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StructuralintegrityandfailureWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Structuralintegrityandfailure
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Structuralintegrityandfailureisanaspectofengineeringwhich
dealswiththeabilityofastructuretosupportadesignedload(weight,
force,etc...)withoutbreaking,tearingapart,orcollapsing,andincludes
thestudyofbreakagethathaspreviouslyoccurredinordertoprevent
failuresinfuturedesigns.
Structuralintegrityisthetermusedfortheperformancecharacteristic
appliedtoacomponent,asinglestructure,orastructureconsistingof
differentcomponents.Structuralintegrityistheabilityofanitemto
holdtogetherunderaload,includingitsownweight,resistingbreakage
orbending.Itassuresthattheconstructionwillperformitsdesigned
function,duringreasonableuse,foraslongasthedesignedlifeofthe
structure.Itemsareconstructedwithstructuralintegritytoensurethat
catastrophicfailuredoesnotoccur,whichcanresultininjuries,severe
damage,death,and/ormonetarylosses.

CollapsedbarnatHrsne,Gotland,
Sweden.

Structuralfailurereferstothelossofstructuralintegrity,whichisthelossoftheloadcarryingcapacityofa
componentormemberwithinastructure,orofthestructureitself.Structuralfailureisinitiatedwhenthe
materialisstressedbeyonditsstrengthlimit,thuscausingfractureorexcessivedeformations.Inawell
designedsystem,alocalizedfailureshouldnotcauseimmediateorevenprogressivecollapseoftheentire
structure.Ultimatefailurestrengthisoneofthelimitstatesthatmustbeaccountedforinstructuralengineering
andstructuraldesign.

Contents
1
2
3
4
5

Introduction
History
Typesoffailure
Notableintegrity
Notablefailures
5.1 Bridges
5.1.1 Deebridge
5.1.2 FirstTayRailBridge
5.1.3 FirstTacomaNarrowsBridge
5.1.4 I35WBridge
5.2 Buildings
5.2.1 Thanebuildingcollapse
5.2.2 Savarbuildingcollapse
5.2.3 SampoongDepartmentStorecollapse
5.2.4 RonanPoint
5.2.5 OklahomaCitybombing
5.2.6 Versaillesweddinghall
5.2.7 WorldTradeCenterTowers1,2,and7
5.3 Aircraft
5.4 Other
5.4.1 WarsawRadioMast
5.4.2 HyattRegencywalkway
6 Seealso
7 References

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Introduction
Structuralintegrityistheabilityofastructureoracomponenttowithstandadesignedserviceload,resisting
structuralfailureduetofracture,deformation,orfatigue.Structuralintegrityisaconceptoftenusedin
engineering,toproduceitemsthatwillnotonlyfunctionadequatelyfortheirdesignedpurposes,butalsoto
functionforadesiredservicelife.
Toconstructanitemwithstructuralintegrity,anengineermustfirstconsiderthemechanicalpropertiesofa
material,suchastoughness,strength,weight,hardness,andelasticity,andthendetermineasuitablesize,
thickness,orshapethatwillwithstandthedesiredloadforalonglife.Amaterialwithhighstrengthmayresist
bending,but,withoutadequatetoughness,itmayhavetobeverylargetosupportaloadandpreventbreaking.
However,amaterialwithlowstrengthwilllikelybendunderaloadeventhoughitshightoughnessprevents
fracture.Amaterialwithlowelasticitymaybeabletosupportaloadwithminimumdeflection(flexing),but
canbepronetofracturefromfatigue,whileamaterialwithhighelasitcitymaybemoreresistanttofatigue,but
mayproducetoomuchdeflectionunlesstheobjectisdrasticallyoversized.
Structuralintegritymustalwaysbeconsideredinengineeringwhendesigningbuildings,gearsortransmissions,
supportstructures,mechanicalcomponents,oranyotheritemthatmaybearaload.Theengineermustcarefully
balancethepropertiesofamaterialwithitssizeandtheloaditisintendedtosupport.Bridgesupports,for
instance,needgoodyieldstrength,whereastheboltsthatholdthemneedgoodshearandtensilestrength.
Springsneedgoodelasticity,butlathetoolingneedshighrigidityandminimaldeflection.Whenappliedtoa
structure,theintegrityofeachcomponentmustbecarefullymatchedtoitsindividualapplication,sothatthe
entirestructurecansupportitsloadwithoutfailureduetoweaklinks.Whenaweaklinkbreaks,itcanputmore
stressonotherpartsofthestructure,leadingtocascadingfailures.[1][2]

History
Theneedtobuildstructurewithintegritygoesbackasfarasrecordedhistory.Housesneededtobeableto
supporttheirownweight,plustheweightoftheinhabitants.Castlesneededtobefortifiedtowithstandassaults
frominvaders.Toolsneededtobestrongandtoughenoughtodotheirjobs.However,itwasnotuntilthe1920s
thatthescienceoffracturemechanics,namelythebrittlenessofglass,wasdescribedbyAlanArnoldGriffith.
Evenso,arealneedforthesciencedidnotpresentitselfuntilWorldWarII,whenover200weldedsteelships
brokeinhalfduetobrittlefracture,causedbyacombinationofthestressescreatedfromtheweldingprocess,
temperaturechanges,andthestresspointscreatedatthesquarecornersofthebulkheads.Thesquaredwindows
intheDeHavillandCometaircraftofthe1950scausedstresspointswhichallowedcrackstoform,causingthe
pressurizedcabinstoexplodeinmidflight.Failuresinpressurizedboilertankswereacommonproblemduring
thisera,causingseveredamage.Thegrowingsizesofbridgesandbuildingsbegantoleadtoevengreater
catastrophesandlossoflife.Theneedtobuildconstructionswithstructuralintegrityledtogreatadvancesin
thefieldsofmaterialsciencesandfracturemechanics.[3][4]

Typesoffailure
Failureofastructurecanoccurfrommanytypesofproblems.Mostoftheseproblemsareuniquetothetypeof
structureortothevariousindustries.However,mostcanbetracedtooneoffivemaincauses.
Thefirst,whetherduetosize,shape,orthechoiceofmaterial,isthatthestructureisnotstrongandtough
enoughtosupporttheload.Ifthestructureorcomponentisnotstrongenough,catastrophicfailurecan
occurwhentheoverstressedconstructionreachesacriticalstresslevel.
Thesecondisinstability,whetherduetogeometry,designormaterialchoice,causingthestructuretofail
fromfatigueorcorrosion.Thesetypesoffailureoftenoccuratstresspoints,suchassquaredcornersor
fromboltholesbeingtooclosetothematerial'sedge,causingcrackstoslowlyformandthenprogress
throughcyclicloading.Failuregenerallyoccurswhenthecracksreachacriticallength,causingbreakage
tohappensuddenlyundernormalloadingconditions.
Thethirdtypeoffailureiscausedbymanufacturingerrors.Thismaybeduetoimproperselectionof
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materials,incorrectsizing,improperheattreating,failingtoadheretothedesign,orshoddy
workmanship.Thesetypesoffailurecanoccuratanytime,andareusuallyunpredictable.
Thefourthisalsounpredictable,fromtheuseofdefectivematerials.Thematerialmayhavebeen
improperlymanufactured,ormayhavebeendamagedfromprioruse.
Thefifthcauseoffailureisfromlackofconsiderationofunexpectedproblems.Vandalism,sabotage,and
naturaldisasterscanalloverstressastructuretothepointoffailure.Impropertrainingofthosewhouse
andmaintaintheconstructioncanalsooverstressit,leadingtopotentialfailures.[3][4]

Notableintegrity
AkashiKaikyBridge,abridge
BurjKhalifa,abuilding
AmeralikSpan,aspan

Notablefailures
Bridges
Deebridge
On24May1847thenewrailwaybridgeovertheriverDeecollapsedas
atrainpassedoverit,withthelossof5lives.ItwasdesignedbyRobert
Stephenson,usingcastirongirdersreinforcedwithwroughtironstruts.
Thebridgecollapsewasthesubjectofoneofthefirstformalinquiries
intoastructuralfailure.Theresultoftheinquirywasthatthedesignof
thestructurewasfundamentallyflawed,asthewroughtirondidnot
reinforcethecastironatall,andthat,owingtorepeatedflexing,the
castinghadsufferedabrittlefailureduetofatigue.[5]
FirstTayRailBridge

TheDeebridgeafteritscollapse

TheDeebridgedisasterwasfollowedbyanumberofcastironbridge
collapses,includingthecollapseofthefirstTayRailBridgeon28December1879.LiketheDeebridge,the
Taycollapsedwhenatrainpassedoveritcausing75peopletolosetheirlives.Thebridgefailedbecauseof
poorlymadecastiron,andthefailureofthedesignerThomasBouchtoconsiderwindloadingonthebridge.
Thecollapseresultedincastironlargelybeingreplacedbysteelconstruction,andacompleteredesignin1890
oftheForthRailwayBridge.Asaresult,theForthBridgewasthefirstentirelysteelbridgeintheworld.[6]
FirstTacomaNarrowsBridge
The1940collapseoftheoriginalTacomaNarrowsBridgeissometimescharacterizedinphysicstextbooksasa
classicexampleofresonance,althoughthisdescriptionismisleading.Thecatastrophicvibrationsthatdestroyed
thebridgewerenotduetosimplemechanicalresonance,buttoamorecomplicatedoscillationbetweenthe
bridgeandwindspassingthroughit,knownasaeroelasticflutter.RobertH.Scanlan,fatherofthefieldof
bridgeaerodynamics,wroteanarticleaboutthismisunderstanding.[7]Thiscollapse,andtheresearchthat
followed,ledtoanincreasedunderstandingofwind/structureinteractions.Severalbridgeswerealtered
followingthecollapsetopreventasimilareventoccurringagain.TheonlyfatalitywasTubbythedog.[6]
I35WBridge

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TheI35WMississippiRiverbridge(officiallyknownsimplyasBridge
9340)wasaneightlanesteeltrussarchbridgethatcarriedInterstate35W
acrosstheMississippiRiverinMinneapolis,Minnesota,UnitedStates.The
bridgewascompletedin1967,anditsmaintenancewasperformedbythe
MinnesotaDepartmentofTransportation.ThebridgewasMinnesota's
fifthbusiest,[8][9]carrying140,000vehiclesdaily.[10]Thebridge
catastrophicallyfailedduringtheeveningrushhouron1August2007,
collapsingtotheriverandriverbanksbeneath.Thirteenpeoplewerekilled
Securitycameraimagesshowthe
and145wereinjured.Followingthecollapse,theFederalHighway
I35Wcollapseinanimation,
Administrationadvisedstatestoinspectthe700U.S.bridgesofsimilar
lookingnorth.
[11]
construction afterapossibledesignflawinthebridgewasdiscovered,
relatedtolargesteelsheetscalledgussetplateswhichwereusedtoconnectgirderstogetherinthetruss
structure.[12][13]OfficialsexpressedconcernaboutmanyotherbridgesintheUnitedStatessharingthesame
designandraisedquestionsastowhysuchaflawwouldnothavebeendiscoveredinover40yearsof
inspections.[13]

Buildings
Thanebuildingcollapse
On4April2013,abuildingcollapsedontriballandinMumbra,asuburbofThaneinMaharashtra,India.[14][15]
Ithasbeencalledtheworstbuildingcollapseinthearea.[16][nb1]74peopledied,including18children,23
women,and33men,whilemorethan100peoplesurvived.Thesearchforadditionalsurvivorsendedon6
April2013.[19][20][21][22]
Thebuildingwasunderconstructionanddidnothaveanoccupancycertificateforits100to150lowto
middleincomeresidents.[23][24]Livinginthebuildingwerethesiteconstructionworkersandfamilies.Itwas
reportedthatthebuildingwasillegallyconstructedbecausestandardpracticeswerenotfollowedforsafe,
lawfulconstruction,landacquisitionandresidentoccupancy.
By11April,atotalof15suspectswerearrestedincludingbuilders,engineers,municipalofficialsandother
responsibleparties.Governmentalrecordsindicatethatthereweretwoorderstomanagethenumberofillegal
buildingsinthearea:a2005Maharashtrastateordertouseremotesensinganda2010BombayHighCourt
order.Therewerealsocomplaintsmadetostateandmunicipalofficials.
On9April,acampaignbeganbytheThaneMunicipalCorporationtodemolishareaillegalbuildings,focusing
firston"dangerous"buildings.Theforestdepartmentsaidthatitwilladdressencroachmentofforestlandinthe
Thanedistrict.AcallcentrewasestablishedbytheThaneMunicipalCorporationtoacceptandtrackresolution
ofcallercomplaintsaboutillegalbuildings.
Savarbuildingcollapse
On24April2013,RanaPlaza,aneightstoreycommercialbuilding,collapsedinSavar,asubdistrictinthe
GreaterDhakaArea,thecapitalofBangladesh.Thesearchforthedeadendedon13Maywiththedeathtollof
1,129.[25]Approximately2,515injuredpeoplewererescuedfromthebuildingalive.[26][27]
Itisconsideredtobethedeadliestgarmentfactoryaccidentinhistory,aswellasthedeadliestaccidental
structuralfailureinmodernhumanhistory.[24][28]
Thebuildingcontainedclothingfactories,abank,apartments,andseveralothershops.Theshopsandthebank
onthelowerfloorsimmediatelyclosedaftercrackswerediscoveredinthebuilding.[29][30][31]Warningsto
avoidusingthebuildingaftercracksappearedthedaybeforehadbeenignored.Garmentworkerswereordered
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toreturnthefollowingdayandthebuildingcollapsedduringthemorningrushhour.[32]
SampoongDepartmentStorecollapse
On29June1995,the5storeySampoongDepartmentStoreintheSeochoDistrictofSeoul,SouthKorea
collapsedresultinginthedeathsof502people.InApril1995,cracksbegantoappearintheceilingofthefifth
floorofthestore'ssouthwingduetothepresenceofanairconditioningunitontheweakenedroofofthe
poorlybuiltstructure.Onthemorningof29June,asthenumberofcracksintheceilingincreaseddramatically,
thetopfloorwasclosedandmanagersshuttheairconditioningoff.Thestoremanagementfailedtoshutthe
buildingdownorissueformalevacuationordershowever,theexecutivesthemselvesleftthepremisesasa
precaution.Fivehoursbeforethecollapse,thefirstofseveralloudbangswasheardemanatingfromthetop
floors,asthevibrationoftheairconditioningcausedthecracksintheslabstowidenfurther.Amidcustomer
reportsofvibration,theairconditioningwasturnedoffbutthecracksinthefloorshadalreadygrownto10cm.
Atabout5:00p.m.localtime,thefifthfloorceilingbegantosinkby5:57p.m.,theroofgaveway,andtheair
conditioningunitcrashedthroughintothealreadyoverloadedfifthfloor,trappingmorethan1,500peopleand
killing502.
RonanPoint
On16May1968,the22storyresidentialtowerRonanPointintheLondonBoroughofNewhamcollapsed
whenarelativelysmallgasexplosiononthe18thfloorcausedastructuralwallpaneltobeblownawayfrom
thebuilding.Thetowerwasconstructedofprecastconcrete,andthefailureofthesinglepanelcausedone
entirecornerofthebuildingtocollapse.Thepanelwasabletobeblownoutbecausetherewasinsufficient
reinforcementsteelpassingbetweenthepanels.Thisalsomeantthattheloadscarriedbythepanelcouldnotbe
redistributedtootheradjacentpanels,becausetherewasnoroutefortheforcestofollow.Asaresultofthe
collapse,buildingregulationswereoverhauledtopreventdisproportionatecollapseandtheunderstandingof
precastconcretedetailingwasgreatlyadvanced.Manysimilarbuildingswerealteredordemolishedasaresult
ofthecollapse.[33]
OklahomaCitybombing
On19April1995,theninestoryconcreteframedAlfredP.MurrahFederalBuildinginOklahomawasstruck
byahugecarbombcausingpartialcollapse,resultinginthedeathsof168people.Thebomb,thoughlarge,
causedasignificantlydisproportionatecollapseofthestructure.Thebombblewalltheglassoffthefrontofthe
buildingandcompletelyshatteredagroundfloorreinforcedconcretecolumn(seebrisance).Atsecondstory
levelawidercolumnspacingexisted,andloadsfromupperstorycolumnsweretransferredintofewercolumns
belowbygirdersatsecondfloorlevel.Theremovalofoneofthelowerstorycolumnscausedneighbouring
columnstofailduetotheextraload,eventuallyleadingtothecompletecollapseofthecentralportionofthe
building.Thebombingwasoneofthefirsttohighlighttheextremeforcesthatblastloadingfromterrorismcan
exertonbuildings,andledtoincreasedconsiderationofterrorisminstructuraldesignofbuildings.[34]
Versaillesweddinghall
TheVersaillesweddinghall(Hebrew:),locatedinTalpiot,Jerusalem,isthesiteoftheworstcivil
disasterinIsrael'shistory.At22:43onThursdaynight,24May2001duringtheweddingofKerenandAsaf
Dror,alargeportionofthethirdfloorofthefourstorybuildingcollapsed.
WorldTradeCenterTowers1,2,and7
IntheSeptember11attacks,twocommercialairlinersweredeliberatelycrashedintotheTwinTowersofthe
WorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity.Theimpactandresultingfirescausedbothtowerstocollapsewithintwo
hours.Aftertheimpactshadseveredexteriorcolumnsanddamagedcorecolumns,theloadsonthesecolumns
wereredistributed.Thehattrussesatthetopofeachbuildingplayedasignificantroleinthisredistributionof
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theloadsinthestructure.[35]Theimpactsdislodgedsomeofthefireproofingfromthesteel,increasingits
exposuretotheheatofthefires.Temperaturesbecamehighenoughtoweakenthecorecolumnstothepointof
creepandplasticdeformationundertheweightofhigherfloors.Perimetercolumnsandfloorswerealso
weakenedbytheheatofthefires,causingthefloorstosagandexertinganinwardforceonexteriorwallsofthe
building.WTCBuilding7alsocollapsedlaterthatday.Accordingtotheofficialreport,the47storyskyscraper
collapsedwithinsecondsduetoacombinationofalargefireinsidethebuildingandheavystructuraldamage
fromthecollapseofthenorthtower.[36][37]

Aircraft
Repeatedstructuralfailuresofaircrafttypesoccurredin1954,whentwo
deHavillandCometC1jetairlinerscrashedduetodecompression
causedbymetalfatigue,andin196364,whentheverticalstabilizeron
fourBoeingB52bombersbrokeoffinmidair.

Other
WarsawRadioMast
On8August1991at16:00UTCWarsawradiomast,thetallestman
madeobjecteverbuiltbeforetheerectionofBurjKhalifacollapsedas
consequenceofanerrorinexchangingtheguywiresonthehighest
stock.Themastfirstbentandthensnappedatroughlyhalfitsheight.It
destroyedatitscollapseasmallmobilecraneofMostostalZabrze.As
allworkersleftthemastbeforetheexchangeprocedures,therewereno
fatalities,incontrasttothesimilarcollapseofWLBTTowerin1997.

A1964B52Stratofortresstest
demonstratedthesamefailurethat
causedthe1963ElephantMountain
&1964SavageMountaincrashes.

HyattRegencywalkway
On17July1981,twosuspendedwalkwaysthroughthelobbyofthe
HyattRegencyinKansasCity,Missouri,collapsed,killing114and
injuringmorethan200people[38]atateadance.Thecollapsewasdue
toalatechangeindesign,alteringthemethodinwhichtherods
supportingthewalkwayswereconnectedtothem,andinadvertently
doublingtheforcesontheconnection.Thefailurehighlightedtheneed
forgoodcommunicationbetweendesignengineersandcontractors,and
rigorouschecksondesignsandespeciallyoncontractorproposed
designchanges.Thefailureisastandardcasestudyonengineering
coursesaroundtheworld,andisusedtoteachtheimportanceofethics
inengineering.[39][40]

DesignchangeontheHyattRegency
walkways.

Seealso
Structuralanalysis
Structuralrobustness
Catastrophicfailure
Earthquakeengineering
Porchcollapse
Forensicengineering
Progressivecollapse
Seismicperformance
StructuralFractureMechanics
Collapsezone
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Engineeringdisasters
Tofudregproject

References
Notes
1.Ithasalsobeencalledtheworstbuildingcollapsedisasterinthepast10yearswithinthestateofMaharashtra,[17]and
theworstinthecountryin20years.[18]

Citations
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JohnWeirElsevier1999Page35
2.StructuralIntegrityofFasteners,Volume2EditedbyPirM.ToorASTM2000
3.AssuringstructuralintegrityinarmysystemsByNationalResearchCouncil(U.S.).NationalMaterialsAdvisory
Board,NationalResearchCouncil(U.S.).CommissiononEngineeringandTechnicalSystems,NationalResearch
Council(U.S.).CommitteeonAssuranceofStructuralIntegrity1985Page119
4.StructuralIntegrityMonitoringByR.A.CollacottChapmanandHall1985Page15
5.Petroski,H.(1994)p.81
6.Scott,Richard(2001).IntheWakeofTacoma:SuspensionBridgesandtheQuestforAerodynamicStability.ASCE
Publications.p.139.ISBN0784405425.
7.K.BillahandR.Scanlan(1991),Resonance,TacomaNarrowsBridgeFailure,andUndergraduatePhysics
Textbooks,AmericanJournalofPhysics,59(2),118124(PDF)(http://www.ketchum.org/billah/BillahScanlan.pdf)
8."2006MetroAreaTrafficVolumeIndexMap"(pdf).Mn/DOT.2006.Retrieved9August2007.Indexmapfor
Mn/DOT's2006trafficvolumesrelevantmapsshowingthehighestriverbridgetrafficvolumesareMaps2E,3E,
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9.Weeks,JohnA.III(2007)."I35WBridgeCollapseMythsAndConspiracies".JohnA.WeeksIII.Retrieved
6August2007.
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Interstatevolumesarefrom2006.
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39.Feld,J.Carper,K.L.(1997)p.214
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Bibliography
Feld,JacobCarper,KennethL.(1997).ConstructionFailure.JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN0471574775.
Lewis,PeterR.(2007).DisasterontheDee.Tempus.
Petroski,Henry(1994).DesignParadigms:CaseHistoriesofErrorandJudgmentinEngineering.
CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521466490.
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Stability.ASCEPublications.ISBN0784405425.
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