Best Practices that Advance Safety from the Biological Effects of

Radiation
among Hospital-Based Radiologic Technicians in Iligan City

A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of RadTech Department
Iligan Medical Center College
Iligan City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements Leading to the Degree

BS in Radiologic Technology

Arumpac,Ihsmael
Basong, Henrylyn
Mamongcal, Norhussien
Montila, Samira J.
Sadic, Sonaya
Polayagan, Salahoden

March 2013

Chapter 1

The Problem and Its Background

Introduction

Innovation of technology has made possible the cultivation and sharing

of best practices among technologists nowadays.

Rare are the inventions

already being made for the reason that to save Mother Earth, use of its
resources should be minimized. What science does now is just to make use of
what already exist. Many scientists do study to just modify, and come up
with new things, mutating them from one form to another.
Spying at what others best practices to make life easy has become
common. This is even made evident in the mass production of essential
goods aimed to satisfy the needs of man.
Since radiation from all forms poses high risks on radiologists, their
best practices have also been a matter of priority.
Radiation, as a matter of fact, has all been around us. It is naturally
present in our environment coming from outer space (cosmic), the ground
(terrestrial), from within our own bodies, the air we breathe, the food we eat,
the water we drink, and in the construction materials used to build our
homes. Furthermore, a lot is from terrestrial radiation of soils enriched in

naturally occurring uranium, and from radon, a gas from the earth's crust
that is present in the air.
Radiologists also get a lot of radiation exposure from medical,
commercial, and industrial activities, one of the largest of which is from
computed tomography (CT) scans. In addition, some consumer products such
as tobacco, fertilizer, welding rods, exit signs, luminous watch dials, and
smoke detectors contribute about another 10 mrem to our annual radiation
exposure.
Epidemiological studies indicate that without safety practices, radiologic
technologists employed are at increased risk of leukemia and skin cancer, most
likely due to the lack of use of radiation monitoring and shielding.

Ionizing

radiation, used in a variety of imaging procedures, can damage cells. Lead shields
are used on the patient and by the radiologic technologist to reduce exposure by
shielding areas that do not need to be imaged from the radiation source. While lead
is highly toxic, the shields used in medical imaging are coated to prevent lead
exposure and are regularly tested for integrity.
Radiologic technologists who develop x-ray films are exposed to various
chemical hazards such as sulfur dioxide, glutaraldehyde, and acetic acid. These
agents can cause asthma and other health issues. Theoretically, the strong static
magnetic fields of MRI scanners can cause physiological changes. After a human
neural cell culture was exposed to a static magnetic field for 15 minutes, changes in
cell morphology occurred along with some modifications in the physiological
functions of those cells. However, these effects have not yet been independently
replicated or confirmed, and this particular study was performed in vitro.
Ultrasound imaging can deform cells in the imaging field, if those cells are in
a fluid. However, this effect is not sufficient to damage the cells. As with any allied
health professional, exposure to infectious diseases is likely, and proper precautions
such as sterile technique must be employed to reduce the risk of infection.

Locally, how should safety be ensured if no empirical data will be given? This
study will hopefully address this need.

Conceptual Framework
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) by the

Division of

Radiation and Waste Safety of Vienna, Austria, together with the World
Health Organization, International Labor Organization, OECD Nuclear Energy
Agency, Food and Agriculture Organization and Pan American Health
Organization,

has its International Basic Safety Standards (BSS) for

protection against ionizing radiation and the safety of radiation sources. Not
yet mandatory, it already serves as a practical guide to all those involved in
radiation protection, taking into account local situations, resources, etc.
It applies both to practices that add radiation exposure to that which
people normally receive due to background radiation like the use of radiation
or radioactive substances for medical, industrial, agricultural, to include the
generation of energy by nuclear power, and mines and mills processing
radioactive

ores

interventions

and

radioactive

waste

management

facilities;

and

that seek to reduce the existing radiation exposure, or the

likelihood of incurring exposure in chronic exposure situations such as radon

in

buildings,

and

emergency

situations

such

as

those

created

by

contamination in the aftermath of an accident. It sums up protection

measures in justification of practice, optimization of protection and limitation
of individual risk.
The objective of the BSS is to prevent the occurrence of short term
effects of high doses of radiation and to restrict the likelihood of occurrence
of long term effects. It sets out detailed requirements for practices and
interventions to protect workers, patients and the general public from
radiation exposure, and recommends procedures for ensuring the safety of

sources, for accident prevention, for emergency planning and preparedness

and for mitigating the consequences of accidents.
Although the majority are of a qualitative nature, the BSS also
establishes many requirements expressed in terms of restrictions or
guidance on the dose that may be incurred by people. This includes
principles

of

protection,

organizational,

management

and

technical

requirements, as well as manner of transport among others.

Principles of Protection. The BSS implies that activities adding or

reducing radiation exposures should be justified to optimize protection and
limit individual risks.
Organizational and Management Requirements. To enforce safety
standards, the system should have a regulatory authority, education, training
and public information and facilities and services for radiation protection and
safety. It must promote the development of a safety culture, quality
assurance programs, control of human factors, and qualified experts.
Technical

Requirements.

BSS

sets

security,

depth

of

layer

protection, and monitoring and verification of radiation sources.

Manner of Transport. Transport of radioactive substances must be
according to sound regulations for safety.

Figure 1. The Research Paradigm

Radiologic
Technician

Best
Practices
towards
Biological
Effects of

Radiation
=
Safety

Statement of the Problem

This study will gather and analyze the best practices that advance
safety from the Biological Effects of Radiation among Hospital-Based
Radiologic Technicians in Iligan City.
Specifically, it will attempt to answer the following questions:

1. What career profiles do hospital-based radiologic technologists in

Iligan City have, in terms of:
a. Type of radiologic work done?
b. Man-hours as radiologic worker?
c. Facilities and services handled?
d. Previous trainings as preparation for a radiologic career?

2. What is their level of understanding about Biological Effects of

Radiation?

3. What best practices towards this concern do they have to ensure

radiologic safety, in terms of :
a. Principles involved?
b. Organizational and management requirements?
c. Technical requirements?
d. Transport of radioactive materials?

Assumptions
This study assumes that:

1. In every radiation opportunity, radiologic technicians exercise care and

attention to ensure the safety of their environment. Their practices,
however, need documentation.
2. Sharing of best practices brings improvement to a profession,
especially to local professionals who may yet not have organized
themselves into one group.
3. Development efforts must always be done towards understanding the
Biological Effects of Radiation. Species mutate as the environment
changes, not to exclude human beings.

Scope and Delimitation

It is the scope of this study to determine the career profiles of
radiologic technicians in hospitals of Iligan City. Their best practices are
undertaken to ensure safety from the perils on radiation especially on the
Biological Effects of Radiation on their human bodies.
It is delimited to the collection of data that describe only the present
condition of their practices. It is not going to conduct any experiment, as
such can be done only in highly select conditions requiring expensive
facilities and equipment. More so, this study considers both the natural and
artificial sources of radiation. The safety of their biological effect on the
radiologic technicians will be the focus of this research.

Significance of the Study

This study will be significant in various respects:

1. To students, for it can open their world to the best practices done by
the professionals in the radiologic industry;
2. To instructors, for whatever new knowledge is generated from this
study, they can help the next batches of students get way ahead in
the radiologic profession;
3. To the administration of the school, for good researches can call the
attention of research awarding bodies such as the Commission on
Higher Education, and the Department of Science and Technology,
and thereby assign the school for next research opportunities that
get full of funds;
4. To the hospitals, for the results of the study as derived from the
interpretation, analyses and conclusions can be new learning for
them to improve their services;
5. To the alumni of the department, for knowing updates of their
colleagues can help themselves become united for better and
common goals in the future;
6. To research in general, for the study will surely end up with
recommendations

that

will

spur

better

complementing the results of this study.

Definition of Terms

The key terms are defined as follows:

refined

researches

Best Practices - are any existing activities that seek to reduce the
radiation exposure, or the likelihood of incurring exposure; otherwise made
short for intervention best practices.
Radiation Safety

- is the condition of harmless radiation among

individuals exposed to either natural or artificial/man-made radiation

sources.

Biological Effects of Radiation

- are the radiation effects on the

cells of living organisms, typically those of radiologic technicians.

Hospital-Based Radiologic Technicians - are the radiologists who
do their radiologic work in hospitals.

Chapter II
Review of Literature and Related Studies
This chapter deals with the discussion of the conceptual literature and
related studies reviewed for the purpose of formulating the concepts and
instruments used in the present study. The review likewise provides an
extensive background in the investigation, which serves as the framework of
the research study.

Conceptual Literature
Biological Effects of Radiation

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has the following facts about
radiations biological effects:
Radiation is all around us. It is naturally present in our environment
and has been since the birth of this planet. Consequently, life has
evolved in an environment which has significant levels of ionizing
radiation. It comes from outer space (cosmic), the ground (terrestrial),
and even from within our own bodies. It is present in the air we
breathe, the food we eat, the water we drink, and in the construction
materials used to build our homes. Certain foods such as bananas and
brazil nuts naturally contain higher levels of radiation than other foods.
Brick and stone homes have higher natural radiation levels than homes
made of other building materials such as wood. Our nation's Capitol,
which is largely constructed of granite, contains higher levels of natural
radiation than most homes.
Levels of natural or background radiation can vary greatly from one
location to the next. For example, people residing in one area are
exposed to more natural radiation than residents of another area has
more cosmic radiation at a higher altitude and more terrestrial
radiation

from

soils

enriched

in

naturally

occurring

uranium.

Furthermore, a lot of our natural exposure is due to radon, a gas from

the earth's crust that is present in the air we breathe.
About half of the total annual average U.S. individual's radiation
exposure comes from natural sources. The other half is mostly from
diagnostic medical procedures. The average annual radiation exposure
from natural sources is about 310 millirem (3.1 millisieverts or mSv).
Radon and thoron gases account for two-thirds of this exposure, while
cosmic, terrestrial, and internal radiation account for the remainder. No
adverse health effects have been discerned from doses arising from
these levels of natural radiation exposure.

Figure 2.

Man-made sources of radiation from medical, commercial, and

industrial activities
contribute about another 310 mrem to our annual radiation exposure. One of
the largest of these sources of exposure is computed tomography (CT) scans,
which account for about 150 mrem. Other medical procedures together
account for about another 150 mrem each year. In addition, some consumer
products such as tobacco, fertilizer, welding rods, exit signs, luminous watch
dials, and smoke detectors contribute about another 10 mrem to our annual
radiation exposure.
The pie chart herein shows a breakdown of radiation sources that
contribute to the average annual U.S. radiation dose of 620 mrem. Nearly

three-fourths of this dose is split between radon/thoron gas and diagnostic

medical procedures. Although there is a distinction between natural and
man-made radiation, they both affect us in the same way.
Above background levels of radiation exposure, the NRC requires that
its licensee limit maximum radiation exposure to individual members of the
public to 100 mrem (1mSv) per year, and limit occupational radiation
exposure to adults working with radioactive material to 5,000 mrem (50
mSv) per year. NRC regulations and radiation exposure limits are contained
in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 20.
People tend to think of biological effects of radiation in terms of their
effect on living cells. For low levels of radiation exposure, the biological
effects are so small they may not be detected. The body has repair
mechanisms against damage induced by radiation as well as by chemical
carcinogens. Consequently, biological effects of radiation on living cells may
result in three outcomes: (1) injured or damaged cells repair themselves,
resulting in no residual damage; (2) cells die, much like millions of body cells
do every day, being replaced through normal biological processes; or (3)
cells incorrectly repair themselves resulting in a biophysical change.
The associations between radiation exposure and the development of
cancer are mostly based on populations exposed to relatively high levels of
ionizing radiation (e.g., Japanese atomic bomb survivors, and recipients of
selected diagnostic or therapeutic medical procedures). Cancers associated
with high-dose exposure (greater than 50,000 mrem) include leukemia,
breast, bladder, colon, liver, lung, esophagus, ovarian, multiple myeloma,
and stomach cancers. Department of Health and Human Services literature
also suggests a possible association between ionizing radiation exposure and
prostate, nasal cavity/sinuses, pharyngeal and laryngeal, and pancreatic
cancer.

The period of time between radiation exposure and the detection of

cancer is known as the latent period and can be many years. Those cancers
that may develop as a result of radiation exposure are indistinguishable from
those that occur naturally or as a result of exposure to other carcinogens.
Furthermore, National Cancer Institute literature indicates that other
chemical and physical hazards and lifestyle factors (e.g., smoking, alcohol
consumption, and diet) contribute significantly to many of these same
diseases.
Although radiation may cause cancers at high doses and high dose
rates, currently there are no data to establish unequivocally the occurrence
of cancer following exposure to low doses and dose rates below about
10,000 mrem (100 mSv).
Even so, the radiation protection community conservatively assumes that
any amount of radiation may pose some risk for causing cancer and
hereditary effect, and that the risk is higher for higher radiation exposures. A
linear, no-threshold (LNT) dose response relationship is used to describe the
relationship between radiation dose and the occurrence of cancer. This doseresponse hypothesis suggests that any increase in dose, no matter how
small, results in an incremental increase in risk. The LNT hypothesis is
accepted by the NRC as a conservative model for determining radiation dose
standards, recognizing that the model may over estimate radiation risk.
High radiation doses tend to kill cells, while low doses tend to damage
or alter the genetic code (DNA) of irradiated cells. High doses can kill so
many cells that tissues and organs are damaged immediately. This in turn
may cause a rapid body response often called Acute Radiation Syndrome.
The higher the radiation dose, the sooner the effects of radiation will appear,
and the higher the probability of death. This syndrome was observed in
many atomic bomb survivors in 1945 and emergency workers responding to
the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident. Approximately 134 plant

workers and firefighters battling the fire at the Chernobyl power plant
received high radiation doses 80,000 to 1,600,000 mrem (800 to 16,000
mSv) and suffered from acute radiation sickness. Of these, 28 died within
the first three months from their radiation injuries. Two more patients died
during the first days as a result of combined injuries from the fire and
radiation.
Because radiation affects different people in different ways, it is not
possible to indicate what dose is needed to be fatal. However, it is believed
that 50% of a population would die within thirty days after receiving a dose
of between 350,000 to 500,000 mrem (3500 to 5000 mSv) to the whole
body, over a period ranging from a few minutes to a few hours. This would
vary depending on the health of the individuals before the exposure and the
medical care received after the exposure. These doses expose the whole
body to radiation in a very short period of time (minutes to hours). Similar
exposure of only parts of the body will likely lead to more localized effects,
such as skin burns.
Conversely, low doses less than 10,000 mrem (100 mSv) spread out
over long periods of time (years) don't cause an immediate problem to any
body organ. The effects of low doses of radiation, if any, would occur at the
cell level, and thus changes may not be observed for many years (usually 520 years) after exposure.
Genetic effects and the development of cancer are the primary health
concerns attributed to radiation exposure. The likelihood of cancer occurring
after radiation exposure is about five times greater than a genetic effect
(e.g., increased still births, congenital abnormalities, infant mortality,
childhood mortality, and decreased birth weight). Genetic effects are the
result of a mutation produced in the reproductive cells of an exposed
individual that are passed on to their offspring. These effects may appear in

the exposed person's direct offspring, or may appear several generations

later, depending on whether the altered genes are dominant or recessive.
Although radiation-induced genetic effects have been observed in laboratory
animals (given very high doses of radiation), no evidence of genetic effects
has been observed among the children born to atomic bomb survivors from
Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
NRC regulations strictly limit the amount of radiation that can be emitted by
a nuclear facility, such as a nuclear power plant. A 1991 study by the
National Cancer Institute, "Cancer in Populations Living Near Nuclear
Facilities," concluded that there was no increased risk of death from cancer
for people living in counties adjacent to U.S. nuclear facilities. At the NRC's
request, the National Academy of Sciences is currently engaged in a state-ofthe-art update to the earlier study. The new study will examine cancer rates
in communities around operating and decommissioned nuclear power plants,
as well as nuclear fuel cycle facilities.

Radiation is one of the best-investigated hazardous agents. Because of

the vast accumulation of quantitative dose-response data, specialists are
able to set environmental radiation levels so that applications of nuclear
technologies may continue at a level of risk that is much less than with many
other technologies.
A single accidental exposure to a high dose of radiation during a short
period of time is referred to as an acute exposure, and may produce
biological effects within a short period after exposure. These effects are:
nausea and vomiting, malaise and fatigue, increased temperature, blood
changes, bone marrow damage, damage to cells lining the small intestine,
damage to blood vessels in the brain

The above list is given for information purposes only. The doses that
can produce such effects are extremely unlikely even in the event of an
accident at the U of T.
The delayed effects of radiation are due to low-level exposure that is called
continuous or chronic exposure. In this case, the results may not be apparent
for years. This type of exposure is likely to be the result of improper or
inadequate protective measures.
In the case of inhalation or ingestion of radioactive materials, a single
"acute" event may cause a long period "chronic" internal body exposure due
to irradiation of tissue where radioactive material has been fixed.
The most common delayed effects are various forms of cancer
(leukemia, bone cancer, thyroid cancer, lung cancer) and genetic defects
(malformations in children born to parents exposed to radiation). In any
radiological situation involving the induction of cancer, there is a certain time
period between the exposure to radiation and the onset of disease. This is
known as the "latency period" and is an interval in which no symptoms of
disease are present. The minimum latency period for leukemia produced by
radiation is 2 years and can be up to 10 years or more for other types of
cancer.
The connection between effects of exposure to radiation and dose (i.e.,
dose-response relationship) is classified into 2 categories, non-stochastic,
and stochastic.
Non-stochastic effect, also referred to as deterministic, are specific to each
exposed individual. They are characterized by: a certain minimum dose must
be exceeded before the particular effect is observed. Because of this
minimum dose, the non-stochastic effects are also called Threshold Effects.
The threshold may differ from individual to individual; the magnitude of the

effect increases with the size of the dose received by the individual; there is
clear relationship between exposure to radiation and the observed effect on
the individual
Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance, appearing among
unexposed people as well. The main stochastic effects are cancer and
genetic defects. According to current knowledge of molecular biology, a
cancer is initiated by damaging chromosomes in a somatic cell. Genetic
defects are caused by damage to chromosomes in a germ cell (sperm or
ovum). There is no known existing threshold for stochastic effects. One single
photon or electron can produce the effect. For this reason, a stochastic effect
is called a Linear or Zero-Threshold Dose-Response Effect.
Stochastic effects can also be caused by many other factors, not only
by radiation. Since everybody is exposed to natural radiation, and to other
factors, stochastic effects can arise in all of us regardless of the type of work
(working with radiation or not). Whether or not an individual develops the
effect is simply a question of chance.
There is a stochastic correlation between the number of cases of
cancers or genetic defects developed inside a population and the dose
received by the population at relatively large levels of radiation. Attempts
have been made to extrapolate the data from these levels of dose to low
levels of dose (close to the levels received from background radiation). There
is no scientific evidence to prove the results of these attempts.
Since there is no evidence of a lower threshold for the appearance of
Stochastic Effects, the prudent course is to ensure that all radiation
exposures follow a principle known as ALARA (As Low As Reasonable
Achievable). We will be referring to the application of this principle at U of T
in subsequent modules.

It is well known that the foetus is more sensitive to the effects of

radiation than the adult human. If an irradiation occurs in the first two
months of pregnancy, Delayed Effects may appear in the child. These include
mental and behaviour retardation, with a delay period of approximately 4
years.
Because of these possible effects, dosimetry during pregnancy differs
from the usual protocol. Special attention is paid to both external and
internal irradiation. A Radiation Safety Officer of the U of T must review
procedures for handling radioactive materials when a pregnant worker
performs such work.
It is not possible to accurately measure the dose to the foetus and so it
must be inferred from the exposure to the mother. Radiation protection
principles limit exposure to the mother in order to achieve minimum risk to
the foetus.
Exposure to very low levels of radiation is a controversial issue,
originating many debates throughout the scientific community. What
happens at very low levels of radiation exposure? As was explained earlier,
everybody is exposed to a level of radiation called the natural radiation or
background radiation. Also, was proved that the background levels vary on
earth by a factor greater than 10. What happens when somebody is exposed
to levels of radiation within a few percentage of the background, on top of
the day to day background irradiation?
As stated above, current knowledge in molecular biology shows no
evidence of a threshold effect for Stochastic Effects. Therefore, any level of
radiation may be considered to cause them. Conversely, some studies show
that low levels of irradiation are in fact beneficial to the health (Radiation
Hormesis). However, in the absence of clear scientific evidence, the
regulators adopted a conservative approach and consider all levels of

radiation as being potentially damaging to the human body. Because of this,

any procedure that involves radioactive materials must abide by the ALARA
principle.
Another source relates radiation to have these effects on the human
body:
Hair. The losing of hair quickly and in clumps occurs with radiation
exposure at 200 rems or higher.

Brain. Since brain cells do not reproduce, they won't be damaged

directly unless the exposure is 5,000 rems or greater. Like the heart,
radiation kills nerve cells and small blood vessels, and can cause seizures
and immediate death.
Thyroid. The certain body parts are more specifically affected by
exposure to different types of radiation sources. The thyroid gland is
susceptible to radioactive iodine. In sufficient amounts, radioactive iodine
can destroy all or part of the thyroid. By taking potassium iodide, one can
reduce the effects of exposure.
Blood System. When a person is exposed to around 100 rems, the
blood's lymphocyte cell count will be reduced, leaving the victim more
susceptible to infection. This is often refered to as mild radiation sickness.
Early symptoms of radiation sickness mimic those of flu and may go
unnoticed unless a blood count is done.According to data from Hiroshima and
Nagaski, show that symptoms may persist for up to 10 years and may also
have an increased long-term risk for leukemia and lymphoma.
Heart. Intense exposure to radioactive material at 1,000 to 5,000
rems would do immediate damage to small blood vessels and probably cause
heart failure and death directly.
Gastrointestinal Tract. Radiation damage to the intestinal tract
lining will cause nausea, bloody vomiting and diarrhea. This is occurs when
the victim's exposure is 200 rems or more. The radiation will begin to destroy
the cells in the body that divide rapidly. These including blood, GI tract,
reproductive and hair cells, and harms their DNA and RNA of surviving cells.
Reproductive Tract. Because reproductive tract cells divide rapidly,
these areas of the body can be damaged at rem levels as low as 200. Longterm, some radiation sickness victims will become sterile.

Chapter III
Research Design

This chapter presents the research design that includes the research
methodology, the respondents of the study, the locale of the study, the
research instrument, the data gathering process and the statistical treatment
of data.

Research Methodology
This study will use the descriptive method of investigation, utilizing a
questionnaire as the data gathering instrument. It will obtain facts about
existing conditions or significant relationships between current phenomena.
It will interpret and describe prevailing conditions or relationships that exist
or do not exist, processes that are going on or otherwise, and effects that are
being felt on trends that are developing. The method will involve data
gathering in order to answer questions concerning the current status of the
subjects of the study toward the solutions of problems included in the study.

Respondents of the Study

All the radiologic workers of hospitals in Iligan City will be the

respondents. They are expected to be few, hence the saturation point will be
sought.
These hospitals involved are: Dr. Uy Hospital, Inc., E and R Hospital and
Pharmacy, Gregorio T. Lluch Memorial Hospital, Iligan Medical Center, Mercy
Community Hospital, Inc., and Mindanao Sanitarium and Hospital.

The Locale of the Study

This study will be conducted in Iligan City, a city still part of Northern
Mindanao. It has a total area of 813.37 sq. km. with a population of 308,046
as of August 2007 NSO Census in 44 barangays. It has short dry season
usually running to about a month to three months with rainfall evenly
distributed throughout the year. The people are predominantly Roman
Catholic who speaks Cebuano. It is a highly urbanized city with at least 11
major industries. There are five hospitals in the city with four run privately
and one a government hospital. It also has 49 barangay health centers and
one main health center. Three hydro-power plants are operated in the area.
Its means of communications include four digital telephone systems, two
wireless telephone systems (Smart and Globe), two cable stations, one TV
station, eight radio stations and four internet service companies.

The Research Instrument

A questionnaire will be used in gathering data. The questions are
designed to elicit answers to the problems posed in the study. They are
likewise constructed following the pattern of the conceptual framework.

Validity of the Instrument

To ensure validity of the instrument, it will be shown to ten other
professionals in the radiologic field, like the instructors teaching the course.
They will be made to likewise answer the items in the questionnaire to
determine if the items will be well-understood by the respondents. The
instrument will be refined in the final stage before it is being fielded to the
radiologic workers in the hospitals.

Data Gathering Process

The researchers will seek the approval of the hospitals to get the
responses of the radiologic workers. Since many items are qualitative, they
will find enough time to be with each of the respondents to be able to get
enough information from their responses. The data will then be collected for
processing and presentation.

Treatment of Data
The data gathered will be pooled together and be interpreted. The various
standpoints of established researchers in the field as gleaned from Chapter
II, and the classroom and laboratory learning of the student researchers will
be used to bring about the existing conditions of the practices of radiologic
technicians. The presentation will be aligned according to sound statistical
standards.