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them together. Covalent bonds are formed when electrons are shared equally
or unequally. The electrons orbit around both atoms. Hydrogen bonds are
formed by the attractive intermolecular force that exists between two partial
electric charges of opposite polarity and almost always involves hydrogen.
7) What is an ion? Isotope?
An ion is a charged atom or molecule; an atom or molecule that has either an
excess of electrons or has lost electrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same
elements but with different masses due to a difference in the number of
neutrons.
8) Compare and contrast the three types of bonds.
An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic
attraction between two oppositely charged ions. A covalent bond is a form of
chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons
between atoms. A hydrogen bond is the attractive interaction of a hydrogen
atom with an electronegative atom.
In order from weakest to strongest: hydrogen bond, ionic bond, covalent bond
9) Compare and Contrast organic and inorganic materials
All organic compounds contain carbon. They are all made by living things.
They usually also have hydrogen and or oxygen.
10) Name the organic compounds, their building blocks and their
functions (and examples)
Carbohydrates are made by monosaccharides (glucose, fructose) and
disaccharides (sucrose). They are used for energy, production, storage, and
structure. Lipids are used for waterproofing (waxes), the cell membrane
(phospholipids), energy storage (fats), and hormones (steroids).
They are made up of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol (besides
phospholipids which contain two fatty acids with a phosphate head and a
glycerol, giving them a hydrophobic and hydrophilic side). Nucleic acids are
made of nucleotides (ribose/deoxyribose, phosphate group and nitrogenous
bases). DNA has deoxyribose, is stable, and has the bases adenine, guanine,
thymine and cytosine; it determines genetic information. RNA has ribose, is
unstable, has uracil instead of thymine, can be used as an enzyme. Nucleic
acids are used as genetic materials and short-term energy carrier molecules
in the cell as well as intracellular messengers. Proteins are made of amino
acids. Proteins carry out life functions such as enzymes, antibodies,
messages, structure and transport. Amino acids have a central carbon
attached to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and a variable
group.
pH
Temperature
Substrate and Enzyme Concentration
Mitochondria: Have a double membrane and its own DNA. This is the
location of aerobic respiration.
Chloroplast: Double membrane, has its own DNA, is needed for
photosynthesis.
Cell Wall: Present in plants and algae, provides support and protection.
> How do these organelles work together to carry out homeostasis?
They carry out all of the life functions. A vacuole fuses with a lysosome, which
digests the contents of the vacuole. The nucleus creates DNA, which is copied
by RNA which gives that info to the ribosomes in the endoplasmic reticulum
which produce proteins with that info. They are then often sent to the Golgi
complex.
18) List the levels of organization of living things from smallest to
largest
cell tissue organ organ system organism species population
community ecosystem biosphere
19) Compare and Contrast Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Nutrition
Autotrophic - self
Heterotrophic - from other sources
20) What is ATP? How does it store energy?
ATP is a short-term energy carrier. ATP is formed by the bonding of a
phosphate group with ADP. The energy is stored in the third phosphate, the
last phosphate that joins with ADP to form ATP.
21) Compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy in the form of radiation into
chemical energy in the form of glucose. Respiration is the process by which
energy stored in the bonds of glucose is released in the form of ATP.
>Identify where these processes occur
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast. Respiration occurs in the cytoplasm
as well as the mitochondria.
>What are the raw materials
Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 +6 H2O + Sunlight
Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6 O2
>What are the final products
Photosynthesis: C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Cellular Respiration: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP
>Why they are considered to be complimentary reactions.
the central nervous system to the internal organs of the body and controls
heart rate, breathing, blood flow, digestion and hormone secretion from
glands. The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is
responsible for flight or fight response. The parasympathetic nervous system
is responsible for body activities and returns the body to normal after the
flight or fight response.
Identify the functions of the parts of the brain.
The brain is composed of the hindbrain, midbrain and the forebrain. The
hindbrain is composed of the medulla, pons and cerebellum. The medulla
controls breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and swallowing. The pons
controls the stages of sleep, rate and patterns of breathing. The cerebellum
controls the coordination of body movements. The midbrain is composed of
the auditory relay center, reflex of the eye and the reticular formation. The
reticular formation is the processing center for the senses. It filters sensory
inputs before they reach the conscious part of the brain. It controls what you
process. The forebrain, also known as the cerebrum, is composed of the
thalamus, limbic system and the cerebral cortex. The thalamus carries
sensory information to the cerebral cortex or the limbic system. The limbic
system controls the basic and primitive emotions, drives and behavior. The
limbic system is composed of the hypothalamus, the amygdala and the
hippocampus. The hypothalamus is the major coordinating center of the
brain. The amygdala is the ancient part of the brain that controls the
primitive emotions and emotion recognition. The hippocampus controls
emotions but is also needed for the formation of long-term memory. The
cerebral cortex is divided into the left and right hemisphere. They are
connected by the corpus callosum. The cerebral cortex contains folds and
convolutions which increase surface area. It is gray in appearance due to a
large volume of cell bodies. It is the largest part of the brain (2/3) and is
divided in half into the right and left hemisphere (right art, left math). It
controls sensory, motor and associative responses. It receives and interprets
sense impulses and starts impulses responsible for voluntary movement and
the position of limbs. It is responsible for memory learning and thought.
Identify the functions of the parts of the eye and the ear.
The wall of the eye has three layers. The sclera is the white of the eye and
gives it its shape. The cornea is the transparent structure that bulges out and
contains no blood vessels. It is needed to focus light. The limbus is where the
cornea meets the sclera. The middle of the eye contains the iris, the colored
part of the eye, and many blood vessels. The iris regulates the amount of
light that enters by determining the size of the pupil. The pupil lies on the
lens which helps to focus light on the back of the eye. Most of the eye is filled
with a clear gel called the vitreous humor. Light projects through the pupil
and lends to the back of the eye. The inside lining of the eye is converted by
special light-sensing cells which together form the retina. The retina converts
light into electrical impulses. The macula is a sensitive area within the retina
that gives central vision. It is located in the center of the retina and contains
the fovea. Behind the eye, the optic nerve carries these impulses to the
brain. Eye color is created by the amount and type of pigment in the iris. The
retina contains two types of photoreceptors which are rods and cones. There
are more rods than cones which are more sensitive than the cones but are
more sensitive to color. The cones provide the eyes sensitivity and they are
more concentrated in the yellow central spot known as the macula. In the
center of that region is the fovea centralis. A 0.3mm diameter rod-free area
with very, thin densely packed cones. There are three different types of
cones: red, green and blue which provide the eyes color sensitivity. In the
photo-excitation process the, the rhodopsin protein absorbs light and is
excited to a high electronic state. Upon the photo-excitation process, the
retinal part of rhodopsin undergoes a conformational change. Rhodopsin
dissociated from the opsin protein. This change in geometry initiates a series
of events that eventually causes electrical impulses to be sent to the brain
along the optic nerve.
The ear translates vibrations in the air into vibrations in fluids and finally into
an impulse. There are three regions in the ear: the external ear, middle ear
and inner ear. The external ear contains the pinna and external auditory
canal which collects sound waves and channels them to the middle ear. The
middle ear contains the eardrum and auditory ossicles. The inner ear
contains the nerve fibers that will initiate the sensory impulse. Sound enters
the outer ear and causes the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to vibrate. This
causes the auditory ossicles: the malleolus, the incus and the stapes to
vibrate. These small bones pass the vibration down the air-filled Eustachian
(auditory) tube to the membrane at the entrance of the inner ear. The inner
ear has three parts: the vestibule, the semi-circular canals and the coiled
cochlea. The vestibule contains the fluid filled sacs that are associated with
equilibrium. The three semi-circular canals are also filled and lined with hair
whose movements help determine the rate and direction of movement. The
coiled cochlea connected to the stapes by the oval window. The amplified
vibrations from the auditory ossicles are transferred to the fluid within the
cochlea through the oval window. This causes the movement in the hairs
lining the cochlea which in turn stimulates the sensory receptors.
Name and identify the sense receptors.
Thermoreceptors are receptors for heat. Mechanoreceptors are receptors for
touch, pressure and vibration (sound and balance). Photoreceptors are
receptors for light. Chemoreceptors are receptors for taste and odor. Pain
receptors are receptors for pain.
Compare and contrast specific and non-specific defenses.
Nonspecific defenses are the responses of immunity that fights of all
pathogen. This form of immunity includes the 1st line of defense and the 2nd
line of defense. Specific defenses respond and fight against only one
pathogen. An example would be the attack of Killer T-cells against one
pathogen which they are able to find by its antigen on its surface. Once the
Killer-T cells has been activated by the Helper T-cells it fights against that
specific pathogen.
Explain how the inflammatory response works.
1)
Pathogen enters the body tissues and causes damage
2)
Damaged cells and mast cells release protein messengers called
histamine which attach to adjacent capillaries and cause them to leak
allowing white blood cells and clotting factors to enter the site of infection.
3)
Macrophages exit the blood stream at the site of infection using
amoeboid movements to squeeze out.
4)
Macrophages come to the site of infection and eat damages cells, all
foreign particles and some healthy cells.
5)
Pathogen in the vacuoles are digested using the digestive enzymes of
the lysosomes
6)
The antigen on the pathogen is displayed on the membrane of the
macrophages
7)
Once the area has been cleaned the macrophages die forming pus or
mucus at the site of infection.
Compare and contrast cell mediated and hummoral immunity.
The hummoral immune response is the aspect of immunity that is mediated
by secreted antibodies produced by B lymphocytes or B-cells. Secreted
antibodies bind to antigens on the surfaces of invading microbes which flags
them for destruction. Hummoral immunity involves substances found in the
body fluids and is activated once the pathogen enters the blood stream.
1)
Antigen from the pathogen is displayed on the membrane of
macrophages.
2)
Antigen attaches to the Helper T-cell receptor, activating it against the
pathogen (usually occurs during inflammatory response).
3)
Immature B-cell encounters a pathogen, ingests it by phagocytosis and
then digests it using the lysosome.
4)
The antigen no displayed on the membrane of the B-cell attaches to a
receptor on an activated Helper T-cell
5)
Once the Helper T-cell determines that the antigen is foreign tit releases
cytokine a protein that attaches to and activates the B-cell
6)
The activate B-cells divide into plasma cells which produces the
antibodies and memory cells which will remain in the blood long after the
infection has ended.
7)
The antibodies released from Plasma B-cells travel through the blood
and attach to the antigens on the surface of the pathogens
8)
Macrophages ingest and then digest using the lysosome, all molecules
surrounded by antibodies
The cell-mediated immune response relies on lymphocytes and not
antibodies. It starts when a T-cell binds to and activated macrophage and
then becomes a Helper T-cell, which helps regulate the production of
antibodies by B-cells. Helper T-cells activate Killer T-cells which transfer
protein into the cell membrane of a pathogen causing fluids to leak out of the
membrane. This rapid loss of materials causes the cell to rupture and die.
1)
Helper T-cell is activated by binding to the antigen of a pathogen found
on the surface of a macro phage
2)
Killer T-cell recognizes an antigen on the surface of a macrophage
3)
Helper T-cell releases cytokines which activates the Killer T-cell
4)
Killer