Chapter 2

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Notes

Notes

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Psychrometry
Processes

Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes:
When you have studied this chapter you should be able to:

Psychrometric
Processes

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

Explain what is meant by sensible heating.

Indicate an example of a sensible heating process on a
Psychrometric Chart and use this to estimate the heater
duty.
Indicate an example of sensible cooling (both at
constant moisture content and with dehumidification) on a
Psychrometric Chart.
List and compare the common methods of humidification.
Explain what is meant by the Room Ration Line and its
application.
Show how a Psychrometric Chart can be used to
determine the mixed condition for a mixture of two
streams of air.

Suggested Study Time:

Chapter 2

(a) For study of chapter material;

(i)
Initial on-screen study
1 hour
(ii) Printing of notes and subsequent
in-depth study
2 hours
(b) For completion of the quick revision study guide
hour
Total estimated study time

3 hours

Page2a22a

Notes

Chapter Contents
Item

page

Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Sensible Heating Coils
Effectiveness
Cooling Coils
Sensible Cooling
Latent/Sensible Cooling
Contact Factor
Humidifiers
Water Spray Types
Spray Washer
Capilliary Washer
Sprayed Coils
Spinning Disc
Pan Humidifier
Steam Humidifier
Humidifier Psychrometric Process
Water Humidifier
Steam Humidifier
Room Psychrometric Process
Mixing Air Streams

2-1b
2-3a
2-3b
2-4b
2-5a
2-5b
2-6a
2-6b
2-7a
2-7b
2-7b
2-7b
2-8a
2-8a
2-8a
2-8b
2-9a
2-9a
2-9b
2-10a
2-11a

Quick Revision Study Guide

Chapter Notes

2-12a
2-12a

Page2a22b

Notes

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Introduction

Having established the relationships between all the different properties of humid air, the next step is to investigate the
processes (changes in condition) that occur when the air is thermally conditioned. Within this chapter these processes are
trated individually at first and later combined to form complete
cycles. But you may ask yourself why is it necessary to condition air? Consider therefore the problem of supplying air to a
room throughout the year.
In winter, the outside air might be at -5C and 90% saturation and this must be treated before it can be introduced into a
room where we are trying to achieve conditions of say +20C
and 50% saturation. But in heating the air from -5C to 20C,
the moisture content remains constant (so that the percentage
saturation decreases), and if this air was introduced into the room
at this low moisture content, problems of static electricity and
dry eyes, nose and throat could result. In order to get the air into
a suitable room condition, it is necessary to heat the air and then
have it humidified by injecting steam or water.
Alternatively, during the summer months, the outside air
temperature might be 28C, 80% saturation. In this case the air
needs to be cooled below its dew-point in order to extract moisture.
Hence in this part of the module we shall be considering
the building blocks (items of air-conditioning plant) from which
complete systems are constructed. The processes intoduced are
considered (in thermodynamic terms), as steady state flow and
as such, are represented as straight lines on the psychrometric
chart connecting two different states or conditions of air. The
simplified air-conditioning cycles are intended to illustrate the
principles of air conditioning and are not necessarily practicable.

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Notes

Notes

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Sensible Heating Coils

Air is heated in an air-conditining plant by passing it through
an air heater battery (or coil).
Schematic Representation of All Fresh-air, Constant Volume
Air Conditioning System
Steam
Humidifier

+ T

T +

T
FAN
Supply air

Outdoor air
supply

Heating
Frost
Heating Filter Cooling coil
coil
coil

Extract air

FAN

MECHANICAL PLANT ROOM

AIR-CONDITIONED
ROOM

An air heater battery (or coil) normally comprises of a

number of heating elements, arranged at right angles to the directio
of air flow, contained within a sheet metal casing with flanged
ends. The heating elements are either plain or finned tubes, carrying water or steam, or electric heating elements. Steam tubes
(always) and electric elements (usually) are arranged vertically
and hot water tubes horizontally. Tubes are of copper with either
copper or aluminium fins.

Hot water
heating coil

With larger heating loads, several banks of tubes will be

required and each bank of tubes is called a row. The tubes in
each row are usually connected in parallel.

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Notes

Notes

moisture content

sp
ec
en
ific
th
alp
y

Sensible heating coil

hb
ha
A

temperature

ta

ga = g
b

Alternatively, it can be calculated using the temperature

difference and the specific heat capacity for the air sample. The
specific heat capacity is a property of a substance; for dry air it
has a value of 1.01 kJ/kg K and for water a value of 4.18 kJ/kg K
With humid air, the value changes according to the moisture content but is generally taken as 1.02 kJ/kg K for practical air-conditioning.
Thus the heater duty can be calculated from:
q = m x cp x (tb ta).
Effectiveness
Air heaters, like all heat exchangers, are basically 100%
efficient. Their performance is judged in terms of effectiveness which can be defined as follows:
Effectiveness = (tb ta)
(thc ta)

tb

where thc is the mean surface temperature of the heater coil.

The more rows to the heater, the higher will be the effectiveness. However there is no particular merit in having a high
effectiveness and the greater the number of rows, the higher the
resistance to air-flow and the greater the energy consumption of
the fan. Thus the fewest number of rows that will heat the air to
the design temperature is all that is required.

If air at condition A is heated to condition B, it will increase in dry-bulb temperature but the moisture content will remain constant. The enthalpy will increase and all the increase
will be sensible heat (i.e. heat causing a temperature rise).
Note that although the moisture content remains constant,
the percentage saturation (relative humidity) reduces. This increases the drying force of the air. The drying force is the
difference between the vapour pressure and the saturation vapour pressure (at the same temperature) for an air sample, i.e. the
drying force increases from pssA psA to pssB psB.
The specific enthalpy difference measured from the
psychrometric chart (click adjacent symbol) when multiplied by
the mass flow rate of air will give a value for the heater duty
required:
q = m x (hb - ha)

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Psychro
Chart

Cooling Coils

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Notes

Notes

Schematic Representation of All Fresh-air, Constant Volume

Air Conditioning System
Psychro
Steam
Humidifier

+ T

T +

Chart
T

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Sensible Cooling
When the dew-point of the entering air is above, or equal
to, the apparatus dew-point, the process is entirely sensible and
the psychrometic process will be the exact reverse of the heating
process (click adjacent symbol).

FAN
Supply air

Sensible cooling at constant moisture

content
ific

Extract air

Air cooling coils (or batteries) are similar to air heaters with
the additional provision of a collection tray and drain for condensate.
The cooling medium is either chilled water or a refrigerant
and the tubes are normally arranged horizontally. Tubes are usually fed in parallel for each row and the rows fed from back to
front to approximate to contaflow with air-flow. With refrigerant systems, the coils are often interlaced. Cooling coils usually
have more rows than heater coils, typically 4 to 6 compared to 1
or 2 for an air heater battery.
The cooling process is the reverse of the heating process
with an added complication. The crucial parameter is the relationship between the dew-point temperature of the air entering
the coil to the temperature of the cooling coil surface the apparatus dew-point (tadp).

ha

t. l

AIR-CONDITIONED
ROOM

sa

MECHANICAL PLANT ROOM

ine

en

th

sp

ec

FAN

hb

C
temp.

tc

B
tb

A
ta

moisture content

Heating
Frost
Heating Filter Cooling coil
coil
coil

alp
y

Outdoor air
supply

ga = g
b

Latent/Sensible Cooling
When the dew-point of the entering air is below the apparatus dew-point, both sensible and latent heat (heat exchange without a change in temperature) processes take place.
The cooling process will again follow a straight line linking A to B, but the extended line will pass through point C the
saturation condition of the apparatus dew-point.

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Notes

Notes

)
Contact Factor (
With cooling coils, the effectiveness of a coil is usually
expressed as a percentage, or it can be referred to as a contact
factor and expressed as a decimal value from:

ine
t. l
sa

hb
hc

temp.

tc

tb

= ga gb = ha hb
ga gc
ha hc

moisture content

ific
alp
y

ec

en

th

sp

ta tb
ta tc

Additionally, the term bypass factor is sometimes used which

is given by:
Bypass factor = 1 Contact factor

ga
g
b
gc

ta

Thus there will be both a reduction in temperature and a

reduction in moisture content and condensation will occur on
the cooling coil surface.
Again, the specific enthalpy difference measured from the
psychrometric chart (click adjacent symbol) when multiplied by
the mass flow rate of air will give a value for the heater duty
required:
q = m x (ha - hb)

Or again it can be calculated in two separate components:

Sensible heat
qS = ma x cp x (tb ta )
and Latent heat
qL = ma x hfg
where hfg is the latent heat of evaporation for water (approx 2500 kJ/kg)

Sensible cooling with dehumidification

ha

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Psychro
Chart

Humidifiers
Humidifiers are devices for increasing the moisture content of humid air. They either inject water (which is evaporated
into the air), or inject steam which is simply hot-water vapour.
Early steam humidifiers used live steam; from steam heating
systems but latterly have produced their own steam using electric heating elements. Recent developments have included ultrasonic humidifiers and water injection using compressed air to
avoid recirculating water and thus reduce the chance of
Legionaires disease.
Schematic Representation of All Fresh-air, Constant Volume
Air Conditioning System
Steam
Humidifier

+ T

T +

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Notes

Notes

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Until comparatively recently nearly all humidifiers were of

the water type. However, in the last decade or so, water type
humdifiers have become less popular due to their high maintenance, large size and largely unfounded fears of legionella. Steam
humidifiers have therefore become more popular due to their
compactness and ease of maintenance.

Steam Humidifier
The original steam humidifiers were fed directly with steam
available on site for other purposes. They were very common in
the USA, as was steam heating. They are fitted with a superheater to avoid introducing water into the airstream and are fully
modulating.

T
FAN
Supply air

Outdoor air
supply

Heating
PreHeating Filter Cooling coil
coil
coil

Extract air

FAN

MECHANICAL PLANT ROOM

AIR-CONDITIONED
ROOM

In some instances, particularly industrial applications requiring high humidity Direct Humidification is used. This can
be achieved using water which can be atomised, either by injecting with compressed air through high pressure nozzles, or
mechanical impingement. Alternatively steam can be injected
directly into the space.
In the majority of cases however Indirect Humidification
is used where a steam or water humidifier is incorporated in an
air supply system which supplies treated air to the space through
ductwork.

Steam Humidifier
fed from live steam.

Electric steam humidifiers, generating steam locally, were

at first introduced to satisfy small demands and had only on/off
control. There use has become more and more common and
they are now available in a range of sizes with on/off, step or
modulating control.

Water Spray Types

Water humidifiers are often referred to as washers and

this name can be confusing in that they are not in any way intended to be air cleaners. They are not commonly used today but
have been included with these note because there are may systems still operating today, which may contain thse types of humidifier.
All water spray humidifiers are relatively bulky constructions which require regular maintenance. They air velocity
through them is usually limited to about 2.5 m3/s. Eliminator
plates are fitted downsteam to minimise the amount of water
carried over into the system in the airstream. All of these humidifiers are prone to bacteriological growth and other forms of
contamination since the water collection ponds may remain
uncirculated for long periods in summer. Regular water treatment, cleaning and blow-down are therefore necessary.
Spray Washers
These humidifiers comprise a bank or banks of spray nozzles arranged across the airway through which water is forced at
high pressure to produce a fine spray of water. The unevaporated
water is collected in a tray or pond and then recycled. In some
cases the water supply can be chilled to give a sensible cooling
effect and even dehumidify the air although this arrangement is
not common today.
Capilliary Washers
These are fitted with cells filled with glass fibre or open
meshed polythene foam which are wetted with water sprays. They
have an extremely high effectiveness (usually referred to as efficiency) of as high as 97%. However they offer a high resistance
to the air stream as air has to pass through the packed cells.

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Notes

Notes

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Sprayed Coils
The most common of the water spray types. This takes the
form of nozzles similar to the spray washer which spray water
onto the system cooling coil using its extended surfaces to achieve
high evaporation rates and an effectiveness of up to 0.95.
Spinning Disc
These consist of a copper disc fitted with stainless steel
teeth around its periphery mounted on a conical brass hub. The
disc is rotated by a directly connected induction motor and water
fed into the hub is thrown outward by centrifugal force where
the teeth atomise it into a fine spray mist. They are relatively
compact and can achieve a humidifying effectiveness of up to
90%.
Pan Humidifiers
The simplest form of humidifiers these comprise a shallow
tray heated by a submerged heating element - usually electric or
steam. They have a very low efficiency and their use is discouraged because still, heated water is the most desirable breeding
ground for bacteria.

Water Humidifier (Adiabatic

temperature

ga

ta tb
temperature

It should be noted that effectiveness does not apply to either steam or direct water injection humidifiers. It is possible to
supply too much steam to an air stream in which case fogging
will occur and some form of safeguard is usually fitted to prevent this.
With steam humidifiers there is a direct injection of water
vapour and the process is almost isothermal, that is at constant
temperature. In fact, as the steam is hotter than the air, there will
be a small increase in temperature, usually less than 0.5K. The
temperature rise is small because the amount of vapour added is
normally very small

tb

ta

moisture content

g
b

B
A

2-1

ine

See
Notes

t. l

Chart

sa

Psychro

ific

Chart

alp
y

Psychro

Water Humidifiers
Water humidifiers have a psychrometric process approximating to adiabatic saturation. ie. constant enthalpy. This results in a gain in moisture content with a reduction in dry-bulb
temperature (click on adjacent symbol).
As with cooling coils the term contact factor is also commonly used. With water humidifiers the process is very close to
an adiabatic process, that is no heat is added or subtracted during
the process, so that it takes place at constant enthalpy.

ec

Notes

th

ine
t. l
B

moisture content

py
al

th

ha

sa

en

hb

sp

ec
if

ic

Steam Humidifier

Notes

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

sp

The psychrometric process through a humidifier depends

upon the humidifying medium:
Steam humidifiers
Steam humidifiers have a psychrometric process which
approximates to isothermal ie. constant temperature. There will
actually be a very small temperature rise. ie normally t < 1K
(click on adjacent symbol).

Page9a29b

en

Humidifier Psychrometric Processes

Page9a29a

g
b
ga

atio
mR
Roo

Notes

Notes
Psychro
Chart

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Room Ratio Line

The line between these two conditions on a psychrometric
chart is known as the room ratio line (y) and represents the
psychrometric process of air passing through the room (click on
adjacent symbol).
The room ratio line is also known as the room process line,
and any supply condition on that line will satisfy the room condition at the relevant amounts (supply mass) of air. When designing and before the supply condition is determined, it is usual
to draw the room ratio line on the pair of Sensible/Total Heat
quadrants shown on the psychrometric chart.
The room ratio line being determined from:
y = qS
qS + qL
where qS is the sensible heat gain and qL the latent heat gain.

A line can then be drawn on the chart, passing through the

required room condition, parallel to the Room Ratio Line to determine the required supply condition.
Winter

Summer

Line

Room

Supply

temperature t
S

moisture content

Air entering a room will usually have a different temperature and moisture content to the air within the room. Its temperature and moisture content will therefore be changed as it
adds or removes heat from the room air.
Sensible heat exchange causes a change in temperature
and latent heat a change in moisture content, and a room may
experience either a sensible heat gain or a sensible heat loss depending on the circumstances (ie usually a gain in summer and
a loss in winter). Thus the temperature of the air required to be
supplied to the room will vary according to whether the air is
required to heat or cool the room.
Except for some rare industrial processes a room will not
experience a latent loss. Occupancy and most processes give
rise to latent gains. Thus the air entering a room will normallyhave
a moisture content less than the leaving air irrespective of the
season of the year.
The the air entering the room is considered to be at the
supply condition and the air leaving the room the room condition.

Page10a
210b

Ro

om

Ra

tio

Psychro

Li
n

Chart

Room

g
R
gS

Supply
temperature

tR

tR t S

moisture content

Room Psychrometric Processes

Page10a
210a

g
R
gS

Mixing Air Streams

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211a

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211b

Notes

Notes

Any two mixing air streams will give rise to a condition

having a condition between the two mixing conditions. The
actual condition will vary in proportion to the relative masses of
the two air streams.
ie
mM . tM = mA . tA + mB . tB
where

1000

moisture conten

ine
t. l
sa
A
M

B
tb

Balance point given as:

1000 x 1 = 200 x 5
200

Mixing Air Streams

temperature

If in doubt, remember that the mixed condition will always

be closest to the larger component of the two mixing air streams
similar to the fulcrum point for balanced masses.
Balance Point

mM = mA + mB

The same relationship applies for specific enthalpy and

moisture content. On a psychrometric chart, the mixed condition will lie on a straight line joining the conditions of the two
mixing air streams (click adjacent symbol).

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

ga
g
m
g
b

tm ta

Psychro
Chart

1
5
relative distance

Quick Revision Study Guide 2

The following questions are intended as a quick study questionnaire to ensure you have grasped the general principles of this
and the previouschapter.
It is intended that your answers should be, short-phrased, quick
answers or sketches to the questions.
For suggested solutions to these questions, please refer to
the Denco Website: www. denco.co.uk
1.
Dry air flows over a heating coil and absorbs heat at the
rate of 10 kW. If the air temperature and pressure
immediately in front of the coil are 325K and 1 bar
respectively, and the mass flow rate is 0.5 kg/s, determine
the temperature of the air leaving the coil.
Note any assumptions made.
2.

If moist air is at standard atmospheric pressure and the

partial pressure of the water vapour is 2.486 kPa, what is
the partial pressure of the dry air?
If the moist air is now cooled (assume constant pressure),
at what temperature will the water vapour start to
condense?

3.

A person loses water by sweating at an average of

0.072 kg per hour. Assuming evaporating is taking place
at 30C, what rate of cooling does this represent?

4.

If air at 10C and 100% saturation is sensibly heated to

22C, what will be the percentage saturation at the new
condition?

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212b

Notes

Notes

Chapter 2 Psychrometric Processes

Chapter Notes
2-1: Adiabatic Humidification
The theoretical process line follows the adiabatic saturation temperature, although in practice, this is usually drawn as a line
following the constant wet-bulb temperature line of the entering
air condition. As a close approximation for air-conditioning calculations however, it is usual to consider the process occurring at
constant specific enthalpy.