T01 PDF

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http://www.sarasuati.com
Tema1:
Evolucindela
didcticadelas
lenguas.Tendencias
actualesdela
didcticadelIngls
comoLgextr.Los
enfoques
comunicativos.
MadhatterWylder
19/06/2010
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TOPIC 1:
Evolucin de la didctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didctica del Ingls como Lg extr. Los enfoques comunicativos.
TOPIC 1:
Evolucin de la didctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didctica del

ingls como lengua extranjera. Los enfoques comunicativos.
Table of contents
1. Introduction. _______________________________________________________ 3
2. Focus on Message (Part 1) ____________________________________________ 5

3. Focus on Form______________________________________________________ 5
3.1. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) -1840 to 1940- ____________________ 5
3.1.1. Drawbacks and Virtues. _____________________________________________________ 5
3.2. The direct Method (DM) -1860 to 1940- ____________________________________ 6
3.2.1. Drawbacks & virtues _______________________________________________________ 7

3.2.2. Berlitz School. ____________________________________________________________ 7
3.3. The audio-lingual Method (ALM)-1940 to 1970- ____________________________ 8
3.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues. ______________________________________________________ 9
4. Focus on message (part 2) ____________________________________________ 10
4.1. The Psycho-pedagogical approach. -1970s- ________________________________ 10
4.1.1. Community Language learning (CLL) -1970s- __________________________________ 10

4.1.2. Suggestopedia (Sug) late 1970s- ____________________________________________ 11
4.2. The communicative approach (CA) early 1970s to 2000s- ___________________ 12
4.2.1. Drawbacks and virtues. _____________________________________________________ 13

4.2.2. Task based learning (TBL) late 1980s to 2000s - _______________________________ 13
4.2.3. Co-operative learning (CL) -1990s to 2000s- ___________________________________ 16
4.3. The Natural approach (NA) -1980s to 2000s- ______________________________ 17
4.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues _____________________________________________________ 19
5. Educational technology (CALL) 1950s to ?- ____________________________ 19

5.1. Three Phases of CALL _________________________________________________ 19
5.1.1. Behaviouristic CALL ______________________________________________________ 20

5.1.2. Communicative CALL _____________________________________________________ 21
5.1.3. Steps toward Integrative CALL: Multimedia ____________________________________ 21
5.2. Steps toward Integrative CALL: The Internet _____________________________ 23
6. Brief summary: ____________________________________________________ 24

Appendix 1 __________________________________________________________ 26
Appendix2___________________________________________________________ 28
Appendix 3 __________________________________________________________ 33
TL: Target Lg
FL: Foreign Lg
ALM: Audio-lingual Method
Sug: Suggestopedia
CL: Co-operative learning
Symbols used:
MT: Mother Tongue

DM: Direct Method
SL: 2nd Lg
NA: Natural approach
CLL: Community Lg learning

GTM: Grammar translation Method
CA: Communicative approach
TBL: Task based learning
St(s): Student(s)
Ivn Matellanes Notes
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TOPIC 1:
1. Introduction.
Its very well known that Lg is a purely a human activity, as it was stated
by Jean Aitchkinson in her work The articulated mammal. David S. Palermo
added that an act of verbal communication is only possible between humans
who transfer their ideas from the mind of the speaker to the mind of the
listener. But, what is the purpose of learning languages? They have always
been the means of communication among peoples of different cultures. This is
probably the main reason why the study of different languages has been of
great importance from the very first stages of human race.
There are more than 3000 languages in the world, since the 17th C, all
the efforts to create an artificial & universal language have failed. The problem
is that we dont know how languages are acquired, and there is no
We dont know how

Lgs are acquired.
correct model to explain that. The psycholinguistic field is gaining importance in

the study of Lg learning, but there are also good pieces of advice from
experienced teachers. One good example can be one from Mary Finochiaro,
who stated that there are no universal & magic solutions, but just diff methods
that will or wont work w/our students, in our schools & in our environments.
Each pupil and each classroom, she added, is a world in itself.
Lets travel back now to have a look at the teaching methods used
through history and how they developed. As hinted before, Lgs have been
studied from the most ancient times:
-
The Egyptian & Babylonian used to send bilingual representatives for

commercial pacts among different foreign countries. In fact, there were
Egyptian &
Babylonian
more than 350 documents that proved the existence of a bureau for
foreign affairs, in the kingdom of Amenopolis III.
The Greek did not pay much attention to the learning of Lgs, as they
Greek
thought that there was nothing worth reading abroad.
However, the Romans learnt Greek through their teachers-slaves, in
order to be able to read Aristotle and Platos works. Their learning was
probably based on the classical order: lectio, disputatio, (Texts were

read and then discussed).
Romans: Classical
rhetorical order.
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TOPIC 1:
Later on, the first Christian missionaries had to learn the Lgs of the
people they were trying to convert. All through the Middle Ages, the only
Christian
missionaries
Lgs considered worth learning were Latin & Greek, which were studied
by mainly by monks.
During the Middle Ages Latin was the most important second Language
(SL). It was the dominant Lg of education, government & commerce. It
Middle Ages: Latin

as lingua Franca.
was taught in the monastic schools through rote (=rutinario) learning of
grammar rules (declension) and translations.
The greatest milestone (=echo memorable) in FL Learning was the
discovery of America, where the Direct Method was used for the first
Discovery of USA:
1st time used DM
time. Six Indians were taken by Columbus to Spain in order to learn

Spanish separately & totally deprived from their mother tongue (MT).
In the Renaissance, the vernacular Lgs displaced Latin, even though it

maintained certain importance. Latin grammar & rhetoric became the
model for FL study. Latin was studied as a mental gymnastic & was the
Discovery of USA:
vernacular Lgs
gained certain
importance.
basis of all forms of higher education.
Not until the 18th C that other Lgs entered the curriculum of European
schools1. These Lgs were taught according to traditional methodology:
th
18 C: SL entered
the curriculum of
European schools
Firstly, the teaching procedures were based on Latin learning tradition.

Secondly, the textbooks were mainly a collection of abstract grammar
rules, list of vocabulary and sentence for translation. Finally, the oral
practice was limited to reading aloud written texts.
During this century, and particularly since World War II (WWII), the
teaching of SLs has undergone numerous changes, some profound,
other just cosmetic. To quote H.H. Stern: Lg teaching theory has a
short memory. () we have tended to ignore the past and to reenact old battles over & over again. The fact that some old
methods are still with us and certain newer ones consist mostly of
recycled ideas justifies an historical approach to the problem.
In 1779, at the collage of William & Mary (Virginia), the study of French substituted that of
Hebrew.
Lg teaching theory
has a short memory.
() we have tended
to ignore the past
and to re-enact old
battles over & over
again
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TOPIC 1:
2. Focus on Message (Part 1)
Before the 18th C, the most common means of acquiring a non-classical
SL was by contact with native speakers of that Lg through travel, trade,
war or hiring a foreign tutor. The need for efficient communication
was sufficient to ensure learning, and systematic study was left to the
Efficient
communication
was sufficient to
ensure learning
writers and grammarians of the time. It is interesting to note that current

methodology favors a return to this approach in SL classes.
FORM
3. Focus on Form
3.1. The Grammar-Translation Method2 (GTM) -1840 to 1940-3
Although non-classical Lgs eventually took over Lain in nearly all
1.GTM: teaching
SL through Latin
based grammar.
aspects of communication in the Western Europe (religion being the most

notable exception), they still, in the 18th C, lack prestige and respectability
as an object of study. It was felt that teaching them through Latin based
grammar would enrich their status. After all, grammar had player an
essential part in the intellectual development of the elite ever since Antiquity.
The traditional method, as it is still applied today (mainly at the
university, in Classical studies), can be summarized as follows:
a) Study & application of grammar rules: deductive approach. Stress on
1. Grammar deductive
morphology.
b) Concentration on the written code through the study of the great
2. Emphasis written code
authors. The level of Lg taught is therefore mostly literary, with little

attention to speech. Lg is seen as a mainly access to Culture, not
communication.
c) Use of translation in vocabulary lists and exercises.
3. Translation of Voc list
d) Class often conducted in the students MT.
4. Class conducted in Sts

MT
3.1.1. Drawbacks and Virtues.
It is remarkable that this method became so popular and spread. It did
virtually nothing to enrich a students communicative ability in the Lg.

It was a tedious experience for the students, in which they have to memorize
2
3
Also known as the traditional method, or the Prussian Method (USA only)
See example of activity in Appendix1
BUT
- Nothing to enrich
sts communicative
ability.
- Memorization of voc
lists & grammar rules.
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TOPIC 1:
endless lists of unusable grammar rules & vocabulary in an attempt to produce

perfect translations. However, the virtues of the method, especially from the
instructors point of view, took over the drawbacks.
The virtues of the traditional method can be found foremost in its
intellectual appeal. It is satisfying to master unfamiliar rules & their
Virtues
- Intellectual appeal
application, as well as to have access to great works of FL. Also, from the point
of view of the instructor, this method is extremely easy to use. There is a
little need for the instructor to keep up to date with current Lg evolution (books
- Instructor point of view

(easy & objective)
are unalterable and grammar changes are not really often). Furthermore, there
is no need for equipment in an essentially written approach (books,
workbooks & blackboards are always available and simple to use). Finally, the
evaluation of the written work (fill-in-the-blanks and translation exercises)
is relatively easy and objective. So, in that time of general confusion as to
which methodology to adopt, many teacher got the most comfortable view of
Lg teaching, which after all has a long-standing tradition.
3.2. The direct Method (DM) -1860 to 1940-4
Although strong on literature and intellect, the GTM was challenged in
2.DM: prepare
students for real
conditions of FL use.
the late 19th C, mostly in France, for its inability to prepare students for
the real conditions of FL use, in a world of expanding industry, international

trade and travel. This movement coincided with the creation of the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) & let to the so called Direct Method. It
can be characterized as follows:
a) Classes conducted entirely in the SL. Vocabulary is thus taught
1. Class conducted in the SL
through context.
b) Focus on everyday spoken Lg and correct oral expressions. Emphasis
2. Focus on spoken Lg.
st
on phonetics. SL learning must be an imitation of 1 Lg Acquisition.
c) Establishment of direct associations btw words & objects, notions or
3. Voc taught through

demonstration
actions, through the practice of mime, Qs and answers. Thus,

vocabulary was taught through demonstration.
4. Grammar Inductive
d) Grammar taught through practice: Inductively.
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TOPIC 1:
3.2.1. Drawbacks & virtues
This revolutionary approach did not survive WWI, with the exception of
the Berlitz Method, which has been commercially successful up to this day, but
almost any method can succeed when clients are willing to pay high prices for
Virtues
- Focus on spoken Lg
- Use of SL in class.
- Active St participation
small classes, individual attention and intensive study. It does, however, remain
with us in some of its major aspects: the focus on spoken Lg, on the
constant use of the SL in class and on active learner participation.
It was widely accepted in private schools where students were
BUT
highly motivated and where native speaking teachers could be employed. On

the contrary, it did not take well in public education, where the constraints
- Failure in public
education.
of budget, classroom size, time and teacher background made such a method
diff to use. DM was also criticized by its weak theoretical foundations.
- Weak theories of Lg
Furthermore, the DM was not a single method as we now understand the
term. It was viewed more as an approach5 than a method. That is to say, it

lacked theoretical basis in linguistics. DM demanded a high involvement of
the teachers in the classes and they also found diff to transmit meaning
w/out using the MT.
3.2.2. Berlitz School.
One of the best known of DM popularizes was Charles Berlitz (who
labeled his method as the Berlitz Method). In 1878, Max Berlitz founded the
Berlitz School in Rhode Island, with the slogan: The eye is the enemy of
the ear. That is, if a pupil does not see the text, but s/he can only listens to it,
he will not associate the letters in his own Lg to those in the FL. It was the
most outstanding school which, gradually, began to recognize that the
students may be interested in speaking the Lg, rather than reading and
writing it. By 1914, he had nearly 200 schools around the world. He was not
academic methodologists, but an excellent systematizer of basic materials on
the DM line. Nowadays, they still have hundreds of Lg schools in every country
of the world.
Theoretical principles of Lg and learning.
- High involvement of
teachers.
- Diff to transmit meaning

w/out using MT.
BERLITZ School:
The eye is
the enemy of the ear
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TOPIC 1:
Teachers were all native speakers, must of them young and rarely
trained in linguistics. Their directions were very clear:

1. No translation under no circumstance.
1. No translation.
2. The use of the MT was forbidden in class
2. Use of MT forbidden.
3. Strong emphasis in oral work
3. Emphasis on oral
4. Avoidance of grammar explanations until late in the course
4. Avoid grammar explanations
5. Maximum use of Qs-Answer techniques.
5. Qs-Answer techniques
3.3. The audio-lingual Method (ALM)6-1940 to 1970-7
In the post-WWII, an attempt was made to build a new method with the
basis of the DM, avoiding its most obvious drawbacks (See 3.2.1.). Moved by a
desire to take advantage to the recent advances in the sciences related to the
3. ALM: Lg teaching
specialists adopted a
structural linguists and a
behavioral psychology
as a background of ALM
field of this their field, Lg teaching specialists adopted a structural linguists

and a behavioral psychology as a background of their work. They also
encouraged maximal use of technological devices, such as tape recorders,

Lg labs.
The initial spark (=chispa) for this new revolutionary method come from
the SL needs of the USA army & its very successful Army method8, based
on the structuralist linguistics. Impressed by its initial success and its underlying
scientific basis, teachers all over the world applied the new methodology in
an atmosphere of confidence and euphoria. The ALM can be summarized as

follows:
a) Procedures derived from Structural linguistics (Sapir & Bloomfield):
a. Lg is essentially an oral means of communication (oral
Structural Linguists:
1. Oral comprehension &
expression precede writing
comprehension & expression precede writing)
b. Lg is a sys of structures (words are introduced in phrases or
2. Emphasis on syntax
sentences; emphasis on syntax)
c. Lg is defined by the majority of its speakers (preference for

contemporary vocabulary and commonly used structures)
Also known as Audio-visual Method in Europe. It is used on the same general principles as its
counterpart, but uses visual aids and corresponding oral dialogues.
7
8
Need for USA soldiers to become orally proficient in the Lgs of both the hallis and their
enemies.
3. Preference
contemporary
vocabulary &
commonly used
structures
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TOPIC 1:
d. Lgs have their own structures (stress on the diff btw the MT
and the SL)
4. Stress on the diff btw

the MT and the SL
5. Grammar Inductively
e. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy.
b) Procedures derived from behaviorists psychology (Skinner):
Behaviorists psychology:
1. Lg is behavior
a. Lg is behavior (Structure practice in spoken SL)
b. Behavior can be conditioned by a process of stimulus,

response
and
reinforcement
(Lg
drills,
minimal
step
2. Process of stimulus,
response and reinforcement.
Successful responses are
immediately reinforced.
progression to avoid errors and thereby encourage students)
i. Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
c.
Lg learning is essentially a habit formation (memorization of
structures and dialogues through repetition and imitation, pattern
3. Lg learning is habit
formation. Avoid bad habits
(mistakes)
drills to ensure the automatic control of linguistic structures,

grammar taught through implicit analogy)
i. Mistakes should be avoided, as they create bad habits.
c) Use of Lg labs for collective drills practice and of tape recorders in class.
4. Use of Lg labs for

collective drills practice
3.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues.
Despite their promise, the ALM proved no better than their predecessors.
First, on theoretical grounds, their linguistic and psychological bases were
challenged by several researchers, particularly by Noam Chomsky. It is now
BUT
- Linguistic and
psychological bases were
challenged (N. Chomsky)
commonly accepted that Lg is first and foremost an innate, creative, meaningful

and conscious activity, and not a mechanical process of stimulus-response and
reinforcement, as assumed skinner. The boredom inherent in most lab pattern

drills amply illustrates this point. Secondly, ALM simply did not yield the
expected results. The slow step-by-step progression did not cover much
- ALM did not yield the

expected results.
material and students found themselves laboring through repetition and
memorization again and again over the same dull dialogues. Furthermore, the
condemnation of writing lead many students to frustrations: They could not
- Condemnation of writing
understand why writing was not offered to them as well as the oral skills.
Finally, the material covered and drilled proved to be less useful when
students had to use their SL for actual communication with Native
speakers of that Lg.
- Bad method for actual

communication.
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10
TOPIC 1:
4. Focus on message (part 2)
While some despaired, others looked for alternative ways of making SL
learning interesting and closer to reality. The methods of the 70s and 80s
MESSAGE
reflect this constant preoccupation. Major new trends have emerged and they
all had in common the belief that, after two centuries of focusing on
correct form, the time has come to focus on communication: It is
important for learners to get their message across first and to worry about
perfection later on.
4.1. The Psycho-pedagogical approach. -1970s-
This approach was directed towards the personalization of the
student-teacher contact and the creation of a pleasant learning
environment in the SL classroom. This trend is best represented by the
Community Lg learning (CLL) and Suggestopedia (Sug).
4.1.1. Community Language learning (CLL) -1970s-9
CLL is essentially a form of task-oriented therapy applied to the learning
of SL. It fosters (=fomentar) self-trust, low anxiety and warm personal

contacts as the main conditions for effective learning. The principal activity
1.CLL: self-trust
low anxiety
warm personal
contacts
main conditions for
effective learning
consists of:
a) Free conversations in the SL btw a small group of students (clients)

seated in a circle.
b) At first, students communicate through their teacher by speaking in

the MT & obtaining from him an immediate friendly translation.
1. Free conversations
in the SL btw a small
group of students.
2. At first, sts communicate

through their teacher.
c) Then, they move from an exchange of banalities dependent on the
presence of the interpreter, to a teacher-free (w/out the help of
3. Sts move to a teacher-free

meaningful conversation
the counselor) meaningful conversation in the SL with their peers.
d) The correction of errors is seen as an inhibiting factor.
This approach is very strong on motivation, because of its relaxing
atmosphere of human empathy and its student-chosen content, and it

may perfectly work with compassionate teachers. The rest of us, however, may
4. Correct errors is
an inhibiting factor
BUT
- Unstructured approach
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11
TOPIC 1:
find it hard to accept an unstructured approach, where empathy and

translation skills are the dominant features.
4.1.2. Suggestopedia (Sug) late 1970s- 10
Sug is highly structured and strongly teacher-centered. While empathy
plays an important role, it is reinforced by special attention to the physical
2.Sug: attention to
the physical aspects
of the learning
environment
aspects of the learning environment. Thus, the presence of flowers,

decorations, beautiful carpets and classical music is very common in
Suggestopedia classrooms. The principles and procedures can be described as

follows:
a) Learning can be accelerated by suggestive factors at the

unconscious level (suggestology).
b) Because of our negative social norms, we use a small fraction of our
learning capacities. Appropriate relaxation techniques can put the
1. Accelerate learning by
suggestive factors
2. Appropriate relaxation
techniques can improve
learning
rest to active use (Yoga, deep breathing exercises, )
c) The prestige and authority of the source of information (teacher) is a
3. Teacher is a source of
confidence, calm.
source of confidence, calm & enjoyment.
d) Extra-linguistic communication should not be overlooked (=pasar por alto).
4. Xtra-linguistic
communication is also imp.
e) Inhibition blocks learning.
5. Error correction
blocks learning.
a. Error correction is inhibitive.
f) Oral skill slightly more emphasized than reading and writing.
g) Procedure reminiscent of the DM, but more rigid, w/a presentation phase
(summary, ) and an acting phase (role-plays, games, ). Drilling is
avoided in favor of communication.
Sug was widely used in the 70s behind the iron curtain, particularly in its
native Bulgaria, but this is no longer the case. Superlearning11 was massively
introduced in the Canadian Public service Language classes in Ottawa, but just
as massively abandoned a few years later.
10
11

As it came to be known in USA
6. Oral skill more

emphasized.
7. Procedure reminiscent
of the DM.
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12
TOPIC 1:
4.2. The communicative approach (CA) early 1970s to 2000s-12
Initiated in the USA & Europe in the early seventies, the CA constitutes a
3. CA: Importance of
communication over
accuracy.
major challenge to establish practices in the field of SL pedagogy. It is
prominent in most European curriculums (English, French, and Spanish) in

elementary schools, although implementations leaves a lot to be desired. Its
main characteristics are:
a) Communication
involves
not
only
linguistic
skills,
but
also
communicative skills (use of Lg in its appropriate context).
The
1. Communication involves
also communicative skills.
Speech acts become imp.
notion of sentence is dealt with in the wider framework of speech
acts, which take into account the speakers intentions and the
context of his utterances.
b) The CA is called
a. Notional if the curriculum is organized around notions of time,
2. Notional, Functional &

situational CA. Study of
forms is secondary.
quantity,
b. Functional if focus is on functions such as accepting, refusing,

c. Situational if the situation is cntrl to learning (place, channel)
d. In all three cases, the study of forms is secondary. Students
may be early exposed to diff grammatical items because the

situation/notion/function under study calls for it.
c) Focus on learning and the learner, as opposed to teaching and the
3. Focus on learning &

the learner.
teacher. Teacher often becomes the resource person.
d) Focus
on
message
to
be
transmitted
(linguistic
form
is
supplemented by intonation, body Lg or anything else that helps

communication)
4. Focus on message to
be transmitted. Errors
are normal. Fluency +
imp than accuracy.
a. Errors are seen as a normal part of learning.

b. Fluency has more importance than accuracy.
e) Use of authentic materials whenever possible to sustain interest.
5. Use of authentic material.
f) Rejection of pattern drills as too mechanical and uninteresting.
6. Rejection of drills
g) Focus on communicative strategies: How to get the native speaker

to slow down, to repeat,
12
See example of activity in Appendix2 and a comparison btw ALM & CA in Appendix3
7. Focus on communicative
strategies.
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13
TOPIC 1:
4.2.1. Drawbacks and virtues.
As can be seen, the CA attempts to prepare students for real
communication. Ideally, students are only learning what they need or what
BUT
they want to know, in the most realistic way possible and through interesting
materials and experiences. In practice, however, teachers and students alike
are often frustrated by a lack of grammatical and lexical progression.
The CA has also been criticized for its attention to socio-linguistic detail at
the expense of basic structures. Finally, this approach requires far more
- Teachers and sts are

frustrated by a lack of
grammatical and lexical
progression.
- Too much attention to
socio-linguistic details.
competence and flexibility from teachers than previous methodologies:
knowledge of available resources, a higher level of competence in the SL,
awareness of the students needs, the ability to teach sub-groups
- Far more competence

and flexibility from
teachers
simultaneously and to improvise on student-centered interests.
4.2.2. Task based learning (TBL) late 1980s to 2000s -13
In recent years increasing numbers of teachers, in all subjects, have
been looking for ways to change the traditional forms of instruction in which
knowledge is transmitted, in a one-way process, from a dominant teacher to a
class of silent, obedient, passive learners. They have sought ways to make
the classroom more student-centred and have investigated the different
ways in which students can play more active roles in discovering and processing
knowledge.
This desire to make learning more student-centred is reflected in
widespread attempts, in different areas of the curriculum, to introduce
approaches which engage students actively in the learning process. These
approaches have been described under a variety of labels: experiential

learning,
discovery
operative
learning,
learning,
the
problem-based
activity-based
learning,
approach,
and
co-
others.
Underlying all of these approaches is a desire to involve students in some kind
of purposeful interaction with information, objects and/or ideas, often in
groups, in order to develop their skills and knowledge. In the field of language
teaching, the approach which is currently best known in this respect is task-
based learning.
13
4. TBL: make the

classroom more stcentred & sts play a
more active role. Involve
sts in interaction with
inf, objects and/or ideas.
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14
TOPIC 1:
Task-based learning can be regarded as one particular approach to
implementing the broader communicative approach and, as with the

communicative approach in general, one of the features of task-based
learning that often worries teachers is that it seems to have no place for the
teaching of grammar. The aim of task-based learning is to develop
students ability to communicate and communication (except in its most
simple forms) takes place through using the grammatical system of the
language. Or in other words: communicative competence can only exist on a

foundation of grammatical competence.
Confusion often arises in discussions of task-based learning because
different teachers and writers use different definitions of the term task. Most
Definition of the term task:
people would probably agree, however, on the following basic characteristics of

tasks:
-
Tasks are activities in which students work towards an objective.
The objective may be one that they have set for themselves or one
which has been set by the teacher.
1. Sts work towards an objtv.
2. Objective set by
themselves or by the teacher
Tasks may be carried out individually or (more often) in groups.
3. Individual or group work.
Tasks may be carried out in competition with others or (more often) in
4. Competition
or collaboration.
collaboration.
The outcome may be something concrete (e.g. a report or

presentation) or something intangible (e.g. agreement or the solution to
5. There must be an
outcome, a final product.
a problem).
The area of disagreement revolves around the relationship between tasks
and communication. Some teachers and writers do not see this relationship
as crucial. They define a language-learning task as including almost anything
that students are asked (or choose) to do in the classroom, including formal
learning activities such as grammar exercises and controlled practice activities,
provided the objective of the activity is related to learning the language. This is
the view, for example, of Williams and Burden (1997, p. 168): A task is any
activity that learners engage in to further the process of learning a

language. Many other teachers and writers use a more restricted definition.
They exclude activities where the learners are focusing on formal aspects of the
Disagreement in the
definition of the term
task (relation btw task &
communication)
a) A task is any
activity that
learners engage in
to further the
process of learning
a language
b) Tasks are activities

in which the goal is
related to the
communication of
meaning. Nunan calls
them communicative
task.
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15
TOPIC 1:
language (such as grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary) and reserve the term
task for activities in which the purpose is related to the communication
of meanings, i.e. for what Nunan, 1989, p. 10, calls a communicative
task. Willis (1996, p. 23) is one writer who adopts this definition: Tasks are
always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a
communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.

Tasks are usually organised in the following way:
-
Tasks organization:
Pre-task stage: The teacher will introduce the topic and the
students will do a similar task so that the task requirements are

made clear. Different tasks will place different processing loads on
learners, therefore careful planning will ease the burden during the task
and attention may be directed to the detail of the language. The teacher
1. Pre-task stage:
- Introduction of the topic.
- Make the task clear to Sts
- Task has comprehensive
input.
has ensured that the text structure and vocabulary are just
beyond the students current knowledge, so that redundancy can
be activated to fill in for partial comprehension of certain parts of the

text. The density of information is controlled either by the choice of text
(authentic texts are used) or the choice of activities.
During-task stage: The area of communicative stress is concerned
with how the task is negotiated. The teacher will need to manipulate
2. During the task:

- Teacher manipulates
pressure (time, )
- Focus on communication.
pressure: he/she carefully considers the time limits for the task (time
pressure) in relation to the length of text, type of response and number
of participants, so that learners use language at a comfortable speed. If
a task is transacted in pressure conditions and without careful planning

there is the danger that students will by-pass syntax in the attempt to
process meaning and will use fossilized language (language they have
rehearsed/memorized).
Post-task stage: Students will have the incentive to focus attention
more clearly to language itself. Feedback by part of the teacher will

be wise.
3. Post-task stage:
- Focus on form.
- Teacher gives feedback.
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TOPIC 1:
4.2.3. Co-operative learning (CL) -1990s to 2000s- 14
CL is instruction that involves students working in teams to accomplish a
5. CL: involves students

working in teams to
accomplish a common
goal.
common goal, under conditions that include the following elements:
1. Positive interdependence. Team members are obliged to rely on one
another to achieve the goal. If any team members fail to do their part,
1. Positive interdependence:
Members of the group rely in
each other to do the task.
everyone suffers consequences.
2. Individual responsibility. All students in a group are responsible for
2. Individual responsibility.
doing their share of the work and for mastery of all of the material to be
learned.
3. Face-to-face promotive (=fomentada) interaction. Although some of
the group work may be parcelled out and done individually, some must
3. Face-to-face work
promotes interaction:
be done interactively, with group members providing one another with
feedback, challenging one another's conclusions and reasoning, and

perhaps most importantly, teaching and encouraging one another.
4. Use of collaborative skills. Students are encouraged and helped to

develop
and
practice
trust-building,
leadership,
4. Use of collaborative
skills.
decision-making,
communication, and conflict management skills.
5. Feedback. Team members set group goals, periodically assess what
they are doing well as a team, and identify changes they will make to
function more effectively in the future.
Cooperative learning is not simply a synonym for students working in
groups. A learning exercise only qualifies as CL to the extent that the listed
elements are present.
Cooperative learning may occur in or out of class. In-class exercises,
which may take anywhere from 30 seconds to an entire class period, may
involve answering or generating questions, explaining observations, working

through derivations, solving problems, summarizing lecture material, troubleshooting, and brainstorming. Out-of-class activities include carrying out
experiments or research studies, completing problem sets or design projects,

writing reports, and preparing class presentations.
14
5. Feedback.
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17
TOPIC 1:
There are several reasons why cooperative learning may work. The idea
that students learn more by doing something active than by simply
VIRTUES
- Sts learn more by doing
smthing active.
watching and listening has long been known to both cognitive psychologists
and effective teachers and cooperative learning is by its nature an active
method. Beyond that, cooperation enhances learning in several ways.
Weak students working individually are likely to give up when they get stuck;
working cooperatively, they keep going. Strong students faced with the
task of explaining and clarifying material to weaker students often find
- Strong sts must explain

and clarify material to
weaker sts.
gaps in their own understanding and fill them in. Students working alone may
tend to delay completing assignments or skip them altogether, but when they
know that others are counting on them, they are often driven to do the work in
a timely manner. Students working competitively have incentives not to help
- Sts are responsible for

their work in a group. That
often encourages them.
one another; working cooperatively, they are rewarded for helping.
The proven benefits of cooperative learning notwithstanding, instructors
who attempt it frequently encounter resistance and sometimes open
hostility from the students. Bright students complain about begin held
back by their slower team-mates, weaker or less assertive students
complain about being discounted or ignored in group sessions, and resentments
build when some team members fail to pull their weight. Furthermore, not all
BUT
- Bright students complain
about begin held back by
their slower team-mates.
- Weaker sts complain

about being discounted or
ignored in group sessions.
students are fond of the idea of working in groups. Many of them like to work
individually and too much work-group does not motivate them at all.
- Some sts prefer to work

individually than in group.
Instructors with sufficient patience generally find ways to deal with these
problems, but others become discouraged and revert to the traditional teachercentred instructional paradigm, which is a loss both for them and for their
students.
4.3. The Natural approach (NA) -1980s to 2000s-
It is best represented by J.Asher and S. Krashen. The NA rejects with
supportive data the notion that Lgs must be taught in class to be learned,
especially if teaching revolves around the explanation and application of

grammar rules. It challenges, therefore, the very essence of SL teaching as we
know it and brings us back to Montaignes Latin teacher and to the DM,
although with important surface modifications.
6. NA: It rejects the

notion that Lgs must be
taught in class to be
learned.
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18
TOPIC 1:
The first principle is that reception should precede production.
Like children in the MT situation, SL learners should listen actively for a while
1. Reception should
precede production
(Silent Period)
before attempting to speak (silent period). Students are only exposed to
correct SL, as provided by their instructor or recorded sources. Class activities

are similar to the DM ones, except that students respond first with actions and
gestures.
Krashens theory of Lg learning is based in the following principles:
a) Linguistic structures are acquired in a relatively fixed natural order,
2. Natural order Acq.
which may or may not coincide with the textbook classification.
b) One only learns by receiving comprehensible input (exposure to a
3. Comprehensible input.
level of Lg just above ones own i+1-)
c) Students only learn when their affective filter (resistance to learning)
4. Affective filter.
is down.
d) Learning, a conscious and analytic process, should be distinguished
5. Distinguish learning
from Acquisition.
from subconscious acquisition, which alone can be lead to fluency.

Although it may precede it, learning does not turn into acquisition,
which can only come from natural, communicative situations.
e) Learning is only useful when one can use ones monitor (Lg control
device) i.e., when one knows the rules to be applied and one has the
time to concentrate on their application, as in writing or very careful

speech. People who manage to control their speech at all times are rare
and usually speak in an unnatural manner.
The teacher is the source of the learners input and the creator of the
interesting and stimulating variety of classrooms activities. Learner will

presumably move through what Krashen define as three stages:
1. Preproduction stage: Development of listening comprehension skills
2. The early production stage: It is usually marked with errors, as the

student fights with the Lg. Teachers focused on meaning here, not
on form and therefore the teacher does not correct errors during this
stage (unless they block comprehension).
3. Last stage: It is one of extending production into longer stretches of

discourse.
6. Monitor theory
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19
TOPIC 1:
4.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues
Although the above principles are presented as hypothesis, they have
already
received
considerable
support
from
recent
research.
The
learning/Acquisition and Monitor hypothesis have, however, given rise to
controversy, mainly because the supportive evidence is often considered
too weak and practical classroom application too diff. it should also be pointed
BUT
- The learning/Acq and
Monitor hypothesis are too
weak in supportive
evidence.
- Teachers are merely
viewed by krashen as the
equivalent of the native
speaker
that, if validated, they would completely redefine the Lg teaching profession:
teachers would no longer teach, since they are merely viewed by

Krashen as the equivalent of the native speaker, with perhaps the
advantage of being better able to make their Lg comprehensible to the learner.
5. Educational technology (CALL) 1950s to ?-
Ever since the WWII, SL educators have been using available technology
to expose students to Lg experiences which teachers could not provide

themselves. First, with ALMs, teachers equipped themselves with films, tape
recorders and Lg labs to bring the outside world right into the classroom. With
the global failure of the ALM new ways were sought to make use of all that
expensive technology. The old Labs progressively developed into audiovisual learning centers, where students could come and work on their
The old ALM Labs

progressively developed
into audio-visual
learning centers, where
students could come
and work on their own.
own.
The development and availability of computer technology has given
prominence to a new subfield of education called Computer assisted Lg

learning (CALL). Until quite recently, CALL was a topic of relevance mostly to
those with a special interest in that area. Recently, though, computers have
become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so
The development and

availability of computer
technology has given
birth to a new subfield of
education called
Computer assisted Lg
learning (CALL).
dramatically that the majority of language teachers must now begin to think
about the implications of computers for language learning.
5.1. Three Phases of CALL
Though CALL has developed gradually over the last 30 years, this
development can be categorized in terms of three distinct phases which I

will refer to as behaviouristic, communicative, and integrative CALL. As
we will see, the introduction of a new phase does not necessarily entail
Three Phases of CALL
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20
TOPIC 1:
rejecting the programs and methods of a previous phase; rather the old is
subsumed within the new.
5.1.1. Behaviouristic CALL
The first phase of CALL, conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the
1960s and '70s, was based on the then-dominant behaviourist theories of
learning (ALM). Programs of this phase entailed repetitive language drills and
can be referred to as drill and practice (or, more pejoratively, as "drill and
1. Behaviouristic CAL
(1950)
Programs entailed
repetitive language drills
and can be referred to
as drill and practice.
kill").
Drill and practice courseware is based on the model of computer as
tutor. In other words the computer serves as a vehicle for delivering
instructional materials to the student. The rationale behind drill and practice
was not totally spurious, which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still
Rationale behind drill

and practice was:
used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows:

-
Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even

essential to learning.
A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the
machine does not get bored with presenting the same materials.
A computer can present such material on an individualized basis,

allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class
time for other activities.
a. Repeated exposure to
the same material is
beneficial to learning
b Computer is ideal for

carrying out repeated
drills, as it does not get
bored.
c. Free up class time for

other activities.
Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were
developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. One of
the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which ran on its own
special PLATO hardware, including central computers and terminals.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behaviouristic CALL was
undermined by two important factors. First, behaviouristic approaches

to language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the
pedagogical level. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer

allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new
phase of CALL.
b-CALL PROGRAM:
PALTO sys
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21
TOPIC 1:
5.1.2. Communicative CALL
The second phase of CALL was based on the communicative
2. Communicative CALL:
(1970s-80s)
approach to teaching which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s.
Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the
previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much
Some premises for

communicative CALL:
value.
Here there are some Premises for Communicative CALL:

-
Focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves.
Teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly.
Allows and encourages students to generate original utterances.
Does not judge and/or evaluate the students.
Avoids telling students they are wrong.
Uses the Target Lg (TL) exclusively
a. Focus on using forms
b. Grammar taught implicitly
c. Allows & encourages sts to

generate original utterances
d. Does not judge sts
e. avoid telling the Sts if they are wrong

f. Uses TL exclusively
On the face of things communicative CALL seems like a significant
advance over its predecessor. But by the end of the 1980s, many educators felt
that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the
computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion.
These critiques of CALL dovetailed with broader reassessments of the
communicative approach to language teaching. No longer satisfied with
teaching compartmentalized skills or structures (even if taught in a

communicative manner), a number of educators were seeking ways to
teach in a more integrative manner, for example using task-based
approaches.
5.1.3. Steps toward Integrative CALL: Multimedia

Integrative
approaches
to
CALL
are
based
on
two
important
technological developments of the last decade: Multimedia computers and
the Internet. Multimedia technology (exemplified today by the CD-ROM)
allows a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) to be

accessed on a single machine. What makes multimedia even more powerful is
that it also entails hypermedia. That means that the multimedia resources are
all linked together and that learners can navigate their own path simply by
pointing and clicking a mouse.
3. Integrative CALL:
(1990s to ?)
Based on two important
technological
developments of the last
decade: Multimedia
computers (Hypermedia)
and the Internet
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22
TOPIC 1:
Hypermedia provides a number of advantages for language
Hypermedia advantages:
learning:
-
A more authentic learning environment is created, since listening is

combined with seeing, just like in the real world.
Skills are easily integrated, since the variety of media make it natural
to combine reading, writing, speaking and listening in a single activity.
Students have great control over their learning, since they can not
a. A more authentic
learning environment is
created since listening is
combined with seeing.
b. Skills are easily integrated

c. Students can go at their
own pace
only go at their own pace but even on their own individual path.
A major advantage of hypermedia is that it facilitates a principle
d. Facilitates focus on the

content w/out sacrificing form.
focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on

language form or learning strategies.
An example of how hypermedia can be used for language learning is the
program Dustin which is being developed by the Institute for Learning
Sciences at North-western University. The program is a simulation of a

student arriving at a U.S. airport. The student must go through customs,
find transportation to the city, and check in at a hotel. The language learner
using the program assumes the role of the arriving student by interacting with
simulated people who appear in video clips and responding to what they say by
typing in responses. If the responses are correct, the student is sent off to do
other things, such as meeting a roommate. If the responses are incorrect, the
program takes remedial action by showing examples or breaking down the task
into smaller parts. At any time the student can control the situation by asking
what to do, asking what to say, asking to hear again what was just said,
requesting for a translation, or controlling the level of difficulty of the lesson.
Yet in spite of the apparent advantages of hypermedia for language
learning, multimedia software has so far failed to make a major impact. Several
major problems have surfaced in regarding to exploiting multimedia for

language teaching:
i-CALL PROGRAM:
DUSTIN
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23
TOPIC 1:
There is the question of quality of available programs.
Today's computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly
interactive. A program like Dustin should ideally be able to understand a

user's spoken input and evaluate it not just for correctness but also or
BUT
- Question of quality of
available programs.
- Today's computer cannot
be truly interactive yet.
appropriateness.
5.2. Steps toward Integrative CALL: The Internet
The World Wide Web is probably the single computer application to date
with the greatest impact on language teaching. For the first time, language
The Internet: Lg learners

can communicate directly
with other St or speakers
of the TL 24 hours a day.
learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other

learners or speakers of the TL 24 hours a day, from school, work, or home. This
communication can be asynchronous (not simultaneous) through tools such

as electronic mail (e-mail or forums), which allows each participant to compose
messages at their time and pace, or it can be synchronous (synchronous,
Asynchronic
communication
(not simultaneous:
mail, forums)
Synnchronic
communication
(Simultaneous:
chats)
"real time"), using programs such as chats or MSN, which allow people all
around the world to have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their

keyboards. It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also
one-to-many, allowing a teacher or student to share a message with a small
group, the whole class, a partner class, or an international discussion list of

hundreds or thousands of people.
Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through
millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access
authentic
materials
(e.g.,
newspaper
and
magazine
articles,
radio
broadcasts, short videos, movie reviews, and book excerpts) exactly tailored to
their own personal interests. They can also use the Web to publish their texts
or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public.
Brown, H. Douglas. 1987. Principles of Language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ (USA): Prentice-hall, Inc.
Editorial MAD (Vol. I)
Thomas, Alain. 1988. Current trends in second-language teaching methodology.

Queens Quartely, 95, 2 (Summer), Pags 365-83
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/LANGUAGELEARNING/WaysToApproachLanguageLearning/TheAudioLingualMethod.htm
Computer-Assisted Language Learning: An Introduction by Mark Warschauer in:
http://www.gse.uci.edu/markw/call.html
TBL methodology:
http://cd.ed.gov.hk/eng/references/all_levels/task_based.pdf
http://www.tesolgreece.com/dinou01.html#_ftn2
CL:
http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Papers/Coopreport.html
Through the WWW Sts

can locate and access
authentic TL materials.
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TOPIC 1: Brief Summary
6. Brief summary:
- Introduction:
Teaching methods used through history:

Egyptian & Babylonian used bilingual representatives.
Romans learnt Greek through the teacher-slaves by the classical method of reading & discussing.
st
The 1 Christian missionaries learnt the Lgs of the people they were trying to convert.
Middle Ages: Latin as the lingua franca only taught in the monastic schools.
6 Indians were brought by C. Colon to learn Spanish completely deprived of their MT (1st DM use)
In the Renaissance, the vernacular Lgs displaced Latin. Ancient Latin methodology used to teach FL.
In the 18th C, non-classical Lgs entered the curriculum of European schools.
- Focus on MESSAGE (part1):
Before the 18th C, the most common mean of acq a non-classical SL was by contact woth Native speakers
(travels, trade, war, foreign tutor). The need for efficient communication was sufficient to ensure learning.
- Focus on FORM
15
GTM: Teaching a non-classical SL through Latin based grammar.

Characteristics:
a. Grammar is taught deductively.
b. Concentration on the written code through the study
of the great authors. Little attention to speech.
c. Use of translation in vocabulary lists.
d. Class often conducted in the Sts MT.
Drawbacks:
- It did nothing to enrich the Sts
communicative abilities. Just memorizing
and endless list of voc.
Virtues:
- Intellectual appeal.
- From the instructor point of view, its the easier
methodology: No need for equipment, objective
evaluation
DM: Second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning: Total immersion technique.
Characteristics:
a. Class conducted in the SL.
b. Focus on everyday spoken UK. Emphasis on phonetics.
c. Establishment of direct associations btw word & obj.
d. Grammar is taught inductively.
Drawbacks:
- It was widely accepted in private schools (high
motivated Sts, small groups, almost individual
attention). Did not work on public schools.
- Weak theoretical foundations.
- High demand of involvement of the teacher.
Virtues:
- Focus on Lg & the use of SL in class. - Active learner participation.
th
- Berlitz School (uo to the 20 C)
Structuralism
15
a. Lg is behaviour
b. behaviour can be conditioned by process of
stimulus, response & reinforcement. (+response
quick reinforcement)
c. Lg is essentially habit formation. (No errors
creationof bad habits)
3 Characteristics
Behaviourism
ALM: Based on behaviourist theories & structuralism linguistic hypothesis. From the Army Method.
Drawbacks:
- Linguistic & psychological basis were challenged.
- Condemnation of writing.
- too repetitive and useless in terms of communicative
abilities.
- Did not arrive to the high expectative it created at 1st
a. Lg is essentially an oral means of communication (Oral precede writin)

b. Lg is a system of structures (emphasis on syntax)
c. Lg is defined by the majority of speakers (preference for contemporary vocabulary)
d. Lg have their own structures (Stress on the diff btw the MT & the TL)
e. Grammar is taught inductively.
a. Use of Lg Labs
for collective drills
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TOPIC 1: Brief Summary
- Focus on MESSAGE (part2)16:
CCL & Sug: based mostly in low anxiety & warm personal conditions for effective learning.
Characteristics CLL:
a. Free conversation
b. communication through teacher translations.
c. move to a teacher free conversation.
d. NO correction of errors.
Drawbacks:
- Unstructured approaches.
CA: Importance of communication over accuracy
Drawbacks:
- frustration by the lack of grammar.
- Too much attention to socio-linguistics
- teachers need to be more involved.
TBL: learning is interaction with inf, objs & people.

Towards a Student-centred approach
Characteristics:
a. Students work towards objectives (objs).
b. The objs are set by themselves or the teachers.
c. Tasks can be carried out in group or
individually.
d. Tasks can be carried out in competition or
collaboration.
TASK is an activity with a set goal related to the
communication of meaning.
TASK organization: Pre-task, during, post-task.
Characteristics Sug:
a. suggesting factors may accelerate learning.
b. relaxation techniques can improve learning.
c. Teacher as a source of confidence & calm.
d. NO correction of errors.
e. Procedure reminiscent of the DM, but w/out drills
Characteristics:
a. Communication involves also how to use the Lg in
context (speech acts).
b. Study of forms is secondary: Notion, Function, Situation.
c. Focus on the learner & learning.
d. Errors are seen as normal part of learning.
e. Fluency is more important than accuracy.
f. Usage of authentic materials
g. Focus on communicative strategies.
CL: Sts working in teams to accomplish a goal

Characteristics:
a. Positive interdependence.
b. Individual responsibility.
c. Face-to-face promotive interaction.
d. Use of collaborative skills.
e. Feedback.
f. In/Out class exercises.
BUT there is resistance from some sts to
work in group, as they prefer to work
individually.
NA: rejects the idea that Lgs must be taught in class to be learnt.
Characteristics:
a. reception precede production (silent period)
b. Natural order Acq.
c. Comprehensible input.
d. Affective filter.
e. Distingish learning from Acq.
f. Monitor theory.
Drawbacks:
- The learning/Acq & Monitor theories are
weak in supportive evidence.
- Teachers are the equivalent to native
speakers.
Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial
- Educational Technology (CALL): Three Phases of CALL
A computer is ideal for carrying out drills
Behaviouristic CALL: Software programs entailed repetitive Lg drills. PLATO-
Sts do the exercises individually & at

their own pace.
Communicative CALL: Software programs more focused on using forms than in forms themselves.
They allow Sts to generate original utterances. It also does not judge & evaluate sts.
Integrative CALL: Multimedia & Internet
Multimedia Hypermedia: -DUSTIN - Diff skills are integrated (oral, reading, writing)
- St can go at their pace.
- It does not sacrifices form over content.
16
Internet:
- Synchronic & asynchronic communicative
means. One2one & one2many communications
- Locate and access authentic FL materials
(video, newpappers, )
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26
TOPIC 1: Appendixes
Appendix 1
GTM Activity:
GRAMMAR
DEFINITIVE ARTICLE
VERB ENDINGS
Masc
Fem
Neut
PL
Nominative
Me
Men
Mas
Len
Idiotive
Det
Def
Dof
Ten
Imaginative
Jeb
Kin
Los
Fen
Illogitive
Tal
Sib
Pen
Ken
1 -en
Sing
2 -a
3 -o
1 -ens
Plural
2 -ato
3 -unt
VOCCABULARY
sabla
(m)
chair
abro
under
list
put
maldi
(f)
table
lef
on
cord
throw
labro
(f)
book
parti
against
nu
to be
gardi
(m)
Boy
randos
(n)
floor
borden
(n)
ceiling
Notes
If an object. is under 2 ft high from ground level, the Idiotive case is used.
If an object is 2 t over from ground level, the Imaginative case is used
A chair is always considered to be less than 2 ft high, no matter what its actual height may be.
Direct = object Illogitive
Example: The chair is under the table / Det sabla nmabro kin maldi
Translate the sentences:-
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
The
The
The
The
The
book is under the chair.

boy puts the book on the table.
boy puts the book on the floor.
boy throws the book against the ceiling.
boy throws the books against the ceiling
SOURCE:
http://www.aber.ac.uk/education-odl/seclangacq/langteach3.htm
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27
TOPIC 1: Appendixes
DM:
In the class based on Direct Method the mother tongue is never, ever used. Usually, lessons begin with a
brief dialogue in the target language and it is presented orally. The most often employed exercise
in this method is a series of quetions and answers in the target language based on the
dialogue. No traslation of mother tongue is included during the class. Grammar is taught inductively rather
than deductively and literary texts are not analyzed grammatically.
ALM:
Sally : Good morning, Bill.

Bill : Good morning, Sally.
Sally : How are you?
Bill : Fine, thanks. And you?
Sally : Fine. Where are you going?
Bill : I'm going to the post office.
Sally : I'm too. Shall we go together?
Bill : Sure. Let's go.
Steps
1. The teacher gives a model of the dialogue (introduction).
2. Have the students listen to the dialogue again (motivation)
3. Listen and repeat (practice)
4. Use a backward build-up drill (expansion drill)
Ex: I'm going to the post office.
T: post office
S: post office
T: to the post office
S: to the post office
T: going to the post office
S: going to the post office
T: I'm going to the post office.
S: I'm going to the post office.
5. Repeat the target pattern several times ( practice more)
6. Role play: (Using the same dialogue mentioned above):
a. Teacher <--> Students
b. Half group <--> Half group
c. Girls group <--> Boys group
7. Chain drill: (Simple communication drill)
T: Good morning, Jose.S1: Good morning, teacher.T: How are you?S1: Fine, thanks. And you? T: Fine. ( S1
to S2 , S2 to S3, K)
8. Select two students to perform the entire dialogue.
Substitution drill
1. A single-slot substitution:
a. Basic drill
Ex. I'm going to the post office. (give a cue as: the bank, the drugstore, the supermaketK)
b. Each cue is accompanied by pictures
Ex. I'm going to the post office. (show the pictures of the post office, the bank, the drugstore,K)
c. Point to a boy or a girl
Ex. How are you?(Point to a boy and the student has to change the sentence into "How is he?")
2. Multiple-slot substitution
Ex. I'm going to the park. (cue: He)
He's going to the park. (cue: library)
He's going to the library.
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28
TOPIC 1: Appendixes
Transformation drill
1. Affirmative a Negative
Ex: She's a student. -> She is not a teacher.
2. Active a Passive
Ex: Tom wrote the book. -> The book was written.
3. Statement a Yes-no question
Ex: He's going to the park. -> Is he going to the park?
4. Yes-no question a Answer yes-no question
Ex: Is he going to the park? -> Yes / No (It depends on the situation.)
5. Use the yes-no question and show the pictures
Ex: Is he going to the park? -> Yes / No (It depends on the pictures.)
Appendix2
CLL:
Topic: Fruits
Class period: 20 minutes
Aids: chairs, a board and a tape recorder
Number of students: 10 (or less)
Objectives:
1. To learn the names of fruits
2. To participate willingly in class and enjoy asking questions
3. To pronounce the names of fruits correctly
Presentation:
Teachers activities
Teacher greets with

introduces herself.
Studentsactivities
students
and Students sit in a circle, listen and

greet in Chinese.
Teacher gives directions about what Listen.

students will be doing later:
1. Teacher tells students to speak
Chinese to ask what fruits they
want to learn.
2. Teacher will translate the words
into English.
3. Teacher will record the words
when students can pronounce
them well.
Student A puts up her hand.
Teacher goes up to student A and stands

behind her.
Teacher helps her to say the fruit apple
in English.
Student A speaks Chinese to ask

how to say the fruit apple
Student A asks the teacher to
repeat the word.
Teacher repeats it.

Teacher repeats it again.
Student B asks the teacher to

repeat it again.
All the students repeat the word
together.
Aids
Time
1
2
Teacher records it.
Other students ask some other A tape recorder 6

names of fruits, like tangerine,
Buddha
head,
pomelo,
&
grapefruit.
Teacher listens to the students and helps Students ask the teacher to repeat
them.
the words until they feel they are
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29
TOPIC 1: Appendixes
Teacher repeats as many times as able to pronounce them well.

students want and records the words
when students can pronounce the words
correctly.
A tape recorder
After students ask all the words they Listen.

A tape recorder
want to learn, teacher starts to play the
tape.
Teacher plays the tape again and writes
the words on the board.
Students just listen without writing
down anything.
A board
Teacher waits for volunteers to give her Students try to respond.

the Chinese meanings of the words.
Teacher writes
translation.
down
the
Chinese
Teacher asks students to relax and just Listen.

listen while teacher reads the words on
the board three times.
Sugg:
Using music to introduce an exercise is a great way to activate vocabulary and get students thinking
in the right direction. Take a piece of music or song which you associate with a certain activity or place
("New York, New York" sung by Frank Sinatra) and play the first 30 seconds of the piece. You will be
surprised at how quickly associations come to students' minds - many more than if you introduced the
lesson by saying, "Today we are going to talk about New York City".
http://esl.about.com/library/lessons/blbrainmusic.htm
CA:
Teaching Material
Mrs. Armitage on Wheels
Analysis of Teaching Material
1. Knows the functions of adjustments in connected speech

2. Knows how to pronounce appropriately
3. Knows how to communicate fluently and accurately
Time 1period,40minutes
Teacher Li-yen Jan Teaching Method
CA
Teaching Aids
pictures, chalks, blackboard
Instructional Objects
Unit Objects
Specific Objects
1.1 Discriminates the minimal pair of /s/ /z/
I. The Cognitive Domain:
1.2 Discriminates the minimal pair of/t/ /d/
1. Knows the usage of
"assimilation"
2.1 Uses the linking words in a sentence naturally
2. Acquainted with the rule of
3.1 Perceives the meanings of the whole material
"linking"
3.2 Answers the given questions related to the article
3. Understands the joke of this
4.1 Answers the questions referred to the article willingly
article
5.1 Responds aggressively
II. The Affective Domain:
6.1 Takes interest in the classroom activities
4. Responds willingly
7.1 Reads the assimilative and linking words with natural connection
5. Enjoys the classroom activities 8.1 Reads the article fluently
6. Intrigued by the short rhymed 9.1 Remodels the story correctly
prose
9.2 Participates in the situational dialogue properly
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30
TOPIC 1: Appendixes
III. The Psychomotor Domain:

7. Pronounces the critical word
correctly
8. Reads the material naturally
9. Communicates competently
TBL:
This was based on a coursebook exercise. The exercise was a major task at the end of a lesson. The
provided information consisted of descriptions of four vacation packages. Five holidaymaker groups were
briefly described (family, age, interests) and should be matched to the packages. Thereafter students could
discuss their wishes and fill out a table with details.
Person or Group
Package
a family with young children Jamaica, sporting

a retired couple
Zell am See, wandering
a single professional
Paris, city
a group of teenagers
Orlando, Disneyworld
a sporting club
Ibiza, beach resort
We propose several improvements to the task - see following the table of details:
Your holiday plans
Group 1
who is going
when and for how long

interested
location and accomodation
Group 2
Improvements
The package information was minimal and
old-fashioned (limitations of the book). It would be
better to get current brochures from a travel bureau.
The table to be filled out gave little room for

thinking, since questions were already defined.
Students could gain much more by figuring out for
themselves
what
they
needed
to
decide.
Brainstorming to produce a mind-map is an ideal

method for doing this.
A report based on the table will make a boring

presentation. We decided that each group should try
to sell their holiday package to the class.
Similar Exercises
Plan an excursion for your school class
Plan a party or a menu
Plan to build a tree hut
Design halloween outfits
http://www.nknu.edu.tw/~eng/etweb/
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TOPIC 1: Appendixes
31
CL:
Exercise: Assessing process effectively

Tracy Crossley
Salford University
t.l.crossley@salford.ac.uk
Tom Maguire
University of Ulster
tj.maguire@ulster.ac.uk
Rationale:
This second session to a half-day event is to allow participants to work in small groups on real scenarios
from their institutions. By the end of the session participants should have a strategy (supported by guidance
tools) for how they will initiate the assessment of process or change the assessment practices they currently
use in their own institution.
Suitable for:
Staff and students with maximum numbers dictated by size of room.
Timings:
90 minutes total
10 minutes Recap. From introductory session on the problems of assessing process
25 mins. Group Problem-Based Learning Exercise on major problems recorded on flipcharts.
25 mins. Sharing Successful Practice (whole group including time to wander round and read flipcharts)
25 mins. Towards a realistic strategy to take home to colleagues (small groups)
5 mins. Conclusion and distribute Notes on Implementing PA.
Facilitators:
One facilitator should be able to manage up to 36 people. If the group is much larger, it is helpful to have
two facilitators, to help discussion groups and if necessary note-take.
This session is quite intense and the activities need to run very smoothly from whole group into small group
and back with a minimum of disruption. To minimise the time spent on giving instructions, you could
prepare a handout with the different activities explained.
Resources needed:
Chairs
Marker perns
Flip chart and stand
Blue tack or drawing pins to pin up flip chart sheets /or 3 flip chart stands
Materials provided here:

PPT Presentation and Handout (word document) (R3)
The presentation can be used intermittently at each stage of the workshop. The handout should be drip-fed
so that it doesnt pre-empt the participants responses.
Running the workshop:

Stage 1: Recap. On the major difficulties in assessing process (15 minutes)
Remind the group (either using a flip chart or OHP with the challenges arranged in three categories Staff;
Students and Institutional challenges) of the major barriers they identified in the first session. Alternatively
use PPT slides 5,6, 7. Encourage participants to check the list and add any barriers or challenges which may
have been omitted. Ensure that the list is visible to all (or alternatively, distribute a handout with the
challenges listed under the three categories Staff; Students and Institutional) before dividing into groups.
Stage 2: Group work to problem-solve issues raised in Introductory Session (25 minutes)
Divide participants into three groups explaining that each group will work from a different perspective on
how to assess process:
Group 1 will look at the challenges from the perspective of the Students;
Group 2 from the perspective of Staff
Group 3 from an Institutional perspective.
Ask for a member of each group to record the main points of the discussion on a flip chart.
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TOPIC 1: Appendixes
32
Stage 3: Beginning to share successful practice (25 minutes)

Display the three groups' flip chart sheets for all to see. Allow 10 minutes for participants to wander around
and read the bullet points. Reassemble as a whole group and use PPT slides 8-11 which outline principles
and practices. These should be contextualised with effective examples from the individual groups where
possible. Allow for brief Q & A or discussion as this is the final part where they will be working together as a
whole group. Explain that there will be no plenary at the end of the session.
Stage 4: Small groups working towards a realistic strategy (25 minutes)
Divide the group into small groups of 4 or 5 maximum and ask them to discuss and record for themselves,
how they might either revise their assessment of process or introduce the assessment of process within their
own institutional context. Remind them that it is more effective to start with small but realistic goals, i.e.
areas over which they have some control or where it is known the staff are sympathetic to student
involvement in the assessment process.
Conclusion: (5 minutes) Stop the groups. Use slide 11 to provide some pointers and distribute the
handout if you have not already done so. Simply conclude by thanking the participants.
Guidance notes and recommendations:
It would assist the facilitator's credibility if s/he could include a few other examples of successful practice
drawn from his/her own experience. These can easily be added to the final slides of the PPT presentation.
Be careful that individuals stay on task and dont get distracted. For stage 4 it might be desirable that staff
that work together work on real solutions together.
SOURCE:
http://assessing-groupwork.ulst.ac.uk/exercise6.htm
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33
TOPIC 1: Appendixes
Appendix 3
Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive characteristics of Audiolingual
Method and Communicative Approach:
Audio-lingual
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Attends to structure and form

more than meaning.
Demands memorization of
structure-based dialogues.
Learning items are not necessary
contextualized.
Language learning is learning
structures, sounds, or words.
Drilling is a center technique.
Native-speaker-like pronunciation
is sought.
Communicative activities only
come after a long process of rigid
drills and exercises.
The use of students' native
language is forbidden.
Teacher controls the learners and
prevents them from doing
anything that conflicts with the
theory.
"Language is habit" so errors must
be prevented at all costs.
Accuracy is a primary goal.
Communicative Approach
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Meaning is paramount.
Dialogues center around
communicative functions are not
normally memorized.
Contextualization is a basic
premise.
Language learning is learning to
communicate.
Drilling may occur, but
peripherally.
Comprehensible pronunciation is
sought.
Attempts to communicate may be
encouraged from the very
beginning.
Judicious use of native language is
accepted where feasible.
Teacher help learners in any way
that motivates them to work with
the language.
Language is created by the
individual often through trial and
error. Fluency and acceptable
language is the primary goal.

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Evolucin de la didctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didctica del

2. Focus on Message (Part 1) ____________________________________________ 5

3.1.1. Drawbacks and Virtues. _____________________________________________________ 5

3.2. The direct Method (DM) -1860 to 1940- ____________________________________ 6

3.2.1. Drawbacks & virtues _______________________________________________________ 7

3.3. The audio-lingual Method (ALM)-1940 to 1970- ____________________________ 8

3.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues. ______________________________________________________ 9

4. Focus on message (part 2) ____________________________________________ 10

4.1. The Psycho-pedagogical approach. -1970s- ________________________________ 10

4.1.1. Community Language learning (CLL) -1970s- __________________________________ 10

4.2. The communicative approach (CA) early 1970s to 2000s- ___________________ 12

4.2.1. Drawbacks and virtues. _____________________________________________________ 13

4.3. The Natural approach (NA) -1980s to 2000s- ______________________________ 17

4.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues _____________________________________________________ 19

5. Educational technology (CALL) 1950s to ?- ____________________________ 19

5.1.1. Behaviouristic CALL ______________________________________________________ 20

5.2. Steps toward Integrative CALL: The Internet _____________________________ 23

6. Brief summary: ____________________________________________________ 24

MT: Mother Tongue

CLL: Community Lg learning

Ivn Matellanes Notes

by Jean Aitchkinson in her work The articulated mammal. David S. Palermo

added that an act of verbal communication is only possible between humans

We dont know how

correct model to explain that. The psycholinguistic field is gaining importance in

The Egyptian & Babylonian used to send bilingual representatives for

foreign affairs, in the kingdom of Amenopolis III.

thought that there was nothing worth reading abroad.

However, the Romans learnt Greek through their teachers-slaves, in

probably based on the classical order: lectio, disputatio, (Texts were

Ivn Matellanes Notes

Middle Ages: Latin

was taught in the monastic schools through rote (=rutinario) learning of

grammar rules (declension) and translations.

The greatest milestone (=echo memorable) in FL Learning was the

time. Six Indians were taken by Columbus to Spain in order to learn

In the Renaissance, the vernacular Lgs displaced Latin, even though it

basis of all forms of higher education.

schools1. These Lgs were taught according to traditional methodology:

Firstly, the teaching procedures were based on Latin learning tradition.

recycled ideas justifies an historical approach to the problem.

Ivn Matellanes Notes

2. Focus on Message (Part 1)

Before the 18th C, the most common means of acquiring a non-classical

SL was by contact with native speakers of that Lg through travel, trade,

war or hiring a foreign tutor. The need for efficient communication

writers and grammarians of the time. It is interesting to note that current

3.1. The Grammar-Translation Method2 (GTM) -1840 to 1940-3

Although non-classical Lgs eventually took over Lain in nearly all

aspects of communication in the Western Europe (religion being the most

The traditional method, as it is still applied today (mainly at the

university, in Classical studies), can be summarized as follows:

a) Study & application of grammar rules: deductive approach. Stress on

b) Concentration on the written code through the study of the great

2. Emphasis written code

authors. The level of Lg taught is therefore mostly literary, with little

c) Use of translation in vocabulary lists and exercises.

3. Translation of Voc list

d) Class often conducted in the students MT.

4. Class conducted in Sts

3.1.1. Drawbacks and Virtues.

It is remarkable that this method became so popular and spread. It did