INSTRUCTOR’S COPY Essenti ae PSYCHOLOGY JEANNE ELLIS ORMROD[1 Motivation and Affect CHAPTER OUTLINE Case Study: Passing AlgebraTheoretical Perspective Behaviorism Humanism Self-determination Selt-worth theory Examples of, General Description Prominent Theorists EARLY PERSPECTIVES From a behaviorist perspective, motivation is Clark Hull coften the result of crv, internal states caused by _B. F. Skinner a ack of something necessary for optimal Dorothea Lerman functioning. Consequences of behavior Jack Michael (reinforcement, punishment) are effective only to the extent that they either increase or decrease @ A supplementary learner's drive state. In recent years some reading on Skinner's behaviorist have added a purposeful element to theory appesrs in the behaviorist perspective: They suggest that Ciater a Se learners intentionally behave in order to achieve S00k-Speciic Resources ‘certain end results, eee Historically, humanists have objected to Carl Rogers bbehaviorists' depiction of people's behaviors as being largely the result of external environmental ‘Abraham Maslow factors. In the humanist view, people have within A supplementary Sceeierumamveneriimewon “A Angee eee ames Teneo to fulfil tat potential. When given a cating and ‘appears in Chapter 6 ofthe Book-Specific Resources in MyEduca- tiontab. ‘Supportive environment, human beings strive to understand themselves, to enhance thelr abies, ‘and to behave in ways that benefit both themselves and others. Unfortunately, early humanist ideas were grounded more in philosophy than in research findings, so many contemporary ‘motivation theorists have largely left them by the wayside. However, one contemporary perspective, positive psychology (see the final ow Of this table), has some roots in the humanist Perspective, CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES Edward Dect Richard Ryan Johnmarshall Reeve Sel-determination theorists propose that human beings have three basic needs: a need to be ceffectve in dealing with the environment (competence), a need to control the course of ‘their lives (autonomy), and a need to have close, affectionate relationships with others (relatedness). Learners are more effectively ‘motivated to learn school subject matter when ‘these three needs are met. Self-worth theorists believe that protecting one's ‘own sense of competence—thatis, one’s sense of ‘self-worth a high priority for human beings. (One way to maintain and possibly enhance selt- ‘worth, of course, isto be successful in dily activities. But curiously, when learners suspect that they may fall at an activ, they sometimes do things (e., procrastinating until the last ‘miute) that make failure even more likely ‘Although such sel-handicapping decreases the probability of success, it also enables people to justify thei failure, both to themselves and to ‘others, and so enables them to maintain their self-worth Martin Covington 185 Basic Human Needs II See This the Book Where You Perspective We previously examined the effects of reinforcement and punishment in Chapter. In this chapter we draw ‘on behaviorist ideas primarily in our iscussions of extrinsic motivation. ‘The purposeful elament of behaviorism willbe useful in our discussions of functional analysis and positive ‘behavioral support in Chapter 9 Because humanists conducted litle research to substantiate their ideas, ‘we don't specifically look at them in this book. However, the humanist focus on internal, growth-producing motives has clearly influenced the contemporary cognitive perspectives we do consider. Self-determination theory guides much of our discussion of basic human ‘Needs early in the chapter, and recommendations related to these ‘Needs are presented in the chapter's final section, The discussion of internalized motivation is also based (on sel-determination theory Self-worth theory is clearly evident in the chapter's discussion of basic human needs. Also, when we look at seit-handicapping midway through the Chapter, we identiy a variety of Ccounterproductive behaviors through Which students may ty to maintain, their sense of self-worth in the face of seemingly insurmountable challenges, (continued)Theoretical Perspective Expectancy-value Expectancy-value theorists propose that theory Social cognitive theory Goal theory Attribution theory Positive psychology Examples of | Prominent Theorists General Description Jacquelynne Eccles ‘motivation for performing a particular taskisa Allan Wigfielo function of two variables. First, learners must believe they can succeed. In other words, they must have a high expectation, or expectancy, for their task performance. Second, leamers must believe that they will gain director indirect benefits {or performing a task. In other words, they must place value on the task tse or on the outcomes that are likely to result. ‘Albert Bandura Dale Schunk Barry Zimmerman Frank Pajares ‘Social cognitive theorists emphasize the importance of se-effcacy—the extent to which ‘one believes oneself to be capable of successfully performing certain behaviors or reaching certain ‘goals—in motivation, Social cognitive theorists also point out that human behavior is typically {goal directed, thereby providing a foundation for goal theory (described separately below), Carol Dweck Carol Ames Paul Pintrich Edwin Locke Gary Latham. Martin Ford Goal theorists focus on the kinds of outcomes (goals) toward which learners direct their behavior. LLeamers are apt to have goals in a variety of areas, including but not limited to academic performance, social relationships, careers, financial gain, and physical and psychological well-being. In recent years many goal theorists hhave focused on students’ goals related to learning in academic settings, which they refer to as achievement goals. ‘Attribution theorists look at learners’ beliefs about ‘why various things happen to them—for instance, about why they do well or poorly on academic tasks. These beliefs, known as attributions, influence learners’ optimism about future success. land about the actions they might take to bring about such success. For instance, learners are ‘more likely to work hard on classroom tasks if they believe that thelr utimate success depends on ‘something they themselves do—that i, if they attribute classroom success to internal and. controllable factors. Berard Weiner Carol Dweck ‘Sandra Graham Positive psychology embraces early humanists’ belief that people have many uniquely human {qualities propelling them to engage in productive, ‘worthwhile activities. But lke other contemporary ‘motivation theorists, it bases its views on research findings rather than philosophical speculations. As a distinct perspective of motivation, positive psychology emerged on the scene only in the late 1990s, and in its current form itis better characterized as a collection of ideas than as a ful-fledged, well-integrated theory. Martin Seligman Mina Catszetminay Ghistopher Peters” Where You Will See This Perspective in the Book Expectancy-value theorists’ findings, related to the effects of learners’ Values are presented midway through the chapter. Their findings related to the effects of learners’ expectancies are incorporated into the discussion of self-efficacy. ‘As we see in this chapter, learners aro ‘more apt to initiate, exert etfort in, and persist at activities for which they have high self-efficacy. To some degree high| selFefficacy comes from past successes in an activity. Social factors (e.g., exposure to peer models who perform a task successfully, encouraging words from others) can ‘also boost self-efficacy, at least forthe short run. The goal-directed nature of human motivation is evident early in the chapter. Later we look at the effects of various kinds of goals, with a particuar| focus on mastery goals (reflecting a desire to gain new knowledge and skills) and performance goals (reflecting a desire to look competent in the eyes of others). Midway through the chapter we look closely at the nature and effects of attributions. We also discover that over time, many leamers acquire a general attributional style, either a realistically Optimistic one (a mastery orientation) oF an overly pessimistic one (learned helplessness), The nuance of positive Wve psychology ‘Can best be seen in the discussions of flow (an intense form of invinie ‘motivation, optimism incorporated into sectors on seeicacy and tons), and emation set regulation. 7190 CHAPTERS Motivation and Affect ‘time on task Amount of tine ha students vo natiely engeged ineleaming sty. ; 1 basic needs just describes we'll discover that the basic nee: le ee earning in a variety of Ways. But Fister, ‘As we proceed through the chapter, havior and cognition in general ? moti ‘behavior. a affect learners’ motives, classroom ‘ Fook at how motivation tends to influence human bel « How Motivation Affects Behavior and Cognition Several general principles deseribe how motivation is likely to affect behavior, cognition, Several general principles dese and learning. Motivation directs behavior toward particular goals. hemos and ines Haman beings seem tobe purposeful by nature: They set goals for theme Os Wh inl courses of action they think will help them achieve those goals.” For schoo -Sge children and adolescents, some goals (¢.g.4“I want to finis! i ) aan ea (at want to bea paleontologist”) ae apt tobe lng ern 1nd relatively enduring os ae dae asthe specific goals toward which learners strive Thusit ates the choices learners make_-for instance, whether to enroll in physics or studio art and ‘whether to spend an evening playing video games with friends or, instead, completing « challenging homework assignment. h reading my dinosaur book") are shor. Motivation increases effort and persistence in activities. Motivation increases the amount of effort and energy that learners expend in activities directly related to their needs and goals.” It determines whether they pursue a task enthusi astically and wholeheartedly, on the one hand, or apathetically and lackadaisical, on the other. Furthermore, motivated learners are more likely to continue a task until they've com pleted it, even if they're occasionally interrupted or frustrated in the process. In general then, motivation increases learners’ time on task, an important factor affecting their learn ing and achievement.?? Motivation affects cognitive processes. Motivation affects what and how learners mentally process information.2" For one thing, motivated learners are more likely to pay attention, and as we discovered in Chapter ) attention is critical for getting information into working memory. Motivated learners as {uy to understand and elaborate on material—to learn it meaningfully—rather than simply “go through the motions” of learning ina superficial, rote manner, Ie sec this principle at work in the opening case study. As Michael's confidence an motivation increase, he begins to pay attention and take °s it tions when he doesn't understand a concept or noua ee Motivation determines what consé and punishing. THe wor lear are ttt cede aioe scadeic cet . ogres mt tio sade scsi more pod thy il rid le ne ei diane Chap gr tne sin ant tobe accepted and respected by their peers, the mon a ee When learners think their chances of success are behave in ways that make success even less likeh Even with considerable persistence, learners can't aware oo theyre asked to perform, Repeated lures ina patcune self-efficacy for the domain but Tucker & Anderman, 199, p. 6 *Dreck it, 1983; Wiel & Fels, 1982, 20 202: Zimmerman Band & Marine one 1982. ug RSE yacht SC. Peterson, 2006: C. R.Smye,1994 2002 * Dijkstra, Kuypes van der Wer Buu, & van der 2005 Shunk, 1985; Schunk & Pjre, 05 9; Usher & Pajares, 209 Sag ere Zn, Bags 2000, Wig 986: Schank & Zimmer “ Bandar, 193 afield etal. 200 ran im, they may be successful at certain tasks main may lower not only their ¥ competence and self-worth. also their general sense o: ‘panda, 1988, 2008; Dueck, 2000, Lackaye & Margalit, 2006y shen learners can't avoid tasks at which rformance.”* They may also engage in self-h, Sealy undermine their chances of success Se igding the following: «Reducing effort: Putting forth an oby ¢ Misbehaving: Engaging in off-ta ¢ Setting unattainably high goa individuals couldn't achieve «Taking on too much: Assumin accomplish them all « Procrastinating: Putting off task unt z Presenting others’ work «Using alcohol or drugs: ‘Taking substances thy they do—and especially if failure will they think they'il do poorly, "Y Make excuses th; etagh oath ‘andicappin, IFhandicappi ‘ously insufficient K behaviors in class Working toward goals th 1850 Many responsibilities th: til success is virtually impossible flect poorly on their intelligence and ability—they Cs 197 Cognitive Factors in Motivation alternative at seemingly justify their poor —that is, doing things that ipping takes a variety of forms, amount of effort to succeed at even the most capable at will inevitably reduce performance ly to succeed no matter what increase their chances of justifying the failure and thereby protecting thet self-worth." In te following interview, a student named Christine explains why she sometimes doesn't work very hard on her assignments: Interviewer: What if you dont do so well? Christine: Then you've got an excuse haven't put as much work into it. Interviewer: What's easier to cope with? Christine: From feeling like a failure because you're not good at it. Its easier to say, “failed because I didn’t put enough work into i” than “I failed because I'm not ‘good at it?”” Curiously some learners are more likely to perform at their best, an les likely to dis. Play sel- handicapping behaviors, when outside, uncontrollable circumstances seemingly ‘minimize their chances of success. In such cases failure doesnt indicate low ability and so doesn't threaten their sense of self-worth.”* - IS just easier to cope with ifyou think you Learners are more likely to devote time to activities that have value for them. ao Another cognitive factor influencing motivation is value: Learners mus belive there are direet or indirect benefits in performing a task. Their appraisal of the value of various tales the subject matter and ative they pus in ths fete the courses they choose in junior high and high school and many other coe hey mas? Usually learners value activities that are intriguing and enjoyable—in other ‘words, activities that are interesting. Activities that are associated with desirable per = ies viewed as important—also tend to be valued. For eee ts 1at smart people do well in school Still other activities have high value ‘example, a boy who wants to be smart and thinks th Wil place a premium on academic sux goals that is, they have uly. For example, hematics confusing and frustrating, she strug- because they're seen as means toa desi !ch as my daughter Tina found mat sled through four years of high school math cl Tequire that much math background. ee "Covington, 1992; Urdan ak Miley 2001 EM, Anderman,Griesinger, 8 Westerfield 1998 {Covingon, 192; ¥, Ford 196; EF, Jones & "as, 1974 ati, 2008; Riggs, 1992: Uedar RA ‘Aaderman, 8 Ghee, 2002. - ington, 1992; Rhodewalt & Vol, 2005 Sediides& Greyg, 2008, ‘41 Matin Marsh, Wiliamson, 8 Debs lasses simply because many colleges utty value n mainstream Western culture ut Vi, Ess, 206 sb, Dis Ken, ler eles & Mal, 205: Mache tek {Ean 1991 Wield & es, 2002 1 kon Wig ave uggne fur pos ‘cana why ae might igor lw terest, ‘prance otyand cs Es 105.208 ‘We ake 92 200, ly ifeul asks198 CHAPTERS Motivation and Affect On the other hand, learners ten they're worth—activities that esser become an expert on some litle nature of rats’ dreams), but 'm guessin alue activities that require more effort ty, 9 much. For example, you could pro} animal-eating plants of Borneo, fe more important things to which ed with t00 may not 0 4 tially ost 10 known topic (€8» that you hav ; Other activities may be asso her devote your time and energy Fh oo rated often enough in therefor bad fecing. For example, if learners become understand mathematics, they may eventualy Pe ble. And of course, anything likely to threater toavoid. In the early elementary years, children often purst enjoyable, regardless of their expecta increasingly attach value to activ to activities they think will help them meet long-term goal clear of math whenever pos begin to steer clear of mat ae ye erlearner’s sense of self-worth is a “mus sue activities they find interesting an wns for success.*! As they get older, however, th, for which they have high expectations for success an : Is,and they begin to devalue activ ites at which they expect to do poorly." oo NS Tamer sol and clare environments influence the tings they value as wel jorities and values of the peopl children grow older, they tend to adopt many of the priorities a 8 of the oop around them Such internalized motivation typically develops gradually over the course childhood and adolescence, perhaps in the sequence depicted in Figure 6.4." Initially 1. External regulation: Learners are initially ‘motivated to behave in certain ways, based Primarily on the external consequences that will follow the behaviors; that i, the learners are extrinsially motivated. eee 2. Introjection: Learners begin to bohave in ways {hat gain the approval of othors, partly as a way of protecting and enhancing thet sense of set ‘They feel quity when they violate certain Standards for behavior but do not uly understand the rationale behind these standards =| sce 3. Identification: Learners now see some behaviors and activities as being personally important or valuable fr ther. _ 4. Integration: Learners integrate certain behaviors ‘and activites into their overall system of motives ‘and values. In essence, these behaviers become 2 central part oftheir senso of sof, “IGURE 6.4 Sequence in which internalized notivation may develop parce: Basd on Dec & Molar, 2005; Del 8 yen, 1995, Tearners may engage in certain activities primarily because of the external con sequences that result. For instance, students may do schoolwork to earn praise of to avoid being punished for poor grades. Gradually, however, they may internalize the “pressure” to perform the activities and begin to see the activi ties as important in their own right. Such internalization of values is most likey to take place if adults who espouse those values (parents, teachers, etc.) provide 4 warm, supportive, and structured environment yet also offer enough auton omy in decision making that learners have a sense of self-determination about their actions. All too often, such conditions aren't present when it comes to learning academic subject matter. Accordingly, the value students find in many School subjects (e-g., math, English, music, sports) declines markedly over the school years." The more learners have internalized the value of academic achievement, the more cognitively engaged they become in school subject matter and the a their overall earning is likely tobe: Appreciation of an activity’ value fosters self-regulated learning—a general work ethic in which } spontaneously engage in activities that, althou, ately gratifying, are essential for reachin, earners igh not always fun or immedi: 1g long-term goals," essentially both forms of motivation come inside the learner rat ide factors in the immediate envi — od f = ithe ortant difference: Intrinsic motivation seems 10 hat wnprediabh, wl the lesnes,and soitcan ineveace n decrease some: what unpredictably. 5 Tease or some: orongo . a anda hence interned motivation is a product tural factors an ofleamers sense of le—their belies about whe ae eee a neg Pa remains fairly table and dependable over timers n° #88 human beings—i " Wigfeld, 1994, * aco Laz, Ono Ete 8 Will 2 Wigfield, 1994, = me " Deci Moller, 2005; Dec & Ryan, 1995, RM, Ryan & Deci 2000, Dec & Mollet, 2005; Eccles et ly nternalized motivation Adoption of thor people's priorities and values as ‘Mac Iver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991 © Asso, Vanst ninsteenkiste, & Kaplan, 200% 1a Guar 2003; tens, 2001 s Simons, Dewite, 2002 yh Boen Desi, 2090, Pew. 200 Harter, 1992; MeCoy i 996 RAL ona coc 96:8 Mt. an sree a, $e Gino RM FCS a edey "ONZE Ra eeLearners typically form goals related to their academic achievement; the specific nature of these goals influences learners’ cognitive processes and behaviors. As noted eat 5 much of human behavior is directed toward particular goals, For school- age children and adolescents, some of these goals are apt to relate to school learning and performance. Let's consider what three different boys might be thinking during the first day of a basketball unit in Mr. Wesolowski’s physical education class: Ti This is my chance to show all the guys what a great basketball player | am. If I stay near the basket, Travis and Tony will keep passing to me, and I'll score a lot of points. I can really impress Wesolowski and my friends. Travis: Thope | dont screw this up. IfT shoot at the basket and miss, look like a real loser. Maybe I should just stay outside the 3-point line and keep passing to Tim and Tony. Tony: | really want to become a better basketball player. I cant figure out why I don't get more of my shots into the basket. I'l sk Wesolowski to give me feedback about hhow I can improve my game, Maybe some of my friends will have suggestions, too. Al three boys want to play basketball wel. That is, they all have achievement goals. But they have different reasons for wanting to play well. Tim is concerned mostly about looking good in front of his teacher and classmates and so wants to maximize opportunities to demonstrate his skill on the court, Travis, too, is concerned about the impression he'll ‘make, but he just wants to make sure he doesn’t look bad, Unlike Tim and Travis, Tony isn't thinking about how his performance will appear to others. Instead, he's interested mainly in developing his basketball skills and doesn’t expect immediate success. For Tony, making mistakes is an inevitable part of learning a new skill, not a source of embarrassment oF humiliation. Tony’s approach to basketball illustrates a mastery goal, a desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills. Tim and Travis each have a performance goal, a desire to present themselves as competent in the eyes of others. More specifically, Tim has a performance-approach goal: He wants to look good and receive favorable judgments from others. In contrast, Travis has a performance-avoidance goal: He wants to avoid looking bad and receiving unfavorable judgments. Achievement goals often have an element of social comparison, in that learners are concerned about how theit accomplishments com- pare to those oftheir peers.®” Mastery goals, perfor mance-approach goals, and performance-avoidance goals aren't necessarily mutually exclusive, Learners may simultaneously have two kinds, or even all three.” For example, returning to our basketball example, we could imagine a fourth boy, ‘Trey, who wants to improve his basketball skills and look good in front of his classmates and not come across asa klutz. In most instances having mastery goals is the optimal situation. As Table 6.2 reveals, learners with mastery goals tend to engage in the very activities that will help them learn ‘They pay attention in class, process information in ways that promote effective long-term memory storage, and learn from their mistakes. Furthermore, learners with mastery goals have a healthy perspective about learning, effort, and failure. They realize that learning isa Process of trying hard and continuing to persevere even in the face of temporary setbacks. Consequently, these learners are the ones who are most likely to stay on task and who bene. fit the most from their classroom experiences.” In contrast, learners with performance goals—especially those with performance- «avoidance goals—may stay away from the challenging tasks that would do the most to help “Some theorists distinguish betwen master approach and masey-andance goals My focus ez ison ‘mastery approach gals, Mastry-aoidance goals—that '5 wanting waved the possibilty of beng incompetent statadk—seem tohave effects similar to thos of Performance avoidance goals (ese Eliot 2005; it &e MGregr, 2001; Witkow & Fug. 2007) "Eliot, 2005; Midgley et a, 1998; Régnes,Esribe, & Dupeyrat.2007, © Covington & Miele, 2001; Hid & Harackcwice, 2000; Meece & Holt, 1993, "Kumar, Ghen,& Kaplan, 2002; Shim, Ryan, & Anderson, 2008: Sins etal, 2008; Wentrel& ‘Wieteld, 1998, 199 Cognitive Factors in Motivation “* Which of those goals reflec intrinsic ‘or internalized motivation? Which reflect ‘extrinsic motivation? (Compare your response to this question withthe response presented in Chapter 6 of the Book Specific Resources in MyEducationlab,) 3 Observe mastery goals in the “Portola” and “Author's Chair” videos in Chapter Sof the Book. Specific Resources in MyEducationL sb ‘mastery goal Desire to scauire new Knowledge or master new sil, Performance goal Desire to demonstrate high abiltyand make a good imprersion Performance approach goal Desire to look ‘900d and receive lavrable judgments fro performanceavoidance goal Oesie not o look bed orreceve unavorbiewgments200 CHAPTERS Motivation and Affect TABLE6.2 Typical Differences between Learners with with Performance Goals Learners with Mastery Goals | Are more likely to1be actively engaged in classroom activites and intrinsically motivated to learn classroom subjact matter | Botiove that competence develops overtime though practice and etfor persist in the face of eifcuity Exhibit more self-reguiated learning and behavior Use learning strategies that promote true comprehension and | complex cognitive processes (e.g. elaboration, comprehension monitoring, transfer) ‘Choose tasks that maximize opportunities for learning; seek out challenges. ' ‘Are more likely to undergo conceptual change when confronted with convincing evidence that contradicts current beiafs i { | React to easy tasks with feelings of boredom or disappointment ‘Seek feedback that accurately describes their abilty and helps them improve Willngly collaborate with peers when doing s0 i likely to enhance learning | evaute thr own perfomance intrms of the promres they ake | reer aerate yt tr | | View errors as a normal and useful part of the learning process; use | errors to improve performance | are satisfied with thoi performance if they ty hard and make { progress | View a teacher as a rasource and guide to help them learn | Remain relatively calm during tests and classroom assignments | | Are mote likely to be enthusiastic about, and become actively | involved in, school activities Mastery Goals and Learners with Performance Goals See mmance-Avoidance Goals) (Especially Those with Perfor vated (.e., motivated by more likely o be extrinsically motivated (Le. " Acme ay 1 en oorcrment and punishment and mor Tikely to cheat to obtaln good grades acteristic (people either have that competence is a stable character . Baton thet omen tet competent people sMOUCh have toy very hard: give up quickly when facing difficulty Exhibit les self-regulation Use learning strategies that promote only rote learning (6.9.. repetition, copying, word-for-word memorization}; may procrastinate (on assignments Choose tasks that maximize opportunities for demonstrating ‘competence; avoid tasks and actions (e.9,, asking for help) that make ther look incompetent {A loss likely to undergo conceptual change, in part because they are less likely to notice the discrepancy between new information and existing beliefs React to success on easy tasks with feelings of pride or reliet ‘Seok feedback that fatters them Collaborate with peers primarily when doing so can help them look ‘competent or enhance social status Evaluate their own performance in terms of how they compare with others Ire ature a sgn otow ability and th eve of future failures: . | ‘View errors as a sign of failure and incom - incompetence; engage in self- hhangicapping to provide apparent justification for errors and failures ee See ee Sra agbarerarery nen eyez View a teacher as ajudge and as a rewarder or punisher ‘Are often quite anxious about tests and other assessments ‘Ae more likely to dIstance themselves from the school environmentCognitive Factors in Motivation 20 them master new skill. Furthermore, reatively “thoughtless” manner. Performa fines have very postive effets, spurring lees et Bah wijescence and especially in comin = to achieve at high levels, especially in rmance-approad goals may he aa eth sey gal Ye by these them eamers may exert only the minimal ert equinad ae oa ah tines, and possibly cheat on clang eae use relatively superialetning fade) and havelow seleticacy force atl” Young (eas inthe elementary Most young chiléren focus primarily on mastery goals But once they're in school ae a ey soinl yp nt a hay ese es iccess as doing as well as or be th : they may have trouble evaluating their etter than classmates. In addition, 7 e Progress on the complex cognitive skills they’ judgments about their competence and progress. For such reasons, performance goals become increasingly prevalent as children progress through the elementary and secondary school grades.*® Most academically motivated high school students are primarily concerned about getting good grades, and they prefer short, easy tasks to lengthier, more challenging ones. Performance goals are also common in team sports, where the focus is often more on winning and gaining public recognition than on developing new sil an seeing improve- ment over time. these lean « learners tend to process information ina rote Is are a mixed bag. They som rformance-approach goals Learners must juggle their achievement goals with their many other goals. Children and adolescents typically have a wide variety of goals. Not only might they want to do well in school but they also want to have a good time, be healthy and safe, earn money, and eventually embark on a rewarding career. Many of their goals are apt to be social goals that can help them meet their need for relatedness. For example, they may want to gain the approval of adults, be liked and respected by peers, belong to a supportive social group, and contribute to other people’s welfare.” Among learners’ many goals are certain core goals that drive much of what they do.' For instance, learners who attain high levels of academic achievement typically make classroom ee learning a high priority. Learners who achieve at lower levels are often more ime concerned with social relationships." Bec aur Leamnors use several strategies t0 juggle their many goals. Sometimes 7p, they find activities that allow them to address two oF more goals Sapa Levey a tu, For instance, they can address both achievernent goals and soca) goa's, Fi 2" 2° by forming a study group to prepare ideas of what it means to achieve pari goa high school student who initially hopes to earn : dime may conally decide that earning Bs in two of them is more rain. ‘And sometimes learners entirely abandon one. goal in order to satis 7 For instance, they may find that the multiple demanc into focusing on performance goal stance, an ambitious ‘or Is (e.g. getting good 8F Ca Roberts Treasure, & Kassin 197 Tiaarmaiona mon MeN A208 TO So Linnenbrink, 2008: Rawsthorne & Eliot 1999 VISE 9 pyyi, 2003; Dowson & McInerney, 2001: ME mn 2007; Hinkley, Melnerney,& Marsh, Thanet ott TH Re et tn Meyer eval, 2008; Midgley, Kaplan, Middleton 307°" ae sr Went! & Wighild, 1998; Wied Eo ‘Midgley, 1997; Midgley et al.,2001- aang Dodges Asher, 8 Parkhurst, 19895 * Bong, 2009; Dweck & Elli 1 Covington, 2000 for atest. Sometimes they modify their TS they [hye Re ete eva. & Davidson, ponee ee tobe a: surge ee ee get: sick and vain Ehey wll Feel sell. Furl? TL As in three challenging itudy hard fos lots of year Career aspirations are often among learners’ many go Here 7-year-old Ashton explains why he wants to be 9 1s of school coerce them surgeon. Notice how his career goal also has @ socal: a 2 9 rades) rather than 60! component: “I can help people they] get sick. social goa! Desire related to establishing Taintining relatiorshioe with other peop ‘Long-term goal that drives muc202 CHAPTERS Motivation and Aftct hey’ like, Brian, a junior high school student, studying the subject mates thorough hey a rane goal ‘expresses his regret about leaving mastery goa ai ne mia til a8 A on Ise ade ise foe ite an Ul 8 8 ae ern tondard event hich ha have in es jot that Isl have feng that I could do betes, ler my and stil got this... think probably th 21 ooking forward taal. aay kno though T won expres it that mach! ecause most learnets have a strong need for relatedness their social goals often influ. Sia aio achiveent gal I Chavo an the pi hy get 208 mes want to gain tears eto and approval they apt ste good frond ine aso fr 6 If they seek friendly relationships rads and in other ways shoot for performance goals. emer ela activites ax cooperative esting and peer tutoring’ A desir for close relationships wi others may ao lead them to ask pers for lp but they want © impress peers with thei high ability—a performance goal—they probably won't ask for help. If they s oe the approval of ow-achieving peers, they may exert little effort in their studies and possibly even avoid classroom task altogether.” Learners identify what are, in their minds, the likely causes of their successes and failures. As we've seen in previous chapters, learners actively try to make sense of their experiences, Such ense-making sometimes involves identifying reasons for success or failure in particu- lar situations. To gain insight into the kinds of explanations you yourself might identify, try the following exercise ~SEE FOR YOURSELF Carberry and Seville — CO Professor Josiah S. Carberry has just returned the first set of exams, scored | sraded, in your advanced psychoceramies cass. You discover that you've gotten one of the few high test grades in the class, an A-. Why did you do so well when most of your classmates did poorly? Jot down several possible explanations for why you might have received a high grade in Carberry’ class. i | 2. An hour later, you get the results ofthe first test in Professor Barbara F, Seville’s socio «cosmetology clas, and you learn that you failed it! Why did you do so poorly? Jot | down several possible reasons for your F on Seville’s test. aaa nein | Here are some posible explanations for your A~in Carberry’ class You studied hard, © You'resmart. You have a natural talent for psychoceramics, * You were lucky. Carberry asked the right questions; i he'd asked di you might not have done so wel. "ihe dasked diferent questions sychoceramics and requesting copies o} actually read), really paid off "S.Thomas & Olathe, 1997, . 19, "Hinkley et l,2001; Urdan & Mestas, 2006, soy at RY Hicks, Midgley, 997. © LH. Andean & Andetman, 195; Deon & Schulheie € Beno ME Ford & Nichol 191; et on ues & Bruns 2008,In contrast, here are some possible reasons you failed Seville’s exam: You didn't study enough, You studied the wrong things, You've never had a knack for sociocosmetology. The student next to you was constantly distracting you with his wheezing and coughing. # You were unlucky Seville asked the wrong questions; if she'd asked different questions, you would have done better. 4 Tt wasa bad test: The questions were ambi juous and tested knowledge of trivial facts. Learners’ beliefs about what behaviors and other factors influence events in their lives are attributions, Learners form attributions for many events in their daily lives—why they do well or poorly on tests and assignments, why they're popular or unpopular with peers, why they're skilled athletes or total klutzes, and so on. Their attributions vary in three pri- mary ways:!® + Locus (“place”): Internal versus external. Learners sometimes attribute the causes of events to internal things—to factors within themselves. Thinking that a good grade is due to your own hard work and believing that a poor grade is due to your lack of ability are examples of internal attributions. At other times learners attribute events to external things—to factors outside themselves. Concluding that you received a scholarship because you “lucked out” and interpreting a classmate’s scowl asa sign of her bad mood (rather than as something you might have deserved because of your behavior) are examples of external attributions. © Stability: Stable versus unstable. Sometimes learners believe that events are due to stable factors—to things that probably won't change much in the near future. For example, if you believe that you do well in science because of your innate intelligence or that you have trouble making friends because you're overweight, you're attributing events to stable, relatively long-term causes. But sometimes learners instead believe that events result from unstable factors—things that can change from one time to the next. Thinking that winning a tennis game was a lucky break and believing you got a bad test grade because you were exhausted when you took the test are examples of attributions involving unstable factors. © Controllability: Controllable versus uncontrollable. On some occasions learners attribute events to controllable factors—to things they can influence and change. For example, if you think a classmate invited you to his birthday party because you often smile and say nice things to him, and if you think you probably failed a test simply because you didn’t study the right things, you're attributing these events to control- lable factors. On other occasions learners attribute events to uncontrollable factors— to things over which they have no influence. If you think that you were chosen for the lead in the school play only because you look “right” for the part or that you played a lousy game of basketball because you were sick, you're attributing these events to uncontrollable factors. Because attributions are self-constructed, they may or may not reflect the true state of affairs, For instance, a student may blame a low test grade on a “tricky” test or an “unfair” teacher when the cause was realy the student’s own lack of effort or ineffective study strate- gies. Metacognition often enters into the picture here. In Chapter 4 we discovered that learners who don't carefully monitor their comprehension may have an illusion of knowing, thinking they've learned something they actually haven't learned. When these learners do poorly on an exam, they can't attribute their performance to internal, controllable factors because, in their minds, they studied hard and so “know” the material. Instead, they're apt, to attribute the failure to such external factors as bad luck, exam difficulty, or teacher incompetence.' ' Weiner 1986, 2000, 2005, “ Horgan, 1990; Rhodewalt & Vos, 2005. Cognitive Factors in Motivation 203 attribution Personally constructed causal txplanaton for s particular event. such asa succoH8 oF fale04 CHAPTERS Motivation and Affect “And remember, Kids: H you pay to the beat ot {your abit and stil loe the game, just blame Tallon the umpire y blaming the umpire for a loss, chitdren can ore easily maintain a sence of selt-worth, owever, such external ateributions are ounterprodictive when the true eauces for secoss and failure are internal and within ides contr! THE BLEACHERS ©2002 Steve Moore. Reprinted with riision of UNIVERSAL UCLICK All rghs weed se suecesses to internal CAUSES (©, hy ers tend to attribute their SM (e-gu luck, other peop) |r ability, hard work) and tnemcves onthe back forthe things they d° well and pu ret et eyo hem Ce ener onsite falatasks andes Don) te aaraecaeding at those same tasks, heye apt Pu {Ne Ei TSomingly unconrlale internal for: thrown ow" ABNEY algebra t — way, Michael intially ateibutes ia algebra In the opening ca has no control: low aptitude (an internal abt ees aan paion), But as his tutor helps him understan, sad poor instruction (an exter ally a5 he experiences succes in cla, algebric principles and procedures, and expel ashe experiences s'est cls he begins to attribute his performance t© two unstable, control—effort and better strategies: reo ha ei nt eae or do ikon i tiny expos toisten»The teacher doe rts noe oo ae Now ly and comprehend ak questions and figure out how he got the answer.!"* Learners’ attributions for past successes and failures affect ir future performance. anes ose two fictional exams you considered inthe earlier “Carberry and Seville” exercise—the psychoceramics exam (on which you got an A~) and the socio- cosmetology exam (on which you got an F). Imagine that you'll be taking second exams in both psychoceramics and sociocosmetology in about three weeks’ time. How much will you study foreach exam? ‘The amount of time you spend studying for your upcoming exams will depend somewhat on your attributions for your earlier test grades. Le’ frst consider your A~ on Professor Carberry’s exam. If you think you did well because you studied hard, you'll prob ably spend @ lot of time studying for the second test as well. If you think you did well because you're smart or a natural whiz at psychoceramics, you may not study quite as ‘much. Ifyou believe your success was a matter of luck, you may hardly study at all, but you ‘might wear your lucky sweater when you take the next exam. And if you think the 4 reflects how much Carberry likes you, you ma ‘more important than time spent studying, in which you interpret the grade will influence ‘exam-—if, in fac, you prepare at all. If you bel the right things, you may spend more time st sgrade was due toa temporary situation—per you, or perhaps Seville asked the wrong que ¥y decide that time spent flattering him is Now lets consider your filing grade on Professor Seville’ exam, Once again, the wa) the waysin which you prepare forthe second lieve you didn’t study enough or didn't study tudying the next time. If you think your poor haps the student sitting next to you distracted stions—you ma sete asyou did before, hoping you'll do better the dr onan endy in mach the same Frieze, 1985, "8 Ciford, 1990; Pare & Byrnes, 1989, Sehunk, 1930; Emotional reactions to success and. failure, sce and sad when they fail. But attributic octamer ae pee eaten sbout their failures only if they attribute these outean en od Sulty and ashamed inc tg hy hmsterh en ae hal ae Sechelt unde me Naturally, ions bring o their suce se earners are happy when they ther emotions into the mix Toa Mra 205 Why 1 Coingan tm 1987: ¥. Hong, Chiu, & Deck, 1995: Weiner, 1984, "Tucks & Andean, 199, p. 5-6Cognitive Factors in Motivation 205 kcarners think someone else was to blame for an undesirable outcome, they're apt to be angry—an emotion that’s unlikely o lead to productive follow-up behaviors! fe TO ead Expectations for future success or failure, When learners attribute their successes and failures to stable factors (e.g, innate ability orth lack of it), they expect their future performance wo be slr thet current performance. In contrast, when they attribute their suecesses and failures to unstable factors (eg effort of luck), thei current success rate will have little influence on their expectation for future success, and a few failures won't put much of a dentin their self. cy The most optimistic leamers—those with the highest expectations for future success—are the ones who attribute their successes to stable, dependable (and usually innate ability and an enduring work ethic an to unstable factors such as lack of effort ori © Effort and persistence. Learners who belie: their own lack of effort (a controllable cau face of difficulty. Learners who, instead, att uncontrollable cause) give up easily previously done successfully." Learning strategies. Learners who expect to succeed in the classroom and believe that ‘academic success isa result of their own doing are more likely to apply effective learning strategies—especially when they're taught these strategies, These learners are also more apt to be self-regulating learners and to seek help when they need it. In contrast, learners who expect failure and believe their academic performance s largely out of their hands often reject effective learning strategies in favor of rote-learning approaches! pdlatibute hei res soo hy el uate inappropriate strategies.115 "Ney tribute thet -ve their failures result from \s¢) are apt to try harder and persist in the tribute failure to a lack of innate ability (an ‘and sometimencat even perform tat oe Given all of these effects, it shouldn't surprise you to learn that learners with internal, con- trollable attributions for classroom success (rather than external ones they can't control) are more likely to achieve at high levels and graduate from high school.!"* Let’s consider how some of the factors just listed play out in the opening case study. Michael initially attributes his failure in algebra to both his own low ability and his teacher's poor instruction, and so he probably feels a combination of shame and anger. Because the perceived causes of his failure are both stable and out of his control, he expects future fail- ture no matter what he does and thus has little reason to exert much effort (e.g., he doesn't take notes). As Michael acquires new study strategies and gains a better understanding of algebraic concepts and procedures, he achieves greater success and realizes that his success is the direct result of his own hard work His new internal and controllable attributions lead him to use more effective strategies and be a more self-regulating learner: With age, learners increasingly attribute their successes and failures to ability rather than to effort. Aschildres grow older, they bene increasingly sble to ding among the various pos- sible causes of their successes and failures: effort, ability, luck, task difficulty, and so on.!2° One distinction they gradually get a better handle on is that between effort and ability. In the at ein 200 Pn, 206 Lf Davi jen, Suds ian, 2002; a ee ee Dweck et al, 2004; Pintrich, 2003. °° Dek ni 2 Pomerantz & Son ; se 200 Es 2008 Pn ace Ander, 198 p 8 ical, 190, 1978, 2000; Feather, 1982; Weinet, 1984, Nicholl "'R Ames, 1983; Dwseck, Mangels, & Good, 2004 Mangels 2006; Dj, Palmer & Goetz 1988; Presley Borkowski, & Schneider, 1987; Zimmerman, 1998.206 CHAPTER 6 Motivation and Affect early elementary school grades, children think of effort and ability as positively correla People who try harder are more competent. Thus, they tend to attribute their successes i, hard work and are usually optimistic about their chances for future success as long as they ry hard, Sometime around age 9, they begin to understand that effort and ability often compen, sate for each other and that people with less ability may need to exert greater effort, At abou the same time, many also begin to attribute their successes and failures to an inherited ability—for instance, to something they call “intelligence” —which they perceive to be fairly stable and beyond their control. If they’re usually successful at school tasks, they have high self-efficacy for such tasks. If, instead, they often fail, their self-efficacy can plummet.” As we discovered in Chapter 5, psychologists disagree about the extent to which intelli gence is the result of heredity (and thus stable and uncontrollable) or environment (and thus able to increase with instruction and practice). Even children and adolescents have difiering opinions on the matter.'” Those with an incremental view believe that intelligence can aid does improve with effort and practice. In contrast, those with an entity view believe thet intelligence is a distinct ability that is built-in and relatively permanent. A student named Sarah clearly reveals an entity view in her explanation of why she has trouble in math: My dad is very good at math, and my brother, I, and my mom aren't good at math at all, we inherited the “not good at math gene” from my mom and I am good in English but I am not good in math.!23 Students with an incremental view of intelligence and specific academic abilities are li! to adopt mastery goals in the classroom, to work hard at their studies, and to earn inctess ingly high grades. In contrast, students with an entity view (like goals, quickly lose interest in a topic that doesn't come face of failure, and earn lower grades over time.!4 Sarah) adopt performaee easily to them, self-handicap in the