?>{
;=<UiW;;x<?>lj=> } mLj=>>9;~i | s on>mLqqxiW;=mLqQv?>5{bf } qQmL9?k | >5qQ;]Cv?;a zi knsnjQm^;=<? R mLmhsn9i  ssnj5f
9?>g >0on>
}8:9qQmL9?;x<`k >7q= >5i sn 9?kn{snjQr?m^;x<U<`ip qQ>p fuRm^;xmL<?mE> sn9>op;x> <?q> ipj=s>7snj
rUspiWtOpia>5{
mL9;=svU9?m^;=> mL9`q5fu>5mw;x<?>j snj ip9
>b?iW;li knsnj=mw;x<?tespj;x<?> sn9? >0C{?mL >59`q=mLsp9Ui | mL9r?ipOJmL9?kr?jQ| s |? >f<Ui ;x>5| {iWt;x >jiAr?j=|>0v`d>5{
9 } | >5jzspt.m^;=>5j=iW;xm^sn9?q
m^>5snr >0dm^;: <?>Am^r >5>59;xiW;xm^sn9spt
;x<?>vUj=q];ar?<UiWq=>Aknmwon>9mL9 %j=> mLjQ>5q
)
;= mL>pfdgz<`m >~ ;=<?>y5sn r >0dm^;:sp t;=<?>yq=>5sn9?{sn9?>y{?>r>9?{?qsn9;x<?>yq=> >;x>{i knsnjQ} m^;=<? O(n

r?r?j=sdmLiW;=mLsn9Aj=iW;xm^s?uS
17
8
91
45

S~

^m 9?m^;=> >b;Q m^;l  ~


m^ >{?mLsnjQ>5r ; &>0drUmw;:ipO Jq;=<?>ym^;=>5qmL9;xsavU9`m^;x> | mL9?qzmL9A;=<?>yqxip>giipqz h
r?r?j=sdmLiW;= mLsn9Aj=iW;xO(n
log n)
^
m
?
s
u

m^9?m^;=> m^j=qQ;] mw;  ~


ip{`snr`;xqmL9?q];x>5ip{;=<?> ~q];xj=iW;x>kp 9m^;x> mLqrUipOW>5{sn9;=<?> sgh>qQ; >op> spt;x<`>
vUjQqQ; | mL9gz<`>5j=>mw;%v`;xq m^t,9`s >0on> ip9iW55sp sd{?iW;x>zm^;5f`i9?>g >0on> mLq5 jQ>iW;=>5{7 m^9&;x <?>vUj=q];
| m^m^9<U>iodsnm^9?kr q >0} dmw;:mL>59;on>jQ;xm^i q=rUip>pfsp;=<?>5j]gzmLq=>Wf?;x<?>y9?>0g >0on> mLq
5jQ>iW;=>5{mL9ia9?>g | mL9
r?r?j=sdmLiW;= mLsn9Aj=iW;xO(n
log n)
^
m
?
s
u

^m 9?m^;=> sp;Q;xsna >t;  ~


{?s>5q79`sp;7rUipO;x<?>mw;x>q | >op> q >5jQp>0ip9?{ ip9?k ~r?jQsnrsnq=>{;=<?>
ipr` r?
j=siWO<tesnj;=<?>avU9?m^;=> mL9iWq=> <?>5m^j mL9?mw;x> sW;=;xsp:>0t; ~i knspj=m^;=<?mL9?mw;xmi
qQsnjQ;=q;x<?>
mw;x>5q | a9?sp9d:m^9?| 5jQ>ipqQmL9?kgz m^{`;x< <?>z9?>b d;umw;x>mLqrUipOp>{&m^9 ;x<? > sSg%>5q];urspq=m^;=mLLsn 9
sptip97>b`m^qQ;=mL9?k | m^9f >0t; Q} qQ;=m^vU>{ m^t9?s | m^9ip9i L sd5iW;x>m^;5fUia9?>gsp9?>ymLq
qQ;xipjQ;=>5{
m^>5snr >0dm^;: sW;x<h<UiW5> > ,ip9?{ >5jQp>Aip9?{ ip9?kA <Uion>r`j=somL{?>{7ip9 O(n )
m^ r >5>59;OiG ;xmLsp9&spt ;x<?>li knsnjQm^;x<`^
r?r?j=sdmLiW;=mLsn9Aj=iW;xm^s?uS
>0; sp;=;=sna >0t;y
m ipj;xs  >0d5>r`;;=<UiW;aiG;aip9;xmL>sn9 sp9?> | m^9mLqsnr>59?>{tesnj r?ipOJmL9?k
 9?>mLipq 9qQm^mL;=>5
5ip9?9?sp; | >r?ipOp>{i | m^9f;x<?> | m^9m^q snqQ>5{&ip9?{gzm L 9`sp; | > } q=>{&tesnjEt } j];x<?>j
rUiWOm^9?k
z ;x>j=9UiG;x>ym^j=>50;xm^sn9?ql
,s{?mJ>;Ei r?jQsnrsnq=>{ai{?mw>j=>9J;9?sn9d >0on> ipr?r`j=sipO<fpi L >{i ;x>j=9UiW;=>%{`mLj=>;=mLsn9?q%
vUjQqQ;%snr>9 L | mL9?q L | >mL9?kli sgh>j | s } 9`{sn9;x<`>snrd;xmLi 9 } | >jsWt | m^9?q
jQ>5<? >mLi jQ >5kn{sn j=mw;x<?
vUjQqQ;rUipOJq;=s;=<?> sW;=;xspspt;=<?>5qQ> mL9?qiq qQ>;sptmw;x>5q qQmL9?k
< ?>y} jQ>5iphmL9? m^9?k mw;x>q
iWj=>rUipOW>5{fU| sp9?> | mL9iW;
ia;=mLL>pf| mL9;xs | ip9?}?{?| qfi ;=>5j=9?iW;xmwon> } tej=sn >t;
;=sjQmLkn<;ziW9?{tejQsnjQmLkn<;;=s >t;  <?>599?sm^;=>5ip9 | >r?ipOp>{mL9>m^;x<`>5j
{?m^j=>50;xm^sn97mL97;x<`>
} j=jQ>59; | mL9f`;=<?>y9?>0;>0dm^qQ;xm^9?k | mL9snjzia9?>0g>5r`;: | mL9 | >5sn>5q
;=<?>y } jQj=>59;sn9?>
m^r?r?>j=sdsnmLiWr ;= >0mLsnd9Amw;:j=iW ;xO(n
)
^
m
?
s
u

 +  42  
n ipp>j5f "!`W j=sgz9fiW9?{a $#.&% iW;xqQ> d ( ' i knspj=m^;=<?tespj.;:g%sW:{?m^>9?q=m^sn9Ui r?ipOJmL9?k
)+*,-/.0213* 4561879*-/:<;<=9>@?0f B A f n`
!` d >j=p>0AiW9?{ #D C sn9?k , g%s{?mL>59`q=mLsp9Ui vU9?mw;x> | m^9&rUipOJm^9?ki knsnjQm^;x<`q )+*,-/.021E* 4
FHG+I -J02;K:L*.021M I ? I 02-ONP=RQE*SNT: I ;VUGf pB A W f n
h<Uip5> L > <?> | sp;=;=sn >0t; | mL9ArUiWOm^9?k<?> } j=m^qQ;=mLp 97>mL>59;
m^r >5>59;xiW;xm^sn9 XWOYZYY
[ -J02.\?]09NT;V:L*.\?@*.^_*> G ,9; I -O?0f n A f nn
h$ %a y h< } 9?k`f yp ipjQ>pfip9?{ ( ! sn<?9?qQsn9 9rUipOJm^9?k~;:ghsG:{?m^>9?q=m^sn9Ui J| m^9?q Q W 5`
)\ab56187 I]c -J02:LNde:f?SNT- I ; I ` I ;<=+*]g?0f n A df nn
!`z j=>59`ip9?{ aZa
i ip | snq z | j=mL{9?>b;QCv`;i knspj=m^;=<? tesnj&;=<?>;:ghsG:{?m^>9?q=m^sn9Ui
j=>;xip9?k > | mL9dCrUipOJmL9?kar`j=s |? >5 ^_*> G ,9;K:<.97pf p W`T A`d f p
Wi h Za hsWip9 ! jf yE ipjQ>nf Z ! sn<?9?qQsn9fuip9`{ l h . ipj iW9 j
>jQtesnjQ&iW9?5> | s } 9`{?q

#
tesnj >op> :snjQmL>59;=>5{;:g%sW:{`mL>59?qQmLsn9Ui r?ipOJmL9?ki knsnjQm^;x<`q Q W 5` )k*,9-/.021 *.l^_*> G ,9;K:<.97pf
nnB A `f nn
,s{?mf  ipj];x> L s`fWiW9?{ S m mLkns J >5m^kn< | snjQ<?ssd{yq=>5ipj=O<i knspj=m^;=<?tesnj,;x<?>k } m L sW;xmL9`>9?sn9
snjQmL>59;=>5{a;:ghsG:{?m^>9?q=m^sn9Ui | mL9rUiWOm^9?kr?jQs |? > 8:9 &m snq=qf  ipj];x> L s`fp8 q=ip9fJiW9?{
 s } 5ipmLjQs fS>5{`m^;xspj=q59f ` I ;L02nLo I ,9-/:f?T;K:LNP?]pZ5qg2r02.sN I ?q02.gt[ - I .g?u:<.wvx*SNy0219Q I 02-ONP={zu02-J0|g2:}72>@?
4~*-* G ;K:<>:}S02;V:L*.Uf?rUiWkn>5q Sn~ An \%L} gh>j ip{`>5mL #E}?|? m^q=<?>j=qf snqQ;=sn9f nn
2

,s{?mf  ipj];x> L s`f%iW9?{ m mLkns r?r?jQs`m^&iG;xmLsp9i knspj=m^;=<?q tesnj;x<`>snjQmL>9J;=>5{;:ghsG


{?m^>9?q=m^sn9Ui n| mL9yrUipOJmL9`kr?jQs |? > )+*,-/.021 * 4 FHG+I -y02;V:L*.0212M I ? I 02-ONP=eQE*SNT: I ;KUGf pS SpBA n`f
np
,s{?mf  ipjQ;=> L s?fip9`{& | m mLkns > } j=m^qQ;=mLzip9?{>0;Oip<`> } jQmLqQ;=mLzipr`r?j=siWO<?>5qutesnjuiy iWq=quspt
;:g%sW:{?m^>9?q=m^sn9Ui | m^97rUipOJmL9?kar`j=s |? >5q WPq F M `Q)+*,9-T.021x*.^_*> G ,9;K:<.97pf n SAdn f
np
y8 , O<?mL>j=>n>j >op>5jQq=>0v?; :snr`;=mLi i knsnj=mw;x<?tesnjr?ipOJmL9?kAjQ>50;Oip9?k >5q 8:9z_-O*SN IPI g2n
:<.97?* 4w;= I Q I NP*.g Y ,-O* G+I 02.QkU> G *S?T:<,>*.561879*-/:<;<=9>@?0f.rUiWkn>5q pnB A`Wn f.;xjQ>5O<;f <?>
>0;x<?>j ip9?{?qf } k } q]; n
n l d >iW;=snj ? ;=mL>5qspr`;xm^&i i knsnj=mw;x<?tespjrUipOJmL9`kmL9;:g%sl{`mL>59?qQmLsn9?q  W .~4~*-/>w02;V:L*.
z_-O*SN I ?P?T:<.97v I ;K; I -O?0f 0 A f np
S E ;x>mL9 | >j=k  q];xj=m^rd:r?ipOJmL9?ki knsnjQm^;=<?gzm^;=<i | q=s L} ;=>Ar>jQtesnjQ&iW9?5> | s } 9`{ 2 Q W 56`
)+*,-/.0213*.^_*> G ,9;K:<.97pf `T A n f n

You might also like