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Arise in the generation of vowels and latter portion of

some consonants

Correspond to some consonants such as f, j, s, and x.

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Vocoders
encode only the perceptually important aspects
of speech with fewer bits than the more general
waveform encoders
very specifically encode speech signals and
speech signals only.

Channel vocoder:
Speech energy is separated into subbands . The individual power levels
are encoded and transmitted.
Nature of speech excitation and pitch frequency may also be transmitted.

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Formant Vocoder

Speech energy tends to be concentrated at 3 or 4 peaks called formants.

A formant vocoder determines the location and amplitude of these
spectral peaks and transmits this information.
By encoding only the most significant short-term components, lower bit
rate is achieved.

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Chapter 4
Digital Transmission and Multiplexing

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Maximum signalling rate is

where BW is the Bandwidth of the channel.

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The main causes of inter Symbol interference (ISI):

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For ensuring signal transitions, for timing recovery, the

following techniques are used:

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