ΛΟΓΙΣΜΟΣ ΣΥΝΡΤΗΣΕΩΝ ΜΙΑΣ ΜΕΤΑΒΛΗΤΗΣ

,
ISBN: 978-960-603-183-0
Copyright , 2015
Creative Commons - 3.0.

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/gr/

9, 157 80
http://www.kallipos.gr
1
2 .
2
1 .
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 . . . . . .
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 . . . . .
1.6 Supremum Infimum . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1 Supremum Infimum . . . . . . .
1.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.3 Supremum Infimum
1.6.4 . . . . . . . .
1.7 . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5
5
6
10
13
15
16
17
17
19
20
21
23
25
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 . . . .
2.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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27
27
31
36
36
36
38
43
49
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2
3.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
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56
58
63
63
69
72
74
75
83
88
vii
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viii
4
4.1 . . . .
4.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Lipschitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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89
89
89
91
94
99
105
110
115
5.1 . . . . . . . . .
5.2 . .
5.3
5.4 . . . . . . . .
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 . . . . . . . . . .
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117
117
121
125
128
134
140
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141
141
143
146
151
156
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159
159
164
169
174
177
180

6.1
6.2 LHpital . . . . .
6.3 . . . .
6.4 . . .
6.5 . . . . .
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7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Riemann . . . . . . .
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8.1 . . . . . . . . . .
8.2
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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183
183
187
192
198
203
208

9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 .
9.1.2
9.1.3 .
9.2
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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211
211
211
214
216
218
222
227

9.5
9.6
ix
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
10
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 . . . . . .
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.1 Bernoulli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.3
10.5 Euler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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237
237
239
243
249
249
250
252
255
256
261
11 Taylor
11.1 . . . . . .
11.2 . . .
11.3 .
11.4 . . . . .
11.5
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263
263
265
271
274
279
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281
281
281
283
285
288
296
297
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299
299
299
300
300
301
301
302
302
302
303
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12
12.1 . .
12.1.1 . . . . . . . .
12.1.2
12.2 . . .
12.3 . .
12.4 . . . .
12.5 . . . . . .

.1 2 . .
.2 3 . .
.3 4 . .
.4 5 . .
.5 6 . .
.6 7 . .
.7 8 . .
.8 9 . .
.9 10 .
.10 11 .
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305
.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

309
311
315

, .

.
:
1. ( 1 2)
, . ,
. , supremum
. .
2. ( 3 9, 6) , ( 3), ( 4), ( 5),
( 7), ,
( 8).
.
,
. ,
.
3. ( 6 9 12)
. 6, , 9,
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11 Taylor, 12
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, , . ,

, , , ,
, supremum,
, , , Bolzano .
1.1 . 1.2 ,
, 1.3 . 1.4
, . 1.5 . 1.6
supremum infimum, 1.7
, .
1.1
R, Q, Z,
( 0) N. , (
) C.
0 R , Q , Z , N C .
, x A x A, x A
x A. : (- ) .
, ,
x R, n N : n > x
x, n n > x.
:
1.
1.1. ()
1. A, B . A B A
B x A x B. A B A
B A B x B : x
/ A.
2. A Ac , {x R : x
/ A}.
3. A B A, B
A, B:
A B , {x R : x A x B}.
4. A B A, B
A, B:
A B , {x R : x A x B}.
5. A \ B B A A \ B , A B c ,
A,
B.
x , y x y . , ,
.
1.2
:
R ,
+ , ,
:
A.1 ( ) x, y R, x + y = y + x.
A.2 ( ) x, y, z R, x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.
A.3 ( ) R, 0,
x R, 0 + x = x.
A.4 ( ) x R, y x + y = 0.
A.5 ( ) x, y R, x y = y x.
A.6 ( ) x, y, z R, x(y z) = (xy)z.
A.7 ( ) R, 1,
0, x R, 1 x = x.
A.8 ( ) x R {0}, y xy = 1.
A.9 ( ) x, y, z R, x (y + z) = x y + x z.
1.2.
, , , .
, , xy x y. , x y a
x y.
:
1.1. ( , , )
0, 1 , ,
0 .
: , 0 00 . ,
0 + 00 = 00 , 0 , 0 + 00 = 0, 00 . ,
0 = 00 , ,
.
x , y1 y2 . x + y1 = 0
x + y2 = 0,
A.2
x + y1 = x + y2 y1 + (x + y1 ) = y1 + (x + y2 ) (y1 + x) + y1 = (y2 + x) + y2
A.4
A.3
0 + y1 = 0 + y2 y1 = y2 ,
.
. ( 1.1.)

, 0, 1,
0.
, , ,
x = y a + x = a + y. ,
. ,
f ,
(x, y) , z = f (x, y). ,
x = y, f (a, x) = f (a, y), a + x = a + y,
, ax = ay, .
1.2. ( ) x x,
x 6= 0 x1 . y x x y 6= 0
x y , x + (y),
x/y , xy 1 .
x/y = xy . , x = 1 ,
1/y , y 1 .
.
Q C,
N Z ( 1.2). , ,
, , ,
.
. .
1.
1.1. ( GF(2)) GF(2) = {0, 1} ,

:
0 0 = 0,
0 1 = 1,
1 0 = 1,
1 1 = 0,
0 0 = 0,
0 1 = 0,
1 0 = 0,
1 1 = 1.
. , 0, 1
,
, 0 = 0, 1 = 1, 11 = 1.
,
8 .
( 1.3).
, XOR bits. , modulo 2 modulo 2,
: ( , ), (modulo)
2.
,
GF(2). GF(2)
, (, ,
) .
1.2. (GF(5)) GF(5) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4},
:
1. modulo 5, , x y
x + y 5. ,
x y = x + y 5k,
k ( ) 0 x + y 5k 4,
k {0, 1}.
2. modulo 5, , x y
xy 5. ,
x y = xy 5k,
k ( ) 0 xy 5k 4, k
{0, 1, 2, 3}.
GF(5), , .
. 1.4.
:
x (y z) = x + (y + z 5k1 ) 5k2 = x + y + z 5(k1 + k2 ),
(x y) z = (x + y 5k3 ) + z 5k4 = x + y + z 5(k3 + k4 ).
, k1 , k2 , k3 , k4
0 4. k x + y + z 5k
0 4. k1 + k2 = k3 + k4 ,
x (y z) = (x y) z.
1.2.
,
.
, 0
1 .
,
0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 4 = 0, 2 + 3 = 0,
GF(5).
,
1 1 = 1, 2 3 = 1, 4 4 = 1,
0 , 11 = 1, 21 = 3, 41 = 4.
, , GF(5) . , 5, 6,
; 1.5. ,
{0, 1, , q 1} modulo
q, q . .
, Galois (Galois Fields), variste Galois (18111832), ( GF(q) ).

, .
, , , .
() 1.6.
1.1. ( ) 1.1 .
1.2. ( N, Z) N
Z.
1.3. ( GF(2)) GF(2),
1.1, .2 .6
.9, .
1.4. [?] ( GF(5)) GF(5),
1.2, .
1.5. [] ( ) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
modulo 6 modulo 6. ,
() modulo 6 ()
6. ,
, ; ;
1.6. [?] ( ) , A B, 1 TB ,
. , C,
, .
A, B, () ; modulo 2
bits A B.
10
1.
1.3
: ,
, , (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 . ,
, , ,
, .. , , GF(5), .
, . , ,
, .
, .
, .
, ( !)
1.2. ( )
a, x, y R:
1. a + x = a + y x = y. , , a
.
2. a 6= 0, ax = ay x = y. , ,
a 6= 0 .
3. (x) = x.
4. (x1 )1 = x.
5. (x + y) = (x) + (y).
6. (xy)1 = x1 y 1 .
7. 0x = 0.
8. x(y) = (xy).
9. (1)x = x.
10. (x)(y) = xy.
:
1.
a + x = a + y (a) + (a + x) = (a) + (a + y)
A.2
A.4
A.3
((a) + a) + x = ((a) + a) + y 0 + x = 0 + y x = y.
2. .
3. A.4.
4. .
1.3.
11
5.
A.1
A.2
(x + y) + ((x) + (y)) = (y + x) + ((x) + (y)) = ((y + x) + (x)) + (y)

A.2
A.4
A.3
A.4
= (y + (x + (x)) + (y) = (y + 0) + (y) = y + (y) = 0

(x + y) + ((x) + (y)) = 0,
.
6. .
7.
A.3
A.3
A.9
0 + 0x = 0x = (0 + 0)x = 0x + 0x 0 + 0x = 0x + 0x 0 = 0x.
1.
8.
A.9
A.4
x(y) + xy = x((y) + y) = x0 = 0.
7.
9. 8 y = 1.
10.
(x)(y) = ((x)y) = ((xy)) = xy.
8, .
3.

, , , ,
. 1.7. , , ,
. , !
.
1.3. ( )
1. x R n N , an , a
| a {z a}. a , n
n
, an n- a.
2. x R n N , xn = (x1 )n .
3. x R, x0 = 1.
1.8.
1.3. ( ) x, y R n, m Z
:
xn xm = xn+m ,
xn y n = (xy)n , (xn )m = xmn .
( x, y , .)
12
1.
, .
.
1.7. [??] ( ) x, y, z, w R.
, 0.

. ,
.
1. xy = 0, x = 0, y = 0, x = y = 0.
2. x(y z) = xy xy.
3. (x + y)/z = x/z + y/z.
4. (x/y)/(z/w) = (xw)/(yz).
5. (xy)/(zw) = y/z
6. (x/z) + (y/w) = (xw + yz)/(zw).
7. xn = (xn )1 .
1.8. [?] ( ) 1.3.
1.9. ( ) k N. k
(
1 2 (k 1) k, k 1,
k! ,
0,
k = 0.
, ,

N
N!
,
n
n!(N n)!
:
(x + y)N =
N
X
N n N n
x y
,
n
n=0
x, y R, N
N .
1.10. ( )
xn y n = (x y)(xn1 + xn2 y + + xy n2 + y n1 ),
x, y R, n N .
.
1.11. ( )
N
X
n=1
N .
n=
N (N + 1)
2
1.4.
13
1.12. ( )
N
X
n2 =
n=1
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
6
N N . .
1.13.
1.4
PN
n=1 n
3.
: R+ R, , :
.10 ( ) x, y R+ , x + y R+ .
.11 ( ) x, y R+ , xy R+ .
A.12 ( ) x R, :
x R+ , x R+ , x = 0.

. , .
,
, , ,
. , ,
.
, , .
,
:
1.4. (, ) :
1. x x . , .12
x 0.
2. R .
3. x > y x y .
4. ( y = 0) x > 0 x . ,
x > y x y > 0.
5. x < y y > x.
6. ( y = 0) x < 0 x . , x < y x y < 0.
7. x y x = y x > y.
14
1.
8. x y y x.
9. |a| a
(
a,
a 0,
|a| ,
a, a < 0.
1.4. ( )
1. x > 0 x < 0.
2. x > 0 x < 0.
3. x, y R, : x < y, x = y, x > y.
4. x < y z < w, x + z < y + w.
5. x < y w > 0, wx < wy.
6. x < y w < 0, wx > wy.
7. x < y x > y.
8. x 6= 0, x2 > 0.
9. 1 > 0.
10. x R, x2 0.
:
1. .
2. , x > 0. (x)) > 0, ,
, x , x < 0. , x < 0,
, (x) , x > 0.
3. x y. , :
x y , x > y. x y = 0 x = y. , x y ,
y x , y > x.
4. x < y y x > 0. , z < w w z > 0.
.10, (y x) + (w z) = (y + w) (x + z) ,
y + w > x + z.
5. y x > 0 w > 0, .11 w(y x) > 0 wy wx >
0 wx < wy.
6. y x > 0 w < 0 w > 0, .11
(w)(y x) > 0 wy + wx > 0 wx > wy.
7. 6 w = 1.
1.5.
15
8. x 6= 0, .12 , x > 0, x < 0.

, A.11 x2 = x x > 0. ,
x < 0 (x) > 0 .11 (x)(x) > 0. , (x)(x) =
x2 , .
9. 8, 1 = 1 1.
10. . x 6= 0, 8 x2 > 0, x2 0.
x = 0, x2 = 0, x2 0, .

, ,
.
1.14. [??] ( ) ,
( ),
.
1. x > 0 y < 0, xy < 0.
2. x > 0, x1 > 0.
3. x < 0, x1 < 0.
4. x < y y < z, x < z.
5. x < y z w, x + z < y + w.
6. 0 < x < y x1 > y 1 > 0.
7. x < y x <
x+y
2
< y.
1.15. [??] ( ) ,
( ), ,
.
1. n N . x1 < x2 xn1 < xn2 .
2. n N . 0 < x1 < x2 xn1 < xn2 x1 < x2 < 0 xn1 > xn2 .
1.5
, .
1.5. ()
1. S x S y S x < y,
z S z x z y.
16
1.
2. :
(a, b) , {x R : a < x < b}, [a, b] , {x R : a x b},
(a, b] , {x R : a < x b}, [a, b) , {x R : a x < b},
(a, ) , {x R : a < x}, (, b) , {x R : x < b},
[a, ) , {x R : a x}, (, b] , {x R : x b},
(, ) , R.
a, b R a b.
3. (a, b) a ( ) b ( ).
2.
4. (a, b), (a, ), (, b), (, ) .
5. [a, b], [a, ), (, b], (, ) .
2. , a = b,
. , , 1.27.

() .
. ,
! , +.
+, 5 +5.
1.5.1
(, ) . (,
clopen, closed open.)
. .
1.6. ( ) S R.
1. x S S (a, b)
x (a, b) (a, b) S.
2. S int S.
3. S ,
4. S S c .
5. c S, S c.
, [a, b] int[a, b] = (a, b). , int(a, b] =
(a, b), int[a, b) = (a, b), int(, b] = , b], .
, ,
. , :
S c x S ( ,
1.6. SUPREMUM INFIMUM
17
f S). , ,
(a, b) c (a, b) x (a, b).
c S, , ,
(a, b) S c (a, b).
,
,
Rn n-, C, .
, , (a, b)
,
.
, S , x
, (a, b) a < x < b
S, x .
, R .
, x (x 1, x +
1) R. , , .
, x , I . , x
, , . ,
!
. ,
.
, , , , ,
, .
1.16. ( clopen) .
1.17. ( ) . ;
(0, 1), (0, 1], Q, R Q, Z, R Z.
1.6
Supremum Infimum

, supremum
infimum . , , .
1.6.1
Supremum Infimum
1.7. () S R.
1. u R x u x S, u S
S . , , u S, u ( maximum)
S, u = max S.
18
1.
2. l R x l x S, l
S S . , , l S, l (
minimum) S, l = min S.
3. . , , .
, . 1.18.
supremum infimum ,
(, ), (,
). , (0, 1)
x : 0 < x < 1. ; ()
1.
( !), 1 (0, 1). ,
, 0.9999 . . . ,
9 . 1,
. ( 1.19.)
1. ,
, . ,
. ,
. , , ,
, .
, , 1. ; (, ,
) . , , , .
, , .
1.8. (Supremum, infimum) supremum
S, sup S :
1. sup S S,
2. , x inf S S.
,
: , , , ,
. ,
, , , , ,
. .
1.3. ( supremum infimum) supremum
infimum .
19
1. , , (0, 1). (0, 1) [1, ).

1, sup(0, 1) = 1. ,
(0, 1) (, 0]. 0, , inf(0, 1) = 0. .
2. [0, 1], sup[0, 1] = 1 inf[0, 1] = 0. ,
max[0, 1] = 1 min[0, 1] = 0,
.
3. supremum infimum ,
.
4. R. , R
, . , supremum R.
infimum.
n
o

1
1 2
1 3
1 4
5. A =
,
,
,
,
.
.
.
. sup A = max A = 12 .
2
2
2
2
infimum A,
(, 0]
1 n
, x 0
n x 2 n. ,
x > 0 x > 12 n, x > 0, x A. ,
k
inf A = 0. min A. , , 12
k+1
k, 12
.

6. B = [ 2, 2]. sup B = max B = 2 inf B = min B = 2.

7.

,
C = B Q. ,
sup C = 2 inf C = 2. , 2 , C, ,
, max C, min C.
,
supremum! ,
infimum. ,
.
1.6.2
, supremum. ,
sup S = , S .
S ,
, . , ,
, sup S = . ,
infimum, inf S = ,
S . , ,
, .
, supremum infimum, , , sup = inf = .
: . ! ,
. ,
20
1.
. . ,
.
supremum
infimum . , , , supremum (infimum) ,
() supremum (infimum) ,
.
1.6.3
Supremum Infimum
, , supremum infimum.
1.5. ( supremum/infimum) supremum infimum ,
, .
: , A supremum, S1 S2 , S1 < S2 .
, S1 , , ,
S2 . infimum .
1.6. (Maximum=supremum, minimum=infimum) maximum ,
supremum . , minimum ,
infimum .
: A maximum M = max A. , M .
. , M 0 < M ,
M , , M M 0 .

1.7. ( supremum/infimum)
1. S supremum sup S. > 0 x S x > sup S .
2. S infimum inf S. > 0 x S x < inf S + .
: ,
( 1.21). , .
x S x > sup S ,
x S , x sup S . ,
S, sup S ,
sup S. , sup S S.

1.8. (Supremum/infimum ) A, B A B.
1. sup A, sup B, sup A sup B.
2. inf A, inf B, inf A inf B.
21
: , ,
( 1.20). ,
. sup A > sup B.
supremum A, B,
. , h = (sup Asup B)/2. 1.7
x A x > sup A h. ,
x > sup A h = sup A
sup A sup B
sup A + sup B
=
> sup B x > sup B.
2
2
x > sup B, x B, sup B B. x

A B. .

1.4. ( ) A, B R. a A,
b B, a b, A supremum, B infimum, sup A inf B.
, A b B, supremum.
, B a A, infimum.
sup A > inf B. > 0 sup A = inf B + .
supremum infimum, a A, b B, a > sup A 2 , b < inf B + 2 . ,
a b > sup A inf B = 0 a > b, . , sup A inf B.
1.6.4
, , P c
P , P c P .
,
. ,
. ,
:
1. P c P .
2. x y x < y x y.
3. x > y x y x < y.
4. P x x
P .
5. x P x
P , , x P c .
6. P Q P Q .
:
1.5. ()
1 (1) 2 (2) 8.
,
1. () 1: 400 .
22
1.
() 2: 400 .
2. () 1: .
() 2:
.
3. C, f : R R, I R.
() 1: x, y I, |f (y) f (x)| C|y x|. , I,
|f (y) f (x)| C|y x|.
() 2: x, y I : |f (y) f (x)| > C|y x|. , x, y
|f (y) f (x)| > C|y x|.
4. f : R R, x0 , L R.
() 1: > 0, > 0 : 0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < . , > 0,
> 0 0 < |x x0 | < , |f (x) L| < .
() 2: > 0 : > 0, x : 0 < |x x0 | < , |f (x) L| . , > 0
, x 0 < |xx0 | < ,
|f (x) L| < , |f (x) L| .
1.18. ( ) S
. , . ,
S . ,
.
1.19. (0.9999 . . . ) 0.99999 . . . 1,
10x = 9 + x.
1.20. ( infimum) 1.7.
1.21. (Infimum ) 1.8.
1.22. [/, ] (Supremum ) A B, sup A < sup B.
1.23. [/, ] (Supremum ) A B, sup A < sup B.
1.24. ( ) S ,
u u x x S, l
l x x S. ,
:
1. S B |x| B x S.
2. S B |x| 0 x A, y B, y x < .
sup A, inf B .
1.27. [?] ( ) , supremum infimum,
2 1.5.
1.7
.
, .
: , S supremum.
, ,
. ,
, {x : x > 0, x2 < 2}.

{x : x > 0, x < 2} ,
2. ,
, . , 2,
, , .
,
,
. , , ( ,
) .
.
, infimum ,
, .
:
1.1. ( infimum) , S infimum.
: S , B x S, x B.

S , {y : y S}.
S . B. ,
y S. To y S, y B y B
B S. , , S
supremum, sup(S).
S infimum sup(S).
24
1.
, sup(S) , x S, x sup(S). ,
x S x < sup(S). x > sup(S) , x
S.
sup(S) . ,
> 0 x S, x sup(S) + . , y (S)
y > sup(S) , sup(S) supremum S, 1.7.
y < sup(S) + . y S, .

,
1. Bolzano ( 4.1),
2.
( 4.5),
3. ( 7.2).
, , ,
,
. , , :
1. .
2. ( ) . 1.1,
.
3. ,
.
4. , .
1.1. ( )
1. y R n N . R x xn = y.
1
x x = y n n- y.
2. y [0, ) n N . [0, ) x
1
xn = y. x x = y n n- y. y > 0,
1
(y n )n = y.
.
1.9. ( ) x > 0 r Q
r = p/q, p, q Z, q 6= 0.
1
xr = (xp ) q
x , r , xr r x.
xr x > 0. x < 0,
. 1.29. ,
1.8.
25
6 2
2
. , 35 = 10
, 3 = 3
.
r
, x ,
r.
1.30.
1.9. ( ) x, y R+ r, s Q
:
xr xs = xr+s ,
xr y r = (xy)r , (xr )s = xrs .
1.28. ( ) x > 0 r Q, r = p/q p Z q Z .

1 p
xr = x q .
1.29. ( ) (32)3/5 ; (32)6
6
(32)1/10 ; ;
1/10
1.30. [?] ( ) 1.9.
1.8
,
, .
.
Fraleigh [FRAE], [FRAG] Dummit Foote [DUFO].
Spivak [SPIE], [SPIG]
, .
R, R+ , 1.4, , ,
< .
Stroyan [STRO] . , , Apostol [APE1], [APG1], Spivak [SPIE], [SPIG], Royden
[ROYD] Sagan [SAGA].
, Apostol
[APE1], [APG1], Spivak [SPIE], [SPIG], Sagan [SAGA].
, , , ,
, ,
.
. , Rudin
[RUDI] Spivak [SPIE], [SPIG].
26
1.
, , , ,
. , ,
.
2.1 .
2.2 . 2.3 , , , .
, 2.4 .
2.1
,
.
2.1. ()
1. f : A R dom f , A R.
2. f (A) , {y : f (x) = y x A} f .
3. f (B) , {y : f (x) = y x B}
B A.
.
, .
1. ,
A, ,
R ( ).
2. ( )
( ) (
) . , . ,
: ,
. . , , x 2,
27
28
2.
dx, 2 dx. ,
f (g(x)) f, g:
g f .
3. , , G(f ) R2
G(f ) , {(x, y) : x dom f, y = f (x)}.
.
, y . ,
() .
. ,
. , , . ,
.
2.2. ( )
1. f : A R A x
x,
f (x) = f (x) x A.
2. f : A R A x
x,
f (x) = f (x)
x A.
3. f : A R B A
x1 , x2 B, x1 < x2 f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).
4. f : A R B A
x1 , x2 B, x1 < x2 f (x1 ) f (x2 ).
5. f : A R B A
x1 , x2 B, x1 < x2 f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
6. f : A R B A
x1 , x2 B, x1 < x2 f (x1 ) f (x2 ).
7. () () ()
.
2.1.
29
8. f : A R B A U R
f (x) U x B, f (B) U .
B, B = A.
9. f : A R B A L R
f (x) L x B, f (B) L.
B, B = A.
10. f : A R B A
. B, B = A.
11. f : A R p > 0 (i) A
x + p x, (ii) f (x + p) = f (x) x A.
12. f : A R (1-1)
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x1 = x2 .
, . ,
, x1 = x2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). ,
1-1,
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x1 = x2 .
,
.
. ,
, , .
(, , : GF(5)
5!
.)
, .
2.3. ( )
f : A R.
1. supremum, infimum, maximum ( , ), minimum ( , ) f B A
supf , sup{f (x) : x B},
xB
inf f , inf{f (x) : x B},
xB
maxf , max{f (x) : x B}, minf , min{f (x) : x B},

xB
xB
. () .
B, sup f, max f, inf f , min f , B = A.
2. c B f (c) = maxf , c () B. c B
xB
f (c) = minf , c () B.
xB
3. f : A R. f f (c) I
c I
f (x) f (c) x I A.
30
2.
To c .
4. f : A R. f f (c) I c
f (x) f (c) x I A.
To c .
5. .
6. .
, , . ,
sup f ( inf f ), max f (, , min f ). , f : (0, ) R f (x) = 1/x , infimum.
2.4. ( ) f : A R g : B R f (A) B.
g f : A R f , g, g f (x) , g(f (x)).
2.1. [/, ] ( ) f : R R
.
2.2. [/, ] ( ) f () (a, c) () (c, b) () c.
2.3. ( )
1. B f (x) B x dom f .
2. B f (x) 0 g > 0
. f /g . f, g
;
2.6. ( ) f : A R
B x1 , x2 B,
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).
( x1 < x2
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).)
2.7. ( ) f : A R
B x1 , x2 B,
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
2.2.
31
2.8. [] ( ) f , g ,
f g . .
2.9. ( ) f g , f g
g f .
.
2.10. ( ) f
B, A B.
2.11. ( ) f (, ) (a, c]
(, ) [c, b) (, ) c.
2.12. [?] (Infimum ) f, g : B R B.

inf {f + g} inf {f } + inf {g}.
xB
xB
xB
;
2.13. [?] (Supremum ) f, g : B R B.
sup {f + g} sup {f } + sup {g}.
xB
xB
xB
;
2.14. ( ) p,
kp, k N .
2.15. ( ) f : R R
, f (x) = 0.
2.16. [???] ( ) f (x) ,
0 .
2.2

. , , ,
, ( )
.
2.5. ( ) O =
(0, 0) 1. R. AB || A = (1, 0),
> 0
< 0. cos sin
B . , tan cot
tan ,
sin
,
cos
cot ,
cos
,
sin
32
2.
E = tan 3
F = cot 3
D = (0; sin 3)
B = (cos 3; sin 3)
3
3
O = (0; 0)
C = (cos 3; 0)
x
A = (1; 0)
2.1: .
2.1. 6 [2, 2],
. , , AOB,
AB , .

. ,
A = (1, 0) A . tan
, , E
B = (cos x, sin x). ,
(0, /2), OCB OAE ,
BC
AE
sin
AE
=
=
AE = tan .
OC
OA
cos
1
( 6 (0, /2), ,
.) ,
(0, 1) (0, 1) . cot
, , F
B = (cos x, sin x).
:
2.1. ( )
1. sin , cos 2, tan , cot .
, R,
sin( + 2) = sin , cos( + 2) = cos , tan( + ) = tan , cot( + ) = cot .
2.2.
33
2. sin , tan , cot , cos . , R,

sin() = sin , cos() = cos , tan() = tan , cot() = cot .
3.
sin2 + cos2 = 1.
4.
sin 2 = 1,
cos 2 = 0,
sin 0 = 0,
cos 0 = 1,
sin = 0,
cos = 1,
sin 3
= 1,
2
cos 3
= 0.
2
5.
sin( + ) = sin , cos( + ) = cos .
6.

= cos , cos
2

tan
= cot , cot
2
sin

= sin ,

= tan .
: .
2.2. ( )
1. (0, /2) :
sin < < tan .
2. (/2, 0) :
sin > > tan .
3. R,
| sin | ||.
= 0.
:
1. 2.2. R
12 R2 ( 2.17). , E(OCD) OCD
E(OCD) = 12 12 = 12 . , E 0 (OCD) OCD
12 1 sin . , OBC, ODE ,
|OB|
|OD|
sin
=
|DE| =
,
|BC|
|DE|
cos
E(ODE) ODE

E 0 (OCD) < E(OCD) < E(ODE).
1
2
sin
cos
1.
34
2.
y
E
C = (cos 3; sin 3)
3
O
x
B = (cos 3; 0)D = (1; 0)
2.2: 2.2.
2. (/2, 0) .
3. (0, /2) . /2
> sin sin 1. , > 0,
> sin || > | sin |.
< 0 ( 2.18). , = 0,
sin = = 0, .

2.3. ( ) , R :
cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin .
: 2.3 AB. |AB|
p
|AB| = (sin sin )2 + (cos cos )2 .
x0 y 0
. , B (1, 0)
A (cos( ), sin( )),
q
|AB| = (1 cos( ))2 + sin2 ( ).
.
2.2.
y
y0
35
A = (cos 3; sin 3)
jABj
3!?
O = (0; 0)
x0
B = (cos ?; sin ?)
x
?
2.3: 2.3.
2.17. ( ) R
12 R2 .
2.18. ( 2.2) 2.2 < 0.
2.19. ( ) 2.3, :
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin ,
sin( ) = sin cos cos sin ,
sin 2 = 2 sin cos , cos 2 = cos2 sin2 = 2 cos2 1 = 1 2 sin2 ,

r
r

1 cos
1 + cos
sin
=
, cos
=
,
2
2
2
2

+
sin + sin = 2 sin

cos
,
cos + cos = 2 cos
cos
,
2
2
2
2

+
sin sin = 2 cos

sin
,
cos cos = 2 sin
sin
,
2
2
2
2
sin sin =
1
1
[cos( ) cos( + )] ,
cos cos = [cos( + ) + cos( )] ,
2
2
1
sin cos = [sin( + ) + sin( )] .
2
2.20. ( ) 2.3
2.19, :
1. sin x o (2k /2, 2k + /2), k Z,
(2k + /2, 2k + 3/2).
36
2.
2. cos x (2k, 2k + ), k Z,
(2k , 2k).
3. tan x (k/2, k+/2), k Z.
4. cot x (k, k + ), k Z.
2.3
2.3.1
, .
, .
, R2 , x
y. ,
, , , ,
x, y . , ,
.
,
(x, y) R2 ,
, .
(x, y) : ,
x x. x > 0,
x x, x < 0,
x = |x|. , y (
) y.
(x, y). ,
(x, y) , R2 .
f : A R. .
(x, f (x)), . ,
. .
.
2.3.2
2.6. (x, y) R2 . (x, y)

[r, ] r 0 R,
{x = r cos , y = r sin } .
, -
2.3.
y = r sin 3
37
(x; y) = [r; 3]
3
x = r cos 3
2.4: .
, .
(
)
p
x
y
r = x2 + y 2 , cos = p
, sin = p
x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2
{x = r cos , y = r sin } .
, , , , x, y
, , (x, y),
, [x, y].
: (x, y) [r, ] r
x
(x, y) . ,
> 0
< 0. 2.4.
2.1. ( ) 2.5 .
,

.
, . ,
. , (0, 0)
[0, ], R, [r, ], [r, + 2k],
k Z. , . , [0, 2),
38
2.
[3; 3:=4]
[2; :=2]
2
[2; :=6]
[0; 0]
1
[2; 0]
[1; :]
0
-1
[2; !:=6]
p
[2 2; !3:=4]
-2
-2
-1
-1
-2
0
-2
-1
2.5: . , x = r cos , y = r sin ,

. , . ; 2.21.
[0 , 0 + 2) (0 , 0 + 2],
[0, 0], .

, . , ,
.
2.3.3
,
f : A [0, ) ,
.
: , A f ()
(, f ()), , [f (), ], :
Gp (f ) , {[f (), ] : A}.
, x ,
r = f (), [f (), ]
. ,
, .
,
,
.
:
2.3.
39
1. f () .
2. ,
(
).
, :
1. .
,
,
( )
. ,
.
2. , F (x, y) = 0.
.
2.2. ( ) 2.6, 2.7, 2.8
, ,
1. f () = | cos | [0, 2].
2. f (x) = e/10 [0, 4].
3. f (x) = sin2 2 [0, 2].
.
.
2.21. ( ) 2.5.
2.22. ( ) 2.9
:
1. f () = log , [1, 10].
2. f () = 1 + cos , [0, 2).
3. f () = cos2 2, [0, 2).
4. f () = , [0, 3].
5. f () = bc, [0, 10].
6. f () = 1, [0, 2).
7. f () = 1, [0, 100).
40
2.
y = f (3) = j cos 3j
1
0.5
0
0
r = f (3) = j cos 3j
0.5
-0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
2.6: f () = | cos | [0, 2] .
2.3.
41
y = f (3) = e!3=10
1
0.5
0
0
10
12
3
r = f (3) = e!3=10
1
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
2.7: f (x) = e/10 [0, 4] .
42
2.
y = f (3) = sin2 23
1
0.5
0
0
3
r = f (3) = sin2 23
1
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
2.8: f (x) = sin2 2 [0, 2] .
2.4.
43
8. f () = 6/(1 + 0.7 cos ), [0, 2).

9. f () = | sin |, [0, 2).
10. f () = | sin |, [2, 4).
11. f () = | cos 8|, [0, 2).
.
2.23. ( ) , , f () = 2 cos [/2, /2] 1 (1, 0).
2.4

:
1. . ,
y = x2 .
2. (x, y) f (x, y) =
0. , x2 + y 2 R2 = 0 R
.
3. . ,
f () = 2 cos [/2, /2] , 1
(1, 0). ( 2.23.)
. 2.3. ,
. , .
.
2.7. ( )
1. ( ) C
x = f (t),
y = g(t),
t I,
t , I R.
2. R2
G(C) = {(f (t), g(t)) : t I}
.
:
, t , I , f, g , ,
.
44
2.
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
10
10
-5
-2
-5
-10
-10
-5
10
-4
-4
-2
-10
-10
0.5
-5
-0.5
0.5
10
10
-0.5
-1
-10
-1
-20
-10
-2
-1
-1
2.9: 2.22.
2.4.
45
, , , , f, g GPS,
, :
, t (f (t), g(t))
. f, g
( , )
.
. , ,
, t, .
, , (
), . , , ,
.
. ,
x = t,
y = g(t) = g(x),
t I,

, , y = g(x), I.
2.3. ( )
x = sin t,
y = sin 2t,
0 t 2.
2.10. , f (t), g(t).

,
x = et/5 sin t,
y = et/5 cos 2t,
0 t 2.
2.11.
2.24. ( ) 2.12.
:
1. x(t) = cos t,
y(t) = sin t,
2. x(t) = cos(t),
3. x(t) = sin 4t,
5. x(t) = t,
7. x(t) = t cos t,
8. x(t) = cos t,
y(t) = cos 20t,
y(t) = |t|,
6. x(t) = t cos t2 ,
0 t 2.
y(t) = sin(t),
y(t) = cos 5t,
4. x(t) = sin 19t,
0 t 2.
0 t 2.
0 t 2.
1 t 1.
y(t) = t sin t2 ,
y(t) = t sin t,
y(t) = sin5 t,
0 t 2.
0 t 2.
0 t 2.
46
2.
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
y(t) = sin 2t
y(t) = sin 2t
x(t) = sin t
0
-0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1
0
-1
-0.5
0.5
x(t) = sin t
2.10: x = sin t, y = sin 2t, 0 t 2.
2.4.
47
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-0.5
0.5
x(t) = e!t=5 sin 2t
y(t) = e!t=5 cos 2t
y(t) = e!t=5 cos 2t
1
0.5
0
-0.5
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1
0
-1
-0.5
x(t) = e
!t=5
0.5
sin 2t
2.11: x = et/5 sin t, y = et/5 cos 2t, 0 t 2.
48
2.
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
0.5
0.5
-1
4
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
2
0
-2
-4
-1
-0.5
0.5
-6
-1
-0.5
0.5
-6 -4 -2
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-6 -4 -2
-1
-0.5
0.5
-1
2.12: 2.24.
9. x(t) = cos t,
10. x(t) = exp(t/10) cos t,

11. x(t) = cos3 t,
12. x(t) = t3 ,
0 t 20.
y(t) = sin t,
y(t) = exp(t/10) sin t,
y(t) = sin3 t,
y(t) = |t3 |,
0 t 6.
0 t 2.
1 t 1.
-0.5
2.5.
2.5
49
Thomas [THOE], [THOG] Stewart [STEW]

Varberg et al. [VARB],
,
.
,
, , , .
. , [APE1], [APG1],
[SPIE], [SPIG].
. , ,
,
. ,
.
.
, .
50
2.
. ,
, f L R x
x0 R , x x0 f (x)
L. x /
. , .
, :
, ,
.
(, , ),
( ,
). , .
3.1 f
x . 3.2 . , 3.3,
. ,
,
. 3.4
( x
) ,
x . 3.5,
, .
3.1
f
L x = x0 , , x
x0 (, , x0 , x x0 ), f (x)
L (, L
f (x) L).

. , x x0 ax ax0 , ax0 + b
ax0 + b. , P (x)
x x0 P (x0 ).
,
51
52
3.
sin x
x
u(x)
1.2
1.2
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
-0.2
-0.2
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
3.1:
sin x
x
Heaviside u(x).
. ,
f (x) =
sin x
,
x
3.1. x 0;
0 .
, x 0, ,
. , ,
x 0 1.
, x
x0 . , Heaviside:
(
1, x 0,
u(x) =
0, x < 0,
3.1. f (x) 1 x > 0
x 0, f (x) 0 x < 0 x 0.
, . , ,
.
,
1
f (x) = sin ,
x
3.2. , x 0, x1 ,
, x , ,
, x < 0. , ,
f (x) x 0.
.
3.1.
53
sin x1
sin x1
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-3
-2
-1
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
3.2: f (x) = sin x1 .

x,
.
, , ,
. , : ,
( ) .
. ,
LHpital, ,
.
, , :
3.1. ( ) f : A R, I {x0 } I
x0 . f L, L, x x0 ,
> 0 > 0 :
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ),
|f (x) L| < .
(3.1)
lim f (x) = L , , f (x) L x x0 .

xx0
, f L x x0 > 0
> 0 x x0 , x0 ,
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ), f (x) L ,
|f (x) L| < .
, .
1. x0 , ,
. -
54
3.
x0 , .
.
2. f (x) x0 . ,
( 1.6) a, b (a, x0 ) (x0 , b) A, x0
A f . , A , x0
.
, , A
, x0 .
,
, .
3. f (x)
(3.1) x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ). ,
x, .
4. (3.1) :
> 0 > 0 :
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < .
(3.2)
.
. . ,
,
. , x
x0 f (x) L ,
f (x) L, x
x0 , , > 0, > 0
f (x) L , x
x0 . .
x0 , x0 .
.
, .
,
17 , , ,
19 , Cauchy Weierstrass. ,
, , LHpital (
). - ,
.
, , .
. .
.
> 0, |f (x) L| < . ,
> 0 x x0 ,
, 0 < |x x0 | < , |f (x) L| < .
, . , , > 0
> 0, ,
, .
3.1.
55
BHMA 1, 0
L+0
L
L!0
f(x)
BHMA 2, 9/
x0 ! /
x0
x0 + /
3.3: lim f (x) = L,

xx0
. , |f (x)L| <
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ), x (x0 0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + 0 ) 0 < .
, ,
. , > 0
, f , x0 , .
3.3 lim f (x) L. > 0 1,
xx0
> 0
0 < |x x0 | < x (x0 , x0 + ) {x0 },
,
x = x0 ,
|f (x) L| < L < f (x) < L + ,
. ,
, (x0 , L ).
, (3.1) x (x0 , x0 + ) {x0 },
. (
, f .) ,
.
3.4
. , L. ,
56
3.
y
BHMA 1
L + 01
L + 02
L
L ! 02
L ! 01
f(x)
BHMA 2
x0 ! /
x0
x0 + /
3.4: lim f (x) = L,

xx0
1 ,
. ( ,
(x0 + , L + 1 ). ,
2 . , : ,

. ,
(x0 , f (x0 )).
L x0 , .
, ,
. , , 3.1.
, 3.4 ,
x0 .
!
x0 . , , sin x1 ,
3.2 x0 . ,
, < 1.
3.1.1
3.4 , x x0 , x x0 , x0 , , x0 .
, :
3.1.
57
L+0
BHMA 1
L
L!0
f(x)
x
BHMA 2
x0
x0 + /
3.5: lim+ f (x) = L.

xx0
3.2. ( )
1. f : A R (x0 , a) A, a > x0 . f () L,
L, x x0
> 0 > 0 :
x (x0 , x0 + ),
|f (x) L| < .
(3.3)
lim+ f (x) = L , , f (x) L x x+

0.
xx0
2. f : A R (a, x0 ) A, a < x0 . f () L,
L, x x0
> 0 > 0 :
x (x0 , x0 ),
|f (x) L| < .
(3.4)
lim f (x) = L , , f (x) L x x

0.
xx0
(3.3) , ,
> 0 > 0 :
x0 < x < x0 + |f (x) L| < .
, (3.4) , ,
> 0 > 0 :
x0 < x < x0 |f (x) L| < .
,
. 3.5. ,
: 1 > 0
58
3.
, x x0
,
(x0 , x0 + ), |f (x) L| < .
.
3.1. ( ) 3.4 ,
,
L L.
3.2. ( ) 3.4 , , x0 , .
3.2
. , ( )
. ,
, .
( )

. , .
.
, > 0
. , > 0 (3.1)
(3.2). > 0.
, .
, .
1.
: > 0
0 < |x x0 | < ,
|f (x)L| < . , 1 f (x0 1 ) =
L 2 f (x0 + 2 ) = L + ,
. , . ,
, , x0
f .
2. : > 0
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < ,

, |f (x) L| < ,
0 < |x x0 | < g(, x0 ), g(, x0 )
, x0 f . :
|f (x) L| < 0 < |x x0 | < g(, x0 ).
3.2.
59
, . , , ,
, , , .
, = g(, x0 ),

0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < .
> 0 x0 (
), x.
x (x0 , x0 + ) {x0 } |f (x) L| < .
, x , .
.
.
,
. ( 3.3.)
3.1. ( f (x) = 5x + 3) ,
lim (5x + 3) = 8.
x1
> 0.
|f (x) L| < |5x + 3 8| < 5|x 1| < |x 1| <

0 < |x x0 | < .
5
5
. , , = 5 ,
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < ,
.
3.2. ( f (x) = ax + b) ,
lim (ax + b) = L , ax0 + b.
xx0
> 0.
|f (x) L| < |ax + b ax0 b| < |a||x x0 | <
|x x0 | <

0 < |x x0 | <
.
|a|
|a|
|a|, , a 6= 0,
a = 0 . , ,

. , , = |a|
,
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < ,
a 6= 0.
a = 0 , . |f (x) L| =
|0x + b 0x0 0| = 0 < , x. ,
60
3.
> 0 .
, , > 0. = 106 ,
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ),
|f (x) L| < ,
, ,
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < ,
a.
, x = min{a, b}, x ( ) a, b. ,
:
1 = min{1, 5},
5 = min{5, 1},
3 = min{3, 3}.
x = min{a, b}, x a x b.
.
3.3. [F] ( f (x) =
x) x0 > 0.
lim x = x0 .
xx0
> 0. > 0
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ),
|f (x) L| < .
, x0 , x (x0 , x0 ) ,
|f (x) L| < .
,
|f (x)
x0 | < | x x0 | < | x x0 | | x + x0 | < | x + x0 |
|x x0 | < ( x + x0 ). (3.5)
= | x + x0 |, x.
( x + x0 ) x0 . , ,
x0 ,
0 < |x x0 | < |x x0 | < ( x + x0 )

, , ,
= min (x0 , x0 ) ,
x0 x0 . , ,
0 < |x x0 | < |x x0 | < x0 |x x0 | < ( x0 + x) |f (x) x0 | < .
x0 . x0 ,
x > x0 0 x > 0. (3.5).
, > 0 ,
= min{x0 , | x + x0 |}, .
3.2.
3.4. ( f (x) =
61
x x0 = 0)
lim x = 0.
x0+
, , > 0.
|f (x) 0| < | x 0| < x < 0 < x < 2 .

= 2 > 0, , x0 = 0,
x0 < x < x0 + 0 < x < 2 |f (x) 0| < ,
.
3.5. [F] ( f (x) = x2 )
lim x2 = x20 .
xx0
x0 = 0.
|f (x) L| < |x2 0| < |x| <
, , =
.
,
0 < |x x0 | < |x| <
|f (x) L| < .
x0 = 0.
x0 > 0. ( x0 < 0 . 3.4.) , , > 0.

|f (x) x20 | < |x2 x20 | < |x x0 ||x + x0 | < |x x0 | <
.
(3.6)
|x + x0 |

, = |x+x
,
0|
x. ,
( ) 0 < |x x0 | < . ,
0 < |x x0 | < , (3.6), . ,

, |x+x
,
0|
0 < |x x0 | < |x x0 | <

.
|x + x0 |
(3.7)

|x+x
, x
0|
.

= min x0 ,
,
3x0
x0 , 3x 0 . , . , < x0 , |x + x0 |,

|x+x
. ,
0|
0 < |x x0 | < x0 0 < |x x0 | < x0 0 < x < 2x0
0 < x + x0 < 3x0

>
.
|x + x0 |
3x0
62
3.

, |x+x
3x 0 ,
0|
, (3.7). ,
0 < |x x0 | < 0 < |x x0 | <

|x x0 | <
|f (x) x20 | < ,
3x0
|x + x0 |
. (3.6).
3.6. ( Heaviside)
Heaviside 3.1,
lim u(x) = 1,
x0+
lim u(x) = 0.
x0
lim b = b, .
xx0
,
x0 . !
. > 0.
, = 106 , = , .
x (0, ),
|f (x) 1| = |1 1| = 0 < ,
.
, = 106 , = , .
x (, 0),
|f (x) 1| = |0 0| = 0 < ,
, , .
, ,
.
, ,
. , , ,
. .
3.3. [??] ( )
(3.1) (3.3) (3.4) ( ).
3.4. ( x2 ) 3.5: ,
, lim x2 = x20 x0 < 0.
x0
3.5. [] ( ) , , lim |x| = 0.

x0
1
xx0 x
3.6. [?] ( 1/x) lim

3.7. [?] (
1
x0 ,
x0 6= 0.
f (x)) f (x) lim f (x) > 0. lim

xx0
xx0
f (x) =
lim f (x).
xx0
3.3.
63
p
3.8. [?] ( f (x)) f (x) lim f (x) = 0 f (x) 0 x0 .
xx0
p
lim f (x) = 0.
xx0
3.9. ( ) lim f (x) = L lim (f (x) L) = 0.

xx0
xx0
3.10. ( 0) lim |f (x)| = 0 lim f (x) = 0.

xx0
xx0
3.11. ( ) , x1 R, lim f (x) = L lim f (x + x0 x1 ) = L.

xx0
xx1
3.12. ( ) f lim f (x) = L,

x0+
lim f (x) = L.
x0
3.13. ( ) f lim f (x) = L,

x0+
lim f (x) = L.
x0
3.14. [/, ] ( ) lim f (x), lim f (x2 ).

x0
x0
3.15. [/, ] ( ) lim f (x2 ) lim f (x).

x0
x0
3.16. [??] lim f (x2 ) lim f (x).

x1
x1
4.6 3.15.
;
3.3
3.3.1

x0 . , f (x) x0 . , ,
, x x0 . ,
x .
.
3.1. ( ) x0 f
.
: . f
x0 . ( .) , , ,
L1 L2 , L1 < L2 , . ,
lim f (x) = L1 ,
xx0
=
L2 L1
.
2
lim f (x) = L2 .
xx0
, 1
0 < |x x0 | < 1 |f (x) L1 | < =
L2 L1
L2 L1
L1 + L2
f (x) L1 <
f (x) <
.
2
2
2
64
3.
, 2
0 < |x x0 | < 2 |f (x) L2 | < =
L2 L1
L1 L2
L1 + L2
f (x) L2 >
f (x) >
.
2
2
2
= min{1 , 2 } x 0 < |x x0 | < . x

2
0 < |x x0 | < 1 0 < |x x0 | < 2 , f (x) < L1 +L
2
L1 +L2
f (x) > 2 , .

, . ,
2
. L1 L2 L1 +L
.
2
, , .
.

, . ,
L, ,
L. :
L x x0 , L
x x0 , .
.
3.2. ( ) lim f (x) L
xx0
lim+ f (x) lim f (x) L.
xx0
xx0
: () , L.
L. (
3.17.) > 0,
> 0 . , > 0,
, , > 0
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < .

x0 < x < x0 + 0 < |x x0 | < .
,
x0 < x < x0 + |f (x) L| < ,
.
() , , L.
, > 0 > 0 |f (x) L| <
0 < |x x0 | < . , , > 0. ,
1 > 0 2 > 0
x0 < x < x0 + 1 |f (x) L| <
x0 2 < x < x0 |f (x) L| < ,
3.3.
65
. = min{1 , 2 }. x 0 < |x x0 | < .

, x > x0 x < x0 . ,
x0 < x < x0 + x0 < x < x0 + 1 |f (x) L| < .
,
x0 < x < x0 x0 2 < x < x0 |f (x) L| < .
, |f (x) L| < |f (x) L| <
0 < |x x0 | < .

: ,
, .
3.7. ( Heaviside) 3.6 Heaviside
u(x) 0, , u(x) 0.
/ ,
. , ,
x0 , () x0 , x0
.
3.3. ( ) f, g x0 ,
x0 ,
lim f (x) = L lim g(x) = L.
xx0
xx0
: (a, x0 ) (x0 , b) f (x) = g(x). lim f (x) = L.

xx0
lim g(x) = L. , , > 0.

xx0
g(x). f (x), ,
> 0 , 0 < |x x0 | < , |f (x) L| < .
0 = min{, x0 a, b x0 }. , 0
(x0 0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + 0 ) (a, x0 ) (x0 , b).
x 0 < |x x0 | < 0 . , 0 , |f (x) L| < . ,
x (a, x0 ) (x0 , b), g(x) = f (x). ,
|g(x) L| < , .

3.8. 3.3,
(
1, x 6= 0,
g(x) =
0, x = 0
3.6 0 1, f (x) = 1
, 0.
66
3.
g(x) = 1; x 6= 0;
g(0) = 0
f (x) = 1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
3.6: 3.8: g(x) f (x) 0 1.
h(x)
f(x)
g(x)
x
x0
3.7: .
3.9. ( lim |x|) lim |x| = |x0 |. , x0 > 0,

xx0
xx0
|x| x x0 , lim |x| = lim x = x0 = |x0 |.

xx0
xx0
, x0 < 0, |x| x
x0 , lim |x| = lim x = x0 = |x0 |. x0 = 0 ( 3.5).
xx0
xx0
g(x)
3.3.
67
x0 f (x) h(x) L x0 ,
g(x) . 3.7. ,
f, h g .
x0 . , (Squeezing Theorem)
(Sandwich Theorem). ,
(due Carabinieri). ,
, .
, , .
.
.
3.4. ( ) f, g, h
0 < |x x0 | < f (x) g(x) h(x),
> 0. , , lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L. lim g(x) = L.
xx0
xx0
xx0
: lim f (x) = L, 1 > 0

xx0
0 < |x x0 | < 1 |f (x) L| < f (x) L > f (x) > L .

, lim h(x) = L, 2 > 0
xx0
0 < |x x0 | < 2 |h(x) L| < h(x) L < h(x) < L + .

0 = min{, 1 , 2 }. x 0 < |x x0 | < 0 .
:
1. 0 < |x x0 | < , f (x) g(x) h(x).
2. 0 < |x x0 | < 1 , f (x) > L .
3. 0 < |x x0 | < 2 , h(x) < L + .
,
L < f (x) g(x) h(x) < L + L < g(x) < L + |g(x) L| < ,
.
3.10. ( x sin x1 0) f (x) = x sin x1 x0 = 0
L. 3.8,
|x| |x| . ( x x ,
. .) , x > 0,
1 sin
1
1
1
1 x x sin x |x| x sin |x|.
x
x
x
, , x < 0,
1 sin
1
1
1
1 x x sin x |x| x sin |x|.
x
x
x
68
3.
x sin x1
x sin x1
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.1
0
0
-0.1
-0.5
-0.2
-0.3
-1
-3
-2
-1
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
3.8: f (x) = x sin x1 .
, 3.5
lim |x| = 0,
x0

lim (|x|) = 0.
x0
, lim x sin x1 = 0.
x0
3.11. ( xfD (x) 0) Dirichlet

(
1, x Q,
fD (x) =
0, x R Q.
, , . , , ,
x, y = 1. 3.9, .
, |x|fD (x),
3.9, x0 = 0 L = 0. , |x|fD (x) 0,
|x|fD (x) |x|.
lim 0 = lim |x| = 0,
x0
x0
lim |x|fD (x) = 0.

x0
.
x0 . ,
3.3.
69
fD (x)
1.2
jxjfD (x)
0.8
1
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
-0.2
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0.2
-0.2
-0.6
0.4
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
3.9: Dirichlet fD (x) xfD (x).
.
3.12. ( sinx x 0) f (x) =

sin x
lim
= 1.
x0 x
, 2.2, x > 0,
x cos2 x < cos x sin x < x cos x <
sin x
x
3.1
sin x
1
<
.
x
cos x
x < 0,
2.2. , x 6= 0
cos x <
sin x
1
<
,
x
cos x
1
x0 cos x
, lim
3.3.2
= lim cos x = 1, .
x0

. , , ,
.
3.5. ( )
70
3.
1. lim f (x), lim kf (x), k R,
xx0
xx0
lim kf (x) = k lim f (x).
xx0
xx0
2. lim f (x), lim g(x) lim (f (x) + g(x))

xx0
xx0
xx0
lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x).
xx0
xx0
xx0
3. lim f (x) lim g(x) lim (af (x) + bg(x)), a, b R,

xx0
xx0
xx0

lim (af (x) + bg(x)) = a lim f (x) + b lim g(x).
xx0
xx0
xx0
:
1. lim f (x) = L. lim kf (x) = kL. k = 0,
xx0
xx0
lim 0 = 0, , 3.2.
xx0
k > 0. ( k < 0 3.18.)

> 0. > 0 > 0
0 < |x x0 | < |kf (x) kL| < .
,

.
k
, , > 0 , 0 < |xx0 | < , |f (x)L| < k .
> 0 lim f (x) k > 0. ,
|kf (x) kL| < |f (x) L| <
> 0, 0 =

k
xx0
> 0, 0 > 0 lim f (x)

xx0
> 0
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < 0 =

|kf (x) kL| < ,
k
. , ,
, , .
2. lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = M . lim (f (x) + g(x)) = L + M .
xx0
xx0
xx0
a + b a, b
L+M , a L /2 b
M /2. ( 3.19.) .
> 0. 0 =

2
> 0. 0 , 1 , 2 > 0,

0 < |x x0 | < 1 |f (x) L| < 0 = ,
2

0 < |x x0 | < 2 |g(x) M | < 0 = .
2
3.3.
71
, , = min{1 , 2 }. , 0 < |x x0 | < ,

|f (x) L| < ,
2

|g(x) M | < .
2
, |x + y|
|x| + |y|,
|f (x) L| + |g(x) M | |f (x) + g(x) (L + M )| < ,
.
3. . :
lim (af (x) + bg(x)) = lim af (x) + lim bg(x) = a lim f (x) + b lim g(x).
xx0
xx0
xx0
xx0
xx0
, .
. , . , ,
, .

. 3.20.
3.6. ( / )
1. lim f (x) lim g(x), lim (f (x)g(x))
xx0
xx0
xx0
lim (f (x)g(x)) = ( lim f (x))( lim g(x)).
xx0
xx0
xx0
2. lim f (x) lim g(x), lim g(x) 6= 0, lim

xx0
f (x)
xx0 g(x)
xx0

lim f (x)
f (x)
xx0
=
.
xx0 g(x)
lim g(x)
lim
xx0
3. lim f (x), n N lim f n (x)

xx0
xx0
lim f (x) =
xx0
n
lim f (x) .
xx0
4. lim f (x) lim f (x) 6= 0, , n N , lim

xx0
1
n
xx0 f (x)
xx0
1
=
xx0 f n (x)
lim
n
lim f (x)
xx0
72
3.
3.13. P (x)
lim P (x) = P (x0 ).
xx0
, P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 .

lim P (x) =
xx0
lim
xx0
an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0
lim an xn + lim an1 xn1 + + lim a1 x + lim a0
xx0
xx0
xx0
= an lim x + an1 lim x

xx0
n1
xx0
n1
= an ( lim x) + an1 ( lim x)

xx0
an xn0 + an1 xn1
0
xx0
xx0
+ + a1 lim x + lim a0
xx0
xx0
+ + a1 x0 + a0
+ + a1 x0 + a0 = P (x0 ).
P (x)
3.14. , R(x) = Q(x)
, P (x), Q(x) ,

P (x0 )
lim R(x) = R(x0 ) =
,
xx0
Q(x0 )
x0 . ,
lim P (x)
P (x)
P (x0 )
xx0
=
=
.
xx0 Q(x)
lim Q(x)
Q(x0 )
lim R(x) = lim
xx0
xx0

(
lim x2 ), . ,
xx0
x4 + x3 2x2 + 7
14 + 13 2 12 + 7
=
= 7.
x1
x3 x + 1
13 1 + 1
lim
3.15. , , .
,
x2 4x 5
(x + 1)(x 5)
x5
lim
= lim
= lim
= 3.
2
x1
x1 (x + 1)(x 1)
x1 x 1
x 1
3.3.
3.3.3
.
L. , f (x) L ,
x0 , x |f (x) L|
.
3.3.
73
3.7. ( L) f x0 L > 0
, > 0, x (x0 , x0 )(x0 , x0 +) |f (x)L| .
: . ,
lim f (x) = L
xx0
> 0 > 0 :
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ),
|f (x) L| < .
, f (x) L x0 > 0
> 0 :
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ),
|f (x) L| < .
, , > 0
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ),
|f (x) L| < .
, x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + )
|f (x) L| < , |f (x) L| .

3.16. (H sin x1 0) f (x) = sin x1 3.2 0. . , , ,
L. L 0. ( L < 0 ,
3.21.) = 12 . , ,

1
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < = .
2
. , > 0.
1
k x = 2k/2
(0, ). x, , sin x1 = sin(2k /2) =
1, L = 12 , L 0. ,
3.7 sin x1 0.
.
x sin x1 , 3.8.
. , 3.10
0.
,
f (x) L ( ),
.
3.8. ( ) f x0 A
B A 0 x1 0 < |x1 x0 | <
f (x1 ) A, x2 0 < |x2 x0 | < f (x2 ) B.
: . , , L L
A+B
. ( L > A+B
3.22).
2
2
BA
= 2 . > 0 x 0 < |xx0 | <

|x L| < x < + L =
BA
BA A+B
+L
+
= B x < B.
2
2
2
74
3.
, , , , > 0,
, x2 f (x2 ) B.

3.17. ( Dirichlet) 3.8 ( A = 0, B = 1,
fD x0 !
fD |x|,
(
|x|, x Q,
|x|fD (x) =
0,
x R Q.
3.9. 3.8
x0 6= 0. A = 0, B = |x0 |. x0 = 0, , . ,
, 3.10, 0.
3.3.4
.
. , . , ,
, .
3.17. ( ) 3.2, lim f (x) =

xx0
L lim f (x) = L.
xx
0
3.18. ( ) 3.5 k < 0.

3.19. x R X R d1 y R Y R
d2 , x + y + d1 + d2 .
3.20. [??] ( / ) 3.6.
3.21. 3.16 L < 0.
3.22. ( ) 3.8 L > (A + B)/2.
3.23. [?] ( ) a 6= 0.
lim f (x)
xx0

lim f (ah + b)
h
x0 b
a
. .
3.24. [/, ] ( ) lim f (x), lim g(x),
xx0
lim (f (x) + g(x)).

xx0
xx0
3.4.
75
3.25. [/, ] ( ) lim f (x) lim g(x), lim (f (x)+

xx0
xx0
xx0
g(x))
3.26. ( ) lim f (x) = k > 0. (a, b)
xx0
x0 , a, b R a < x0 < b, P R+
x (a, b) {x0 } f (x) > P,

x (a, b) {x0 } f (x) > 0,
x 0. ,
x0 , x0
0.
3.27. [/, ] ( ) lim f (x) = L lim g(x) = x0 , lim f (g(x1 )) = L.
xx0
xx1
xx1
3.28. ( ) lim f (x) = L, lim g(x) = x0 , g(x) 6= x0 x

xx0
xx1
x1 , lim f (g(x1 )) = L.
xx1
3.29. ( ) 3.10, 3.11. , lim f (x) = 0

xx0
g(x0 ) x0 , lim f (x)g(x) = 0.

xx0
3.30. [?] f : [a, b] R [a, b],

lim f (x), lim f (x)
xa+
xb
f (a) lim f (x) lim f (x) f (b).

xa+
xb
,
.
3.31. [?] f : [a, b] R [a, b], c (a, b),
lim f (x), lim f (x)
xc+
xc
lim f (x) lim f (x)
xc
xc+
, .
3.32. ()
.
sin3 x + sin2 x + sin x
lim
.
x0
x3 + x2 + x
3.4
lim f (x), 3.1, . xx0
, L
x x0 , , , x x0 ,
L, x .
,
x0 :
76
3.
1. x x0 . x x0
x x0 .
2. x x0 .
x x0 x x+
0.
3. x x0 .
x x0 x x
0.
4. x . x , x .
5. x ,
. x , x .
, f :
1. f (x) L.
L, f (x) L.
2. H f (x) . f (x) ,
f (x) .
3. f (x) ,
. f (x) , f (x) .
x , f (x)
.
, , 5 3 = 15 , 3.
. ,
. , , , .
, , ,
12 .
3.3. ( )
1. f : A R (a, ) A a R. f L L
x
> 0 X :
x > X,
|f (x) L| < .
> 0 X :
x > X |f (x) L| < .
,
lim f (x) = L , , f (x) L x .
x
2. f : A R (, a) A a R. f L
L x
> 0 X :
x < X,
|f (x) L| < .
> 0 X :
x < X |f (x) L| < .
,
lim f (x) = L , , f (x) L x .
x
3.4.
y
77
BHMA 1
L+0
L
L!0
f(x)
BHMA 2
3.10: lim f (x) = L.

x
.
lim f (x)
xx0
lim f (x). , 0 < |x x0 | < x0
x > X , ,
x < X , .
,
. 3.10.
|f (x)
L| < . X
, x > X.
, > 0 X
, .
, , , . 3.11 . , 1 > 0 , X x > X
|f (x) L| < . 2 > 0 , , , X, .
, , .
x0 , ,
X . ,
X f , x0
. , , x. 3.10 3.11
X , (X, L ).

x x0 . :
78
3.
y
L + 01
BHMA 1
L + 02
L
L ! 02
L ! 01
f(x)
BHMA 2
3.11: lim f (x) = L.

x
.
3.18. ( )
lim
2x + 1
= 2.
x+4
, , > 0. X x > X, |f (x)2| < .

,
x > X, X:

2x + 1

2x + 1 2x 8

<
|f (x) 2| <
2 <

x+4
x+4
7
7
7
< |x + 4| > x > .
|x + 4|

. ,
. , , X = 7 ,
x > X |f (x) 2| < ,

.
2. , .
, x ,
,
2x + 1
2x
'
= 2.
x+4
x
3.4.
79
3.19. n N .
1
= 0.
x xn
lim

1

1
1
1
1

|f (x) 0| < n 0 <
< |x|n > |x| > 1/n x > 1/n .
n
x
|x|

, , X =
1
,
1/n
x > X |f (x) 0| < ,
,
x0 .
3.4. ( ) f : A R, x0 , x0 .
1. f , , x x0 , lim f (x) = ,
xx0
M,
> 0 :
x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ),
f (x) > M.
,
M,
> 0 :
0 < |x x0 | < f (x) > M.
lim f (x) = , , f (x) x x0 .

xx0
2. f , , x x0 , lim f (x) = ,
xx0
M, > 0 : x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ), f (x) < M.

,
M,
> 0 :
0 < |x x0 | < f (x) < M.
lim f (x) = , , f (x) x x0 .

xx0
,
. ,
M , > 0.
3.12.
3.20.
1
=
xx0 (x x0 )2
. , , M . M , ,
. , M > 0. :
1
1
1
1
f (x) > M
> M (x x0 )2 <
|x x0 | < 0 < |x x0 | < .
2
(x x0 )
M
M
M
lim
80
3.
y
BHMA 1
M
f(x)
BHMA 2
x
x0 ! /
x0
x0 + /
3.12: lim f (x) = .

xx0
, , =
1 ,
M

0 < |x x0 | < f (x) > M,
, 3.3 , ,
. ,
( 3.4), 3.33 3.34,
( 3.2), . , ,
, .
3.21.
cos2 x
= 0.
x x
lim
,
cos2 x
1
,
x
x
3.19 .

cos2 x
lim
= 0.
x x
,
0 cos2 x 1 0
cos2 x
= ,
x
x0+
lim
cos2 x
= .
x
x0
lim
3.4.
81
3.52.
: , ,
x x0 , , x0 R, x0 6= ,
.
3.33. ( )
3.3.
3.34. ( )
3.4.
3.35. [/, ] ( ) lim f (x) = , lim 1/f (x) = 0.
xx0
xx0
3.36. [/, ] ( ) lim f (x) = 0, lim 1/f (x) = .

xx0
xx0
3.37. [/, ?, ] ( ) lim f (x) = 0, lim 1/f (x) = .

xx+
0
xx+
0
3.38. ( ) f (x) > 0

x0 , x0 , lim f (x) = 0, lim 1/f (x) = .
xx0
xx0
3.39. [] ( ) f : [a, ) R
, lim f (x). (:
x
supremum.)
3.40. ( ) f : [a, )
, lim f (x) = .
x
3.41. ( ) f : [a, ) R
L = lim f (x), .
x
3.42. ( ) 3.19, n N lim
1
n
x x
3.43. ( lim f (x) = ) lim f (x) =

xx+
0
xx+
0
lim
x0+
1
= ,
x
lim
x0+
1
= .
x2
3.44. ( lim f (x) = ) lim f (x) =

xx
0
xx
0
lim
x0 x2
= .
3.45. ( lim f (x) = ) lim f (x) =

xx+
0
xx+
0

lim
x0+

= .
= 0.
82
3.
3.46. ( lim f (x) = ) lim f (x) =

xx
0
xx
0
1
= .
x0 x
lim
3.47. ( lim f (x) = ) lim f (x) = ,

x
x
n N ,
lim xn = .
x
3.48. ( lim f (x) = ) lim f (x) = ,

x
x
n N ,
lim (xn ) = .
x
3.49. ( lim f (x) = ) lim f (x) =

x
n N ,
lim xn = .
3.50. ( lim f (x) = ) lim f (x) =

x
n N ,
lim (xn ) = .
3.51. ( cos x ) , ,
lim cos x, lim cos x.
x
3.52.
cos2 x
= ,
x
x0+
lim
cos2 x
= .
x
x0
lim
3.53. [?] ( )
R(x) =
an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0
bk xk + bk1 xk1 + + b1 x + b0
n, k N , an , bk 6= 0.
1. n < k lim R(x) = 0 .
x
2. n > k lim R(x) an /bk an /bk

x
.
3. n = k lim R(x) = an /bk .
x
3.54. ( ) f : (0, a) R. lim f (1/x) = L

x
lim f (x) = L, L R L = .
x0+
3.55. ( ) lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = L, L R

x
L = .
3.56. , ,
1
lim = ,
h0+ h
lim
h0
1
= .
h
3.5.
83
a(n)
3.13: a(n).
3.57. [/, ] f (x) = g(x)h(x) g(x) lim g(x) = L ( ) h(x)

xx0
( ) x0 , f (x) x0 .
3.58. f (x) = g(x)h(x) g(x) lim g(x) = L, L R {0}, h(x)
xx0
( ) x0 , f (x) ( ) x0 .
3.5
.
3.5. ( ) a : N R .
a(n), {an } an .
.
, ,
. N ,
,
x a(x).
(n, a(n)). 3.13. 3.14
. 4
.

. ,
( ) . , . ,
:
84
3.
a(n) = e!n=10
a(n) = 5 sin(n=2)
5
10
2
-5
0
0
10
a(n) = 10=n
a(n) = 5 cos(2:n)
10
10
10
0
0
10
n
3.14: .
10
3.5.
85
1. . n
.
2. .
n . , ,
, N
. ( .)
3. . n .
4. (.. ) n
(.. .)
5. (, , ...)
. .
, , . , n
, n = 1. ( , ,
, .)
n n0 .
n0 n0 1 n0 + 1, n0
. , ,
:
3.6. ( )
1. L R. a(n) L L L,
, lim a(n) = L,
n
> 0,
N0 N :
n > N0 ,
> 0,
N0 N :
n > N0 |a(n) L| < .
|a(n) L| < .
:
a(n) , .
2. a(n) lim a(n) = ,
n
M,
N0 N :
n > N0 ,
M,
N0 N :
n > N0 a(n) > M.
a(n) > M.
:
3. a(n) lim a(n) = ,
n
M,
N0 N :
n > N0 ,
M,
N0 N :
n > N0 a(n) < M.
a(n) < M.
86
3.
BHMA 1
L+0
L
L!0
a(n)
BHMA 2
N
3.15: lim a(n) = L.

n
: , ,
, ,
.
, > 0,
N0 n > N0 , |f (x) L| < . ,
L ( |a(n) L| < > 0),
n ( n > N0 N0 ).
,
. , > 0,
N0 .
3.15 .

.
3.6.
3.22.
1
lim = 0.
n n
> 0.

1

0 < 1 < 2 n > 1 .
n

n
2
N0 = b 12 c+1, bxc x,
x. ,

1

1
1

n > N0 n > b 2 c + 1 n > 2 0 < ,

n
3.5.
87
,
,
. ,
. :
3.23.
sin n
lim = 0.
n
,
1
sin n
1
1 sin n 1 ,
n
n
n
3.22 .
, ,
.
3.9. ( ) f (x) : [1, ) R.
lim f (x), lim f (n) lim f (x).
x
n
x
, .
: lim f (x) .
x
3.59 .
> 0. X
x > X |f (x) L| < .
N0 = bXc + 1. ,
n > N0 n > X |f (n) L| <
.
, x
n .
3.59. ( ) 3.9 lim f (x) =

x
.
3.60. [/, ] ( ) f (x) : [1, ) R. lim f (n),
n
lim f (x) lim f (n). ,

x
n
.
3.61. ( ) a(n)
, lim a(n). (: supremum.)
n
88
3.
3.62. ( ) a(n)
, lim a(n) = . (: supremum.)
n
3.63. ( ) a(n) lim a(n),

n
.
3.64. ( ) ,
L .
3.65. ( ) ,
L .
3.66. ( ) lim a(n) = L lim (a(n) L) = 0.
n
3.67. ( ) a(n) a(n) K K R.

lim a(n), lim a(n) K.
n
3.68. ( supremum) A supremum sup A.

a(n) sup A a(n) A n b(n) sup A b(n)
/ A
n.
3.69. ( ) a(n) b(n) a(n) b(n) n
N , N N . , , lim b(n) = . lim a(n) = .
n
3.70. L R L = , K N . lim a(n) L

n
lim a(n + K) L.
n
3.71. ( ) b(n) lim b(n) = l R.

n

Pn
i=1 b(i)
lim
= l.
n
n
3.72. 3.71 l = l = .
3.73. [/, ] a(n), b(n) a(n) b(n) 0. a(n), b(n)
.
3.74. a(n), b(n) a(n) , b(n) , a(n)b(n)
0. a(n), b(n) .
3.75. [?] a(n) lim a(n) = L. f (x) f (n) = a(n)
n
n N lim f (x) = L.
x
3.6

. Spivak [SPIE], [SPIG]
.
Thomas [THOE], [THOG], Stewart [STEW] Varberg et al. [VARB]
,
.
.
: , x0
f (x0 ).
,
,
. .
4.1 .
4.2 .
4.3 . 4.4
, .
4.5 ,
Lipschitz.
4.1
4.1.1
4.1. ( )
1. f : A R x0 A lim f (x) = f (x0 ).
xx0
2. f : A R x0 A lim+ f (x) = f (x0 ).

xx0
3. f : A R x0 A lim f (x) = f (x0 ).

xx0
4. f : A R I
x0 I, I ( I)
I ( ).
5. f : A R x0 A, x0 ,
x0 .
6. f x0 f (x) x0
, , .
89
90
4.
x0
. (i)
x0 , (ii) lim f (x) , (iii)
xx0
f (x0 ) .
: ,
. ,
. ,
, , [a, b],
(a, f (a)) , , (b, f (b)).
4.2, .
( ), 0 sin x1 3.2 0
Heaviside 3.1. ,
,
. , sinx x 3.1 0
, 0,
lim sinx x = 1,
x0
3.12, .
4.1. ( ) 3.13 3.14
P (x)
lim P (x) = P (x0 ),
xx0
R(x) =
P (x)
Q(x)
Q(x0 ) 6= 0
P (x)
P (x0 )
=
.
xx0 Q(x)
Q(x0 )
lim
, .
4.2. ( sin x, cos x ) sin x cos x
.
, 2.2,
| sin x| |x| |x| sin x |x|.
x0 R. 2.19

+
sin sin = 2 cos

sin
,
2
2

x
+
x
x
x
0
0
2 sin x x0 |x x0 |
| sin x sin x0 | = 2 cos
sin

2
2
2
|x x0 | sin x sin x0 |x x0 |,
, , lim |x x0 | = lim (|x x0 |) = 0,
xx0
xx0
lim | sin x sin x0 | = 0 lim (sin x sin x0 ) = 0 lim sin x = sin x0 .
xx0
xx0
xx0
4.1.
91
3.10. 3.9. ,
.
, cos x = sin (x /2),
lim cos x = lim sin(x /2) =
xx0
xx0
lim
xx0 /2
sin x = sin(x0 /2) = cos(x0 ).
3.11.
, :
4.1. ( ) f : A R x0
> 0 > 0
|x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| < .
(4.1)
: . f x0 ,
f (x0 ). , > 0 > 0
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| < .

, x = x0 , ,
|f (x) f (x0 )| = |f (x0 ) f (x0 )| = 0. 0 <
|x x0 |, (4.1).
. (4.1). > 0
> 0
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| < .
(4.1), 0 < |x x0 |,
lim f (x) = f (x0 ).

xx0

. 4.1.
4.1.2
, ( 3.2 3.6 4.2 4.3).

4.2. ( ) x0 x0 .
4.3. ( / )
1. f (x), g(x) x0 , f (x)g(x) x0 .
92
4.
2. f (x), g(x) x0 g(x0 ) 6= 0, f (x)/g(x) x0 .
3. f (x) x0 , f n (x) x0 , n N.
4. f (x) x0 , f (x0 ) 6= 0, 1/f n (x) x = x0 ,
n N .
4.4. ( / ) I.
1. f (x), g(x) I, f (x)g(x) I.
2. f (x), g(x) I g(x) 6= 0 x I,
f (x)/g(x) I.
3. f (x) I, f n (x) I, n N.
4. f (x) I, f (x) 6= 0, x I, 1/f n (x)
I, n N .
4.3. ( tan x, cot x ) 4.4 4.2

sin x
cos x
tan x =
,
cot x =
cos x
sin x
.
4.4. ( sinx x 0) 4.3 f (x) =
sin x
x 3.1 R . , 3.12

sin x
lim
= 1.
x0 x
,
(
sin x
x , x 6= 0,
g(x) =
1,
x = 0,
0, g(x)
R.
, , , .
.
4.1.
4.5. ( ) g : A R
L A. f : B R f (B) A lim f (x) = L.
xx0
lim g(f (x)) = g( lim f (x)) = g(L).
xx0
xx0
4.1.
93
: > 0. g, 1 > 0
|x L| < 1 |g(x) g(L)| < .
x , x
f (x). ,
|f (x) L| < 1 |g(f (x)) g(x0 )| < .
lim f (x) = L, 1 > 0 2 > 0
xx0
0 < |x x0 | < 2 |f (x) L| < 1

,
0 < |x x0 | < 2 |g(f (x)) g(L)| < .

4.5. ( ) 4.5

sin x 2
sin x 2
lim
= lim
= 12 = 1.
x0
x0 x
x
,
lim u(sin x) = u(lim sin x) = u(0) = 1,
x0
x0
u Heaviside 3.1. .
u 0, sin x x 0. ,
u(sin x) (0, ), 0 (, 0). ,
lim u(sin x).
x0
, , ,
lim u(sin x) = u( lim sin x) = u(1) = 1,
x/2
x/2
u 1 sin x x /2.
4.5
. , , ,
4.5.
4.6. ( ) f : B R x0 g : A R
f (x0 ).
lim g(f (x)) = g(f (x0 )),
xx0
g f x0 .
94
4.
4.1. ( / ) 4.1 .
4.2. 4.2.
4.3. 4.3 4.4.
4.4. ( ) :
1. lim sin sin x.
x0
2. lim cos sin x.

x0
3. lim tan xx3 +1

.
+2
x1
4.5. ( ) f x0 f (x0 ) >

0 (, f (x0 ) < 0), I = (a, b) x0 (a, b)
f (x) > 0 (, f (x) < 0) I.
4.6. [?] ( ) f : A R x0 .
an x0 {f (an ) : n N } A. lim f (an )
n
lim f (an ) = f ( lim an ) = f (x0 ). .
4.7. [??] ( ) f x0
xn x0 f (xn ) f (x0 ).
4.6.
4.8. [??] f : [a, b] R
U (x) , sup{min{f (y), f (a) + 1} : y [a, x]},
L(x) , inf{max{f (y), f (a) 1} : y [a, x]}.
[a, b]. U (x) , L(x) ,
lim U (x) lim L(x)
xa+
xa+
lim U (x) lim L(x).
xa+
xa+
, f (x) a .
4.9. [??] f : I R I, g : J R J,
f (I) J, g f I.
I, J.
4.2

.
Bolzano. , , ,

, . ,
.
4.2.
95
y
f(x)
(a; f(a))
sup A
(b; f(b))
4.1: Bolzano.
4.1. ( Bolzano) f
[a, b] f (a)f (b) < 0. x0 (a, b) f (x0 ) = 0.
: , f (a) > 0, f (b) < 0, f (a) <

0, f (b) > 0. . (
, 4.10). 4.1.

A = {x [a, b] : f (x) > 0}.
b
/ A, f (b) < 0. A b , a A,
supremum, sup A = x0 .
f (x0 ) = 0. x0
A, ,
A, . f ,
f (x0 ) = 0.
, an x0 ,
an A, f (an ) > 0. supremum
. , bn
/ A, f (bn ) 0, bn x0 . ,
bn = min{b, x0 + n1 }. 3.68.

lim f (bn ) = f ( lim bn ) = f (x0 ).
n
, f (bn ) 0 n ( bn A, bn > x0 = sup A)

lim f (bn ) 0, 3.67, f (x0 ) 0.
n
, an , f (x0 ) 0. (
f (an ) > 0 f (an ) 0, 3.67 .)
, f (x0 ) 0 f (x0 ) 0, f (x0 ) = 0.
96
4.
Bolzano . ,
. ,
, .
4.6. ( )
f () = cos10 + cos8 cos6 + cos3 cos2 + cos 1.
,
. , , f (0) = 1, f () = 1,
[0, ]. 4.4 ,
Bolzano,
.
4.2. ( ) f
[a, b] f (a) 6= f (b). , (a, b),
f (a), f (b).
4.2 f (a) > f (b).
f (a) f (b),
. B
y. , , ,
.
: f (a) > f (b). ( f (a) < f (b), , .)
y0 (f (b), f (a)). g(x) = f (x) y0 ,
g(a) = f (a) y0 > 0, g(b) = f (b) y0 < 0. , Bolzano,
x0 g(x0 ) = 0 f (x0 ) = y0 , .

.
4.2. ( ) {an }.
A R > 0 n1 , n2 , . . . , k N,
ank (A , A + ).
, A
A. ! ,
{an } an = 10 10.
4.3. ( ) [a, b]
{an } [a, b].
: [F]
bn = inf{an , an+1 , . . . }.
4.2.
97
(a; f(a))
f(x)
B
(b; f(b))
x
4.2: .
infimum ,
( {an }). bn ,
infima , b. ,
lim bn = A ( 3.61).
n
A . > 0. (A
, A + ) {an }, . , bn A,
bk1 (A , A + ), bk1 = inf{ak1 , ak1 +1 , . . . } n1 > k1
an1 (A , A + ). n1 k2 > n1 bk2 (A , A + ),
bk2 = inf{ak2 , ak2 +1 , . . . } n2 > k2 an2 (A , A + ).
, {an },
an1 , an2 , . . . (A , A + ), A
.

4.4. ( ) f : [a, b] R . f (x) ,
U , L, f (x) U , f (x) L x [a, b].
4.3. , (a, f (a)) (b, f (b)) , .
: [F] f (x) , .
f (x) , M x [a, b] f (x) >
M . f (x)
.
an . a1 = a,
an f (an ) > max{f (an1 ), n 1}. {an }
f . , an ,
f (an ) . {an : n N} . ,
b a. , , 4.3,
98
4.
y
y
f(x)
f(x)
x
a
x1
x0
4.3: .
, x0 [a, b]. x0 (a, b). ( x0 = a x0 = b,
.) f x0 , = 1
, > 0
|x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 | < 1 f (x) < f (x0 ) + 1.
, x0 {an }, an
|an x0 | < , , an f (an )
f (x0 ) + 1.

4.5. ( ) f : [a, b] R . x0 , x1 [a, b]
f (x0 ) f (x) x [a, b] f (x1 ) f (x) x [a, b].
4.4 . , , supremum, sup[a,b] f ,
infimum, inf[a,b] f . 4.5 , supremum infimum. .
,
1. f (x) = 1/x infimum 0 [1, ),
. ,
0.
2. f (x) = 1/x infimum 1/2 [1, 2),
. , ,
1/2.
3.
(
1/x, x (1, 2],
f (x) =
1/2, x = 1,
[1, 2], 1 =
sup[1,2] f .
4.3.
99
4.5: [F] .
4.4.
x0 , supremum ,
A = sup{f (x) : x [a, b]},
x0 [a, b] f (x0 ) = A. supremum
4.4. {an } [a, b] : a1 = a.
an x f (x) f (an1 )
A n1 . an f (an ) = A, . ,
, , f (an1 ) < A, an , A
supremum . ( f (an ) > A
A supremum.) , {an }
, , x0 [a, b]. f (x0 ) = A.
, f (x0 ) > A, A supremum f [a, b].
f (x0 ) < A. m = f (x02)+A .
> 0 , x (x0 , x0 + ), f (x) < m. , x0
{an }, (x0 , x0 + ), ,
, m. , , ,
f (x0 ) = A.
x0 , x1 g = f
[a, b].
4.10. ( Bolzano) Bolzano f (a) < 0,

f (b) > 0.
4.11. [?] ( ) .
4.12. [?] ( )
, .
4.13. [/, ] ( )
, .
4.14. [?] ( )
f : [a, ) R L = lim f (x), .
x
4.3
4.3. ( ) 1-1 f : A R.
f 1 : f (A) R y f (A) x
f (x) = y. , f 1 (f (x)) = x x A.
.
4.15.
100
4.
y; x
f !1
x; y
4.4: f f 1 .
4.7. ( ) 1-1 f : A R
f 1 : f (A) R.
1.
y = f (x) x = f 1 (y).
2. f 1 1-1, f (x), f (f 1 (y)) = y
3. f (), f 1 ().
f (x),
f 1 (y) (, y
x ),
f y = x. 4.4.
(x0 , y0 ) (y0 , x0 ). (
4.16). , f ,
f 1 , ( ), y ,
x .
, ! , , ,
, 90 .
4.6. ( ) 1-1 f : A R f 1 : f (A) R.
1. f a, f 1 b = f (a).
4.3.
101
x = arcsin y
1.5
0.5
y = sin x
1
0
0.5
-0.5
0
-1
-0.5
-1.5
-1
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
4.5: y = sin x [/2, /2]

x = arcsin y [1, 1].
2. f I, f 1 J = f (I).
, . ,
. ,
. ,
.
4.7. ( )
1-1 . ,
:
1. sin x [/2, /2].
, 1-1 ,
arcsin y. 4.5.
2. cos x [0, ].
, 1-1 , arccos y. 4.6.
3. tan x (/2, /2). , 1-1 ,
arctan y. 4.7.
102
4.
x = arccos y
3
2.5
y = cos x
1
1.5
0.5
1
0
0.5
-0.5
-1
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
4.6: y = cos x [0, ]

x = arccos y [1, 1].
4. cot x (0, ).
, 1-1 , arccot y. 4.8.
4.6,
.
, . 4.17.
(, ...),
. , arcsin 1 = /2 1, 1
( ) /2.
1
4.8. ( ) 1.1 n- y n
y.
1. y = f (x) = xn R, n . f (x)
( 1.15),
1
f 1 (y) = y n .
2. y = f (x) = xn [0, ), n . f (x)
( 1.15),
4.3.
103
y = tan x
x = arctan y
1.5
6
4
0.5
-2
-0.5
-4
-1
-6
-1.5
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
-6
-4
-2
4.7: y = tan x (/2, /2)

x = arctan y (, ).
y = cot x
x = arccot y
2.5
1.5
-2
-4
0.5
-6
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
-6
-4
-2
4.8: y = cot x (0, )

x = arctan y (, ).
104
4.
y = xn
x
1
y = xn
f(y) = yn
f !1 (x) = x n
4.9: x = f (y) = y n n (, )
y = f 1 (x).
y = xn
f(y) = y
f !1 (x) = x n
!y = !x n
y = xn
!y = !x n
4.10: x = f (y) = y n n [0, )

y = f 1 (x).
f 1 (y) = y n .
4.9, 4.10. 4.6,
.
4.4.
105
4.15. ( ) 4.7. ,
2.6 2.7.
4.16. ( x = y) (x0 , y0 )
x = y (y0 , x0 ).
4.17. ( ) 4.7 :
1. [/2, 3/2] sin x.
2. [, 0] cos x.
3. (/2, 3/2) tan x.
4. (, 0) cot x.
;
4.4
Bolzano , .
.
4.4. ( ) f : A R. x f (x ) = 0
f .
f (x) ,
.
, f (x) (
f (x) ),
. ,
, .
.
f (x) , a, b
f (a)f (b) < 0 ( a, b ), Bolzano a, b
. , m = (a + b)/2, :
1. f (m) = 0, m f .
2. f (m) f (a), f (b) (
f (a), f (b) ), (m, b)
(a, b) .
3. , f (m) f (b), f (a),
(a, b) .
106
4.
:
(a, b) f (a)f (b) < 0, m = (a + b)/2 ,
. , ,
, x0 |x0 x | < Ex
Ex , .
, x0 f (x0 ) ,
, |f (x0 )| < Ef Ef , .

:
/* BISECTION METHOD */
function bisection(f,a,b,Ex,Ef)
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
INPUT:
f: A function whose root is needed
a,b: Root inside (a,b) will be returned, f(a)f(b)<0
Ex: Maximum tolerance in value of root
Initially b-a>Ex
Ef: Maximum tolerance in value of function
at estimated root location.
Initially |f(a)|>Ef, |f(b)|>Ef
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
1:
m=(a+b)/2;
/* Initialization */
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
7:
8:
9:
WHILE (b-a)/2>Ex AND |f(m)|>Ef, /* We halve the interval */

IF f(m)f(a)<0,
b=m;
ELSEIF f(m)f(b)<0,
a=m;
END;
m=(a+b)/2;
END;
10: RETURN m /* m is estimate of root x*. |f(m)|<Ef or |m-x*|<Ex */

.
, ,
, , , .
(
!) , ,
.
, , (
) . ,
,
, .
4.4.
107
,
, .

. , , . ,
, .
f (x), , , . (
.)
[a, b],
. ,
, !
, . ,
, 2110 , .
, .
,
[a, b]
f (a)f (b) < 0. , f (x)
a, b.
4.9. ( ) , :
f (x)
a
b
N
x0
E
x cos x
0
10
0.7394
0.0031
x
8
sin(x 3)
5
5
10
3.4473
0.0195
x
8
sin(x 3)
5
4
10
3.7783
0.0176
, Ex , Ef , 10 .
,
. !
.
, . a, b, m, f (a), f (b), f (m)
n .
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
a
0
0
0
0.3927
0.5890
0.6872
0.7363
0.7363
0.7363
0.7363
b
3.1416
1.5708
0.7854
0.7854
0.7854
0.7854
0.7854
0.7609
0.7486
0.7424
m
1.5708
0.7854
0.3927
0.5890
0.6872
0.7363
0.7609
0.7486
0.7424
0.7394
f (a)
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.5312
0.2424
0.0858
0.0046
0.0046
0.0046
0.0046
f (b)
4.1416
1.5708
0.0783
0.0783
0.0783
0.0783
0.0783
0.0366
0.0159
0.0056
f (m)
1.5708
0.0783
0.5312
0.2424
0.0858
0.0046
0.0366
0.0159
0.0056
0.0005
108
4.
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
a
5.0000
0
2.5000
2.5000
3.1250
3.4375
3.4375
3.4375
3.4375
3.4375
a
5.0000
5.0000
5.0000
3.8750
3.8750
3.8750
3.8750
3.8047
3.8047
3.7871
b
5.0000
5.0000
5.0000
3.7500
3.7500
3.7500
3.5938
3.5156
3.4766
3.4570
b
4.0000
0.5000
2.7500
2.7500
3.3125
3.5938
3.7344
3.7344
3.7695
3.7695
m
0
2.5000
3.7500
3.1250
3.4375
3.5938
3.5156
3.4766
3.4570
3.4473
m
0.5000
2.7500
3.8750
3.3125
3.5938
3.7344
3.8047
3.7695
3.7871
3.7783
f (a)
0.3644
0.1411
0.7919
0.7919
0.2660
0.0060
0.0060
0.0060
0.0060
0.0060
f (a)
0.3644
0.3644
0.3644
0.0735
0.0735
0.0735
0.0735
0.0226
0.0226
0.0095
f (b)
0.2843
0.2843
0.2843
0.2129
0.2129
0.2129
0.1103
0.0536
0.0242
0.0092
f (b)
0.3415
0.4133
0.8520
0.8520
0.3848
0.1436
0.0308
0.0308
0.0038
0.0038
f (m)
0.1411
0.7919
0.2129
0.2660
0.0060
0.1103
0.0536
0.0242
0.0092
0.0016
f (m)
0.4133
0.8520
0.0735
0.3848
0.1436
0.0308
0.0226
0.0038
0.0095
0.0029
4.11, 4.12, 4.13 .

, 0, 1, 2 a, b, m , 3, . . . , 13 m
( 8 ).
4.18. [??] ( )
.
, .
, . ,
, , :
1. .
2. ,
3. ,
4.
,
4.19. ( ) 4.18
f (x) = x cos x, [0, ] 20 .
4.20. [/, ] ( 1) .
4.4.
109
f (x) = x ! cos x
4 512
11
10
67983
0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.11: f (x) = x cos x

a = 0, b = .
f (x) = x=8 ! sin(x ! 3)
0.5
3 512
11
10
67
984
-0.5
-1
-8
-6
-4
-2
4.12: f (x) =
a = 5, b = 5.
x
8
sin(x 3)
110
4.
f (x) = x=8 ! sin(x ! 3)
0.5
10
11
12
48976 5 3
-0.5
-1
-8
-6
-4
-2
4.13: f (x) =
a = 5, b = 4.
6
x
8
sin(x 3)
4.21. [/, ] ( 2) .
4.22. [/, ] ( 3) .
4.23. [/, ] ( 4) .
4.24. [/, ] ( 5) .
4.25. [/, ?, ] ( 6)
, .
4.5
Lipschitz
() Lipschitz,
.
4.5. ( Lipschitz) f : A R Lipschitz () I C > 0 x, y A
|f (x) f (y)| C|x y|.
Lipschitz : , , |f (x) f (y)|,
4.5. LIPSCHITZ
111
C|x y| ,
|x y|. C x, y,
!
Lipschitz .
(y, f (y)) .
|f (x) f (y)| C|x y| C|x y| f (x) f (x) C|x y|
f (y) C|x y| f (x) f (y) + C|x y|

x y, f (y) C(x y) f (x) f (y) + C(x y)
.
x y, f (y) C(y x) f (x) f (y) + C(y x)

g(x) = f (y) + C(x y),
h(x) = f (y) C(x y),
(x, f (x)), C, C. ,
Lipschitz :
x y h(x) f (x) g(x),
x y g(x) f (x) h(x).
,
(x, f (x)), C,
C. y I,
(y, f (y)).
, C ( ),
Lipschitz , .
4.14 4.15 ,
y. I.
Lipschitz I, ,
.
Lipschitz, , , . , , ,
Lipschitz . ,
.
Lipschitz . , Lipschitz
, Lipschitz
.
Lipschitz .
Lipschitz
. :
1. Lipschitz ,
|f (x) f (y)| , ,
C|x y|.
2. Lipschitz , C, .
112
4.
f(x)
x0
x1
4.14: Lipschitz
Lipschitz .
x0
x1
f(x)
4.15: Lipschitz
Lipschitz .
4.5. LIPSCHITZ
113
, , Lipschitz
, 4.14 4.15.
.
4.10. ( Lipschitz x2 ) , f (x) = x2 Lipschitz Lipschitz
. : , .
.
, , I , , I
[M, M ] M R.
|f (x) f (y)| = |x2 y 2 | = |x y||x + y| |x y|(|x| + |y|) |x y|(M + M ) = 2M |x y|.
, Lipschitz C = 2M .
I, f (x) = x2 Lipschitz
C. I R, I = (a, ),
I = (, a). I = (a, ).
. , , x, y
|f (x) f (y)| C|x y| |x y||x + y| C|x y| |x + y| C.
. , I = (a, ), x = y =
C, 2C C, C > 0.
4.11. ( Lipschitz |x|) H f (x) = |x| Lipschitz R,
C = 1. ,
|f (x) f (y)| = ||x| |y|| |x y|,
.
4.12. ( Lipschitz sin x) f (x) = sin x Lipschitz
R, C = 1. , 2.19

+
sin sin = 2 cos

sin
,
2
2

x+y
x y
x y
|x y|

| sin x sin y| = 2 cos
sin
= |x y|.
2 sin
2 2
2
2
2
4.13. ( Lipschitz x) f (x) = x Lipschitz

[a, ) a > 0, [0, ).
, x, y [a, ) a > 0.
| x y|| x + y|
|x y|
1
|f (x) f (y)| = | x y| =
=
|x y|,
| x + y|
| x + y|
2 a
Lipschitz C =
.
2 a
114
4.
x, y [0, ). . ,
Lipschitz C. . ,
x, y [0, ),
|f (x) f (y)| C|x y| | x y| C|x y| | x y| C| x y|| x + y|
1 C| x + y|
C.
| x + y|
x 6= y. ,
x, y x 6= y. , , x = 0 y = 4C1 2 . ,
Lipschitz [0, ).
, , , , ,
Lipschitz . , , 5.7 (
).
Lipschitz .
:
4.8. ( Lipschitz ) f : I R Lipschitz
I. H f (x) I.
: . , , y I
lim f (x) = f (y). y .
xy
y I, , . ,
Lipschitz,
|f (x) f (y)| C|x y| f (y) C|x y| f (x) f (y) + C|x y|.
lim (f (y) + C|x y|) = f (y) lim (f (y) C|x y|) = f (y),
xy
lim f (x) = f (y).

xy
xy
! , ,
Lipschitz . 4.13. ,
Lipschitz .
, , sin x
4.8.
4.26. ( Lipschitz ) , f (x) Lipschitz

I, Lipschitz J I.
4.27. ( Lipschitz ) f (x) Lipschitz
I, Lipschitz J I J.
4.28. ( Lipschitz ) 4.10. f (x) = xn ,
n N, n > 2, Lipschitz Lipschitz
.
4.6.
115
4.29. ( Lipschitz ) 4.12.

f (x) = A cos(ax + b) A, a, b R Lipschitz R.
4.30. ( Lipschitz ) f (x) = A cos(ax + b) A, a, b R, Lipschitz
R.
1
4.31. ( Lipschitz ) 4.13. f (x) = x n n N

Lipschitz [a, ) a > 0, [0, ).
4.32. [/, ] ( Lipschitz ) f Lipschitz
I, Lipschitz f (I).
4.6
.
, . , f
an x0 f (an ) f (x0 ). [] . 4.6 4.7.
, f : A R
f 1 (B) = {x : f (x) B} B f (A)
. Marsden Hoffman
[MARS].
, ,
.
.
,
, ,
, , ,
, ...

.
.

[] Forsythe et al. [FORE], [FORG]. Press et al. [PRES]

.
116
4.
, . ,
.
x0 . :
.
5.1 , 5.2
. 5.3
. , , ,
.
5.4. 5.5
, .
5.1
5.1. () f : A R x0 A.
1. x0 A. f
x0
f (x) f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) , lim
,
xx0
x x0
. , , f
x0 .
2. f x0
, ,
f 0 (x
0 ) , lim
xx0
f (x) f (x0 )
,
x x0
f 0 (x+
0 ) , lim+
xx0
f (x) f (x0 )
,
x x0
. () ,
f () x0 .
117
118
5.
(x1 ; f(x1 ))
tan 31 =
tan 32 =
tan 33 =
f (x2 )!f (x0 )

x2 !x0
f (x1 )!f (x0 )

x1 !x0
(x2 ; f(x2 ))
f (x3 )!f (x0 )

x3 !x0
(x3 ; f(x3 ))
(x0 ; f(x0 ))
5.1: , .
(x0 )
x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . x0 , f (xxi )f

i x0
(xi , f (xi )) (x0 , f (x0 )) f 0 (x0 ).
3. f : I R I
, ( )
( ). f 0
f.
, , , .
, , () ,
. ,
() .
3.11
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
.
h0
h
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
, .
, y = f (x)

dy
0
f (x0 ) =
.
dx
x=x0
To dy f (x) f (x0 )
, dx x x0 . Leibniz.
5.1.
119
. ((x0 ), f (x0 )). ,

(x, f (y)) (x0 , f (x0 )).
x x0 , , . 5.1. ,
, ,
.
,
, . ,
,
. ,
, ,
.
. ,
( )
( ).
5.1. ( ) f : A R.
1. f x0 A ( I A),
x0 ( I).
2. f () x0 A (
I A, () x0 ( I).
:
f (x) = f (x0 ) + (x x0 )
f (x) f (x0 )
,
x x0

f (x) f (x0 )
lim f (x) = lim f (x0 ) + (x x0 )
xx0
xx0
x x0
f (x) f (x0 )
= lim f (x0 ) + lim (x x0 ) lim
xx0
xx0
xx0
x x0
= f (x0 ) + 0 f 0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ).
,
.

. ,
, .
, x x0 , x x0 0, f (x) f (x0 ) 0,
.
f 0 (x) ,
(f (x))0 , f (x) .
120
5.
5.1. ( sin x, cos x) , 2.19

+
sin sin = 2 cos

sin
,
2
2
sin x0

0
sin x sin x0
x + x0 sin xx
2
= lim
= lim cos
xx0
xx0
xx0
x x0
2
2

xx0
sin
x + x0
sin h
2
= lim cos
lim
= cos(x0 )lim
= cos(x0 ).
xx0
xx0 xx0
h0 h
2
2
0
h = xx
2 .
3.12.
, ,
, ,
/2,
cos0 x0 =
=
lim
xx0
cos x cos x0
cos(h /2) cos(x0 + /2 /2)
= lim
x x0
h (x0 + /2)
hx0 + 2
sin h sin(x0 + /2)

= sin0 (x0 + /2) = cos(x0 + /2) = sin x0 .
h
(x
+
/2)
hx0 +/2
0
lim
3.10.
5.2. ( f (x) = xn ) f (x) = xn ,
n N . , x0 R,
xn xn0
xx0 x x0
(x x0 )(xn1 + xn1 x0 + + x xn2
+ xn1
)
0
0
= lim
xx0
x x0
= lim (xn1 + xn1 x0 + + x xn2
+ xn1
)
0
0
f 0 (x0 ) =
lim
xx0
lim xn1 + lim xn1 x0 + + lim x xn2

+ lim xn1
0
0
xx0
= (n
xx0
n1
1)x0 .
xx0
xx0
1.10. , (xn )0 = (n 1)xn1

x R.
5.3. ( f (x) = x) f (x) = x

x0 > 0.
x x0
( x x0 )( x + x0 )
0
f (x0 ) = lim
= lim
xx0 x x0
xx0 (x x0 )( x + x0 )
1
1
= lim
= .
xx0 x + x0
2 x0
, ( x)0 = 21 x .
5.2.
121
x 0,
x 0
1
0 +
f (0 ) = lim
= lim = ,
+
+
x0
x
x0
x0
3.56, f 0 (0+ ) = .
5.1. ( ) f : R R f (x) = ax + b
f 0 (x) = a, .
5.2. ( ) f : R R f (x) = |x|
x = 0, .
5.3. ( Dirichlet) x2 fD (x), Dirichlet fD (x)
3.11, 0 .
5.4. ( ) tan x cot x
,
.
5.5. ( ) f : R R f (x) =
p
|x| .
5.6. 5.2, (xn )0 = nxn1
n n 0.
5.7. [/, ] ( ) f : R R
R , R.
5.8. [] () f : R R R. f , f 0
, f f 0 .
5.2
, .

.
5.2. ( ) f, g x0 . a, b R.
1. af (x) + bg(x) x0
(af (x0 ) + bg(x0 ))0 = af 0 (x0 ) + bg 0 (x0 ).
2. f g x0
(f g)0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 )g(x0 ) + f (x0 )g 0 (x0 ).
122
5.
3. g(x0 ) 6= 0,
0
1
g 0 (x0 )
(x0 ) = 2
.
g
g (x0 )
4. g(x0 ) 6= 0,
0
f
f 0 (x0 )g(x0 ) g 0 (x0 )f (x0 )
(x0 ) =
.
g
g 2 (x0 )
:
1.
af (x) + bg(x) af (x0 ) bg(x0 )
xx0
x x0

f (x) f (x0 )
g(x) g(x0 )
= lim a
+ lim b
xx0
xx0
x x0
x x0
f (x) f (x0 )
g(x) g(x0 )
= a lim
+ b lim
= af 0 (x0 ) + bg 0 (x0 ).
xx0
xx0
x x0
x x0
(af + bg)0 (x0 ) =
lim
2.
(f g)0 (x0 ) =
=
=
=
=
f (x)g(x) f (x0 )g(x0 )

xx0
x x0
f (x)g(x) + f (x0 )g(x) f (x0 )g(x) f (x0 )g(x0 )
lim
xx0
x x0
g(x)(f (x) f (x0 ))
f (x0 )(g(x) g(x0 ))
lim
+ lim
xx0
xx
x x0
x x0
0
f (x) f (x0 )
g(x) g(x0 )
lim g(x) lim
+ f (x0 ) lim
xx0
xx0
xx0
x x0
x x0
0
0
g(x0 )f (x0 ) + f (x0 )g (x0 ).
lim
3.
0
1
(x0 ) =
g
1
g(x)
1
g(x0 )
g(x0 ) g(x)
xx0
xx0 g(x)g(x0 )(x x0 )
x x0
1
1 g(x) g(x0 )
=
lim
g(x0 ) xx0 g(x) x x0

1
1
g(x) g(x0 )
g 0 (x0 )
=
lim
lim
= 2
.
xx0
g(x0 ) xx0 g(x)
x x0
g (x0 )
lim
= lim
g x0
x0 .
4. , ,
0

0
f
1
1
g 0 (x0 )
0
(x0 ) =
f
(x0 ) = f (x0 )
f (x0 ) 2
g
g
g(x0 )
g (x0 )
0
0
f (x0 )g(x) g (x0 )f (x0 )
=
.
g 2 (x0 )
5.2.
123
5.4. ( tan x cot x) 5.2

sin x 0 (sin x)0 cos x (cos x)0 sin x
tan0 x =
=
cos x
cos2 x
=
cos2 x + sin2 x
1
=
2
cos x
cos2 x
tan x
(cos x)0 sin x (sin x)0 cos x
sin x
sin2 x
2
2
cos x + sin x
1
=
=
2
sin x
sin2 x
cot0 x =
cos x 0
cot x.
5.4.

. :
5.3. ( )
f, g I. a, b R.
1. af + bg I
(af + bg)0 = af 0 + bg 0
2. f g I
(f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0 .
3. g 6= 0 I, 1/g
0
1
g0
= 2.
g
g
4. g 6= 0 I, f /g
0
f
f 0g g0f
=
.
g
g2
.
5.1. ( ) g : A R x0 f : B R g(x0 ). f (g(x)) x0
(f (g(x0 )))0 = f 0 (g(x0 ))g 0 (x0 ).
124
5.
: /, g(x) 1-1. :
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 ))
xx0
x x0
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 )) g(x) g(x0 )
= lim
xx0
g(x) g(x0 )
x x0
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 ))
g(x) g(x0 )
= lim
lim
xx0
g(x) g(x0 ) xx0 x x0
(f (g(x0 )))0 =
lim
, g(x) g(x0 ), f 0
g(x0 ), f 0 (g(x0 )). g 0 x0 , g 0 (x0 ).
g(x) 1 1,
g(x) g(x0 ), .

() . , . x x0 x, g(x)
2x, g x0 2. , f ,
g, g g(x0 ), f 3g, f 0 (g(x0 )) = 3.
, x x x0 , f (g(x))
2 3 = 6x.
f 0 (g(x0 )), g 0 (x0 ): , x x x0 ,
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 )) x f 0 (g(x0 ))g 0 (x0 ).

Leibniz. , y = g(x), y0 = g(x0 ).
z = f (y), z0 = f (y0 ). z = f (g(x))

dz
dz dy
=
,
dx x0
dy y0 dx x0
, ,
dz
dz dy
=
.
dx
dy dx
dy! , dx, dy, dz
. dy ,
.
. ,
, . () . ,
, !
5.5. ( )

tan sin10 x + 5 sin5 x + x3 + 1 .
5.3.
125
tan sin10 x + 5 sin5 x + x3 + 1
0

0
= tan0 sin10 x + 5 sin5 x + x3 + 1 sin10 x + 5 sin5 x + x3 + 1

1
10 sin9 x cos x + 25 sin4 x + 3x2 .
=
10
5
2
3
cos sin x + 5 sin x + x + 1
.
5.2. ( ) f : A R. n
f I , : 1 f
f I, n- n- f
(n 1)- . n- f (n) (x).
, , ... f 00 (x), f 000 (x), ...
, f (0)
f . . ,
, 5.10.
5.9. [] ( / ) 5.8, ,
, .
5.10. ( n- )
sin x cos x.
sin(4n) x = sin x,
cos(4n) x = cos x,
sin(4n+1) x = cos x,
cos(4n+1) x = sin x,
sin(4n+2) x = sin x,
cos(4n+2) x = cos x,
n N.
5.3
,
, .
5.2. ( ) f : A R
1 1 f 1 : f (A) R. x0 A.
1. f x0 f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0, f 1
y0 = f (x0 )
0
1
f 1 (y0 ) = 0
.
f (x0 )
2. f x0 f 0 (x0 ) = 0, f 1
y0 = f (x0 ) , f , ,
f .
126
5.
x0 A,
> 0 (x0 , x0 ) A (x0 , x0 + ) A,
, , . 5.12.
, . (
5.11.) . ,
, , .

. ,
.
, . ,
2.1.
x, x = x0 ,
2x y0 , f x0 f (x0 ) = 2.
y, 12 y,
f 1 y0 12 , 2.
f 0 (x0 ).
f 0 (x0 ) = 0.
Leibniz. , y = f (x) x = f 1 (y),

dx
1
= dy ,

dy y0
dx x
0
, ,
dy
1
= dx .
dx
dy
dy dx , .

.
.
, ,
. ,
0
0
f 1 (f (x)) = x f 1 (f (x)) = (x)0 (f 1 (f (x)))0 f 0 (x) = 1 f 1 (f (x)) =
1
.
f 0 (x)
, 5.2,
, .
5.2 , , y = f (x) x = f 1 (y).
f 1 , y
x. .
.
5.6. ( ) 4.7. ( 4.5) ( 4.7).
5.13 5.14
.
5.3.
127
,
(arcsin y)0 =
1
1
1
1
=p
=
,
0 =
2
cos x
1 y2
(sin x)
1 sin x
y (1, 1).
. 5.2.
. 0
x = /2, x (/2, /2), y (1, 1).
arcsin y y,
x = f 1 (y).
p (/2,p/2) ,
cos x = 1 sin2 x ( ) cos x = 1 sin2 x.
y = sin x. y = /2 y = /2,
5.2 .
, , . , ( )
, , , . , . , , arcsin y
4.5.
,
(arctan y)0 =
1
cos2 x
1
1
2
=
cos
x
=
=
= 2
.
2
2
0
2
(tan x)
tan x + 1
y +1
sin + cos x
.
1
5.7. ( x n ) y = f (x) = xn x =
1
f 1 (y) = y n . To n N . n = 2k, x > 0, y > 0. n = 2k + 1, x, y R .

yn
0
1
1
1
1
=
=
= y 1/n1 .
n
0
n1
11/n
(x )
nx
n
ny
, (xa )0 = axa1 a = n N
n N , a = 1/n.
p
5.8. ( x q ) x q x > 0, p, q Z .
5.6

xq
0

xq
p 0
1 p1 1 1
p p 1
1
= p xq
xq = xq .
q
q
, (xr )0 = rxr1 r Q.
5.11. ( 5.2) 5.2.

5.12. ( ) 5.2
x0 A > 0
(x0 , x0 ) A (x0 , x0 + ) A.
128
5.
5.13. ( arccos(y)) ,
4.7 ( 4.6).
5.14. ( arccot(y)) , 4.7. ( 4.8)
5.4

.
.
5.3. ( Fermat) f : A R, x0 A, f
x0 .
1. f 0 (x0 ) > 0, (a, b) x0 A
x0 f (x0 ) x0
f (x0 ).
2. f 0 (x0 ) < 0, (a, b) x0 A
x0 f (x0 ) x0
f (x0 ).
3. f (x) x0 , f 0 (x0 ) = 0.
:
1. 3.26 (a, b) x0
f (x) x(x0 )
> P > 0.
x x0
x1 (a, b) x1 > x0 . x1 > x0 x1 x0 > 0,
, f (x1 ) > f (x0 ),
. , x1 < x0 , x1 x0 < 0,
, , f (x1 ) < f (x0 ).
2. .
3. f 0 (x0 ) > 0 f 0 (x0 ) < 0, .
, , f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

.
5.4. ( ) I f : I R.
f :
1. I, .
2. x0 I ( ) f 0 (x0 ).
3. x0 I f 0 (x0 ) 0.
5.4.
129
: .
A , Fermat
.

. f , ,
. ,
, .
5.9. ( )
f (x) = x3 10x2 + 27x 18
[0, 7). x0 = 0 ,
. 7 ,
, . ,
. f 0 (x) = 3x2 20x + 27,
10 19
x1,2 =
.
3
x0 , x1 , x2 .
5.4. ( Rolle) f : [a, b] R (a, b) [a, b], f (a) = f (b) = 0. x0 (a, b) f 0 (x0 ) = 0.
: 4 ( 4.5).
f [a, b], [a, b].
c (a, b), Fermat f 0 (c) = 0,
. c (a, b), Fermat
f 0 (c) = 0, . ,
(a, b), a, b,
(a, b), f (a) = f (b), c (a, b) f 0 (c) = 0.

Rolle :
f (a, f (a)) (b, f (b) = f (a))
,
. ,
f (a) = f (b), . x0 ,
f 0 (x0 ) = 0. 5.2 c, d
(a, b). .
5.5. ( ) f : [a, b] R (a, b)
[a, b]. x0 (a, b)
f 0 (x0 ) =
f (b) f (a)
.
ba
130
5.
y
f 0 (c) = 0
f(x)
f(a) = f(b)
x
a
b
f 0 (d) = 0
5.2: Rolle.
: Rolle. ,

f (b) f (a)
g(x) = f (x)
x.
ba

f (b) f (a)
f (b) f (a)
g(a) = f (a)
a,
g(b) = f (b)
b,
ba
ba

g(a) g(b) = [f (a) f (b)] +
f (b) f (a)
ba

(b a) = 0.
Rolle, , c
g 0 (c) = 0 f 0 (c)
f (b) f (a)
f (b) f (a)
= 0 f 0 (c) =
.
ba
ba
Rolle.
5.3.

. .
5.5. ( ) f : I R I I.
1. f 0 (x) 0 I, f I.
2. f 0 (x) > 0 I, f I.
5.4.
131
y
f(b)
f 0 (c) =
f(x)
f (b)!f (a)
b!a
a
c
d
0
f (d) =
f (b)!f (a)
b!a
f(a)
5.3: .
3. f 0 (x) 0 I, f I.
4. f 0 (x) < 0 I, f I.
5. f 0 (x) = 0 I, f I.
: . 2-4 5.20. x1 , x2 I. f [x1 , x2 ]
(x1 , x2 ),
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
= f 0 (c) 0 f (x2 ) f (x1 ) 0 f (x2 ) f (x1 ).
x2 x1
f 0 (c) 0 x (a, b), c,
f 0 (x) 0.
, x1 , x2 I. f [x1 , x2 ]
(x1 , x2 ), ,
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
= f 0 (c) = 0 f (x1 ) f (x2 ) = 0 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
x2 x1
x1 , x2 I f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), f (x)
I.

1 3 . , , 5.21.
5.10. ( )
f (x) = x3 10x2 + 27x 18
132
5.
[0, 7), 5.9, f 0 (x) = 3x2 20x + 27,
10 19
x1,2 =
.
3
, f 0 (x) (x1 , x2 ), f (x)
[x1 , x2 ], [0, x1 ) (x2 , 7), f (x)
.
5.6. ( ) f : [a, b] R.
1. f (a, c) f 0 (x) 0 x (a, c) (c, b)
f 0 (x) 0 (c, b), f c.
2. f (a, c) f 0 (x) 0 x (a, c) (c, b)
f 0 (x) 0 (c, b), f c.
3. c (a, b) f 0 (c) = 0 f 00 (c) < 0, f c.
4. c (a, b) f 0 (c) = 0 f 00 (c) > 0, f c.
:
1. 5.5 f [a, c] [c, b],
f c. 2.11.
2. .
3. f 00 (c) < 0, 5.3, (a0 , b0 )
c f 0 (x) f 0 (x) = 0, , (c, b0 ), f 0 (x)
f 0 (x) = 0, , (a0 , c). ,
c.
4. .
5.11. ( ) 5.10,

f 00 (x) = 6x 20,

f 00 (x1 ) = 2 19 < 0,
f 00 (x2 ) = 2 19 > 0.
, f (x) x1 x2 .
, x0 , , x0 . f (x) 5.4.
supremum 24, .
x0 = 0, f (0) = 18.
, ,
Lipschitz .
5.4.
133
f (x) = x3 ! 10x2 + 27x ! 18

30
20
10
(x1 ; f(x1 ))
0
-10
-20
-1
(x2 ; f(x2 ))
(x0 ; f(x0 ))
0
x
5.4: f (x) 5.9, 5.10, 5.11.
5.7. ( Lipschitz) f : [a, b] R [a, b]

(a, b), K |f 0 (x)| K x (a, b). H f
Lipschitz .
: . , x, y [a, b]. f [x, y] (x, y),
x0
f 0 (x0 ) =
f (y) f (x)
|f (y) f (x)|
|f 0 (x0 )| =
yx
|y x|
|f (y) f (x)|
K |f (y) f (x)| K|x y|.

|y x|
5.15. ( ) f, g f (a) = g(a) f 0 (x) g 0 (x)

I = [a, b], I = [a, b), I = [a, ). f (x) g(x) I.
5.16. [/, ] ( ) f 0 (x0 ) = 0, f (x) x0 .
5.17. [/, ] ( ) f [a, b] .
5.18. [/, ] ( ) f [a, b]
(a, b), f (x) > 0 (a, b).
5.19. [/, ] ( ) f
[a, b] (a, b), f (x) < 0 (a, b).
134
5.
5.20. ( ) 2-4 5.5.

5.21. f : I R I I. f
(, ) I, f 0 (x) 0 ( f 0 (x) 0) .
5.22. f (x) = cos x + sin x;
5.23. ( Lipschitz )
,
Lipschitz .
5.24. 4.28, 4.29, 4.30 4.31, 4.11 ,
, 5.7 5.23.
5.5
, ,
.
5.3. () I f : I R. F : I R
I F 0 = f f I.
, cos x R sin x, (sin x)0 = cos x,
sin x cos x, ( cos x)0 = sin x.
.
, . ,
, , ,
, .
5.8. ( ) f : I R F :
I R. f
{F (x) + C : C R} .
, :
Z
Z
f,
f (x) dx.
R
, f (x) dx = F (x) + C.
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C F 0 (x) = f (x)
(f (x))0 dx = f (x) + C.
5.5.
135
: , C, F (x) + C
f . , x I
(F (x) + C)0 = F 0 (x) + C = f (x).
, f F (x) + C. , G(x)
f , G0 (x) = f (x). I
(F (x) G(x))0 = F 0 (x) G0 (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0,
5.5 F (x) G(x) = C C R,
G(x) = F (x) + C.

R
f ,
.
.

f (x),
R F (x)
, f (x) dx
F (x) + C. , ,
.

F 0 (x) = f (x)
R
, f . .
5.12. ( )
:
Z
sin x dx = cos x + C,
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C,
Z
1
dx = tan x + C,
cos2 x
Z
rxr1 dx = xr + C, r Q ,
Z
1
dx =
x + C.
2 x
R
f (x) dx =
F (x) + C, I . ,
, .
, ,
, .

, .
5.9. ( ) f, g
Z
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C,
g(x) dx = G(x) + C,
136
5.
I. a, b R .
Z
Z
Z
(af (x) + bg(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + b g(x) dx.
(5.1)
, . , , !
. ,
. ,
.
. ,
, V W .
1. aV V a,
aV = {af : f V}.
V = {f + C : C R}, a 6= 0,
aV = {af + aC : C R} = {af + C},
C R, aC R, a 6= 0.
2. V W V
W:
V + W = {f + g : f V, g W}.
(5.2)
3. , V W .
,
, .
5.9: (aF (x) + bG(x))0 = af (x) + bg(x),
Z
(af (x) + bg(x)) dx = {aF (x) + bG(x) + C : C R}

Z
Z
a f (x) dx + b g(x) dx = {aF + C : C R} + {bG + C : C R}
= {aF + bG + C : C R}.

.
, (5.1) .

, ,
. ,
, ,
.
5.5.
137
5.10. ( )
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
f (x) dx + g(x) dx = h(x) dx f (x) dx = h(x) dx g(x) dx.
:
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C,
Z
g(x) dx = G(x) + C,
, ,
Z
Z
f (x) dx
h(x) dx = H(x) + C.
Z
h(x) dx
g(x) dx.
,

R
, . . (F (x) + C1 ) f (x) dx.
F (x) + C1 = (F (x) + G(x)) (G(x) (C1 )).
R
R
R
h(x) dx R= (f (x) +
R g(x)) dx, R g(x) dx,
F (x)+C
R 1
R h(x) dx g(x) dx, f (x) dx
h(x) dx g(x) dx.
, ,
Z
Z
Z
h(x) dx g(x) dx f (x) dx.
R
R
H(x) G(x) + C1 h(x) dx g(x) dx. H(x) = F (x) +
G(x) + C2 ,
Z
H(x) G(x) + C1 = F (x) + G(x) + C2 G(x) + C1 = (F (x) + C3 ) f (x) dx,
R
R
R

h(x)
dx
g(x)
dx
f (x) dx.
R
R
R
f (x) dx h(x) dx g(x) dx , ,
.

5.6. ( ) f, g f g 0 f 0 g I. :
Z
Z
0
f (x)g(x) dx = f (x)g(x) f (x)g 0 (x) dx.
:
(f (x)g(x))0 = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x)
Z
Z
0
(f (x)g(x)) dx = (f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x)) dx
Z
Z
0
{f (x)g(x) + C} = f (x)g(x) dx + f (x)g 0 (x) dx
Z
Z
0
f (x)g(x) dx = {f (x)g(x) + C} f (x)g 0 (x) dx
Z
Z
0
f (x)g(x) dx = f (x)g(x) f (x)g 0 (x) dx.
138
5.
5.10. ,
{f (x)g(x)
H(x) + C : C R}, H 0 (x) = f (x)g 0 (x).

.
5.13. ( )

Z
Z
x sin x dx,
x cos x dx.
,
Z
Z
Z
0
x sin x dx =
x( cos x) dx = x cos x x0 ( cos x) dx
Z
= x cos x + cos x dx = x cos x + sin x + C.
,
(x cos x + sin x + C)0 = x0 cos x x(cos x)0 + (sin x)0 = cos x + x sin x + cos x = x sin x.
, :
Z
Z
Z
x cos x dx =
x(sin x)0 dx = x sin x x0 sin x dx
Z
= x sin x sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + C.
,
(x sin x + cos x + C)0 = x0 sin x + x(sin x)0 + (cos x)0 = sin x + x cos x sin x = x cos x.
,
, .
5.7. ( ) f : J R F (, F 0 = f )
J. g : I R g(I) J.
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C.
: F (g(x))
:
(F (g(x))0 = F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) = f (g(x))g 0 (x).

, f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx
F f , .
, :
R
5.5.
1.
139
k(x) dx .
2. u = g(x), g(x)
, , .
3. , , dx
1
g 0 (x)
du.
R
4.
f (u) du f ,
R
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx. g, f .
, u = g(x).
5. , F f , 5.7
Z
Z
k(x) dx = f (u) du = F (u) + C = F (g(x)) + C.
.
u = g(x) .
.
.
5.14. ( )
Z
x sin x2 dx.
u = x2 , du = 2x dx,
Z
Z
1
1
1
2
x sin x dx =
sin u du = cos u + C = cos x2 + C.
2
2
2
, ,
,
, . ,
2
ex R,
.
5.25. ( ) A, B R
A + B = {a + b : a A, b B},
A
B. :
1. (0, 1) + (0, 1).
2. (0, 1) + Z.
140
5.
3. N + N.
5.26. [/, ] ( ) 5.9 a = b = 0.
5.27. [/, ] ( ) V, W, Y .
V + W = Y V = Y W.
5.28. ( ) :
R
1. x2 sin x dx.
R
2. x2 cos x dx.
5.29. [??] ( ) I1 = [a, b] I2 = [c, d], a < b < c < d.
f : I1 I2 R F : I1 I2 R F 0 = f I1 I2 .
f ,
I1 I2 f .
5.6

.
,
1. ,
2. ,
3. () () ()
.
Thomas [THOE], [THOG]
( ).
, .
. ,
Thomas [THOE], [THOG], Apostol [APE2], [APG1], Stewart [STEW],
... . , Maxwell
.
.
6

,
.
.
6.1
. ,
.
6.2 LHpital
. 6.3 ,
.
6.4 ,
.
6.1
, ,
f (x) f (x0 )
.
xx0
x x0
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
, , x x0 ,
, ,
f 0 (x0 ) '
f (x) f (x0 )
f (x) ' f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ).
x x0
(6.1)
, , . ,
x x0 , f (x),
, , . 6.1. ,
x,
.
E(x) = f (x) f (x0 ) f 0 (x0 )(x x0 )
(6.2)
. x x0 , .
141
142
6.
(x0 ; f(x0 ))
x0
y = f(x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x ! x0 )
f(x)
6.1: f (x0 , f (x0 )) y = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ).
, , .
.
6.1. ( ) (6.1), 1
f (x) = x 3 x
. .
. x0 = 1000,
:
1
1
x x0
x 1000
1
f (x) ' f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) = x03 +
= 1000 3 +
(x x0 ). (6.3)
2
2 = 10 +
300
3 1000 3
3x 3
0
x x0 ,
, E(x) (6.2).
x
900
990
999
1000
1001
1010
1100
f (x) = x 3
9.6549
9.9666
9.9967
10
10.0033
10.0332
10.3228
f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 )

9.6667
9.9667
9.9967
10
10.0033
10.0333
10.333
x x0
100
10
1
0
1
10
100
E(x)
0.0118
1.1 104
1.1 106
0
1.1 106
1.1 104
0.0115
, x x0 , E(x),
6.2. LHPITAL
143
6.1.
, ,
. ,
f (x), , x0 ,
. , ,
, .
, .
6.1. ( ) 6.1 tan x.

, tan x x:
/4 0.1, /4 0.01, /4 0.001, /4, /4 + 0.001, /4 + 0.01, /4 + 0.1.
tan x x0 = /4. ,
, 6.1, .
6.2
LHpital
6.1. ()
1. lim f (x)g(x) 0 lim f (x) = 0 lim g(x) = .
xx0
xx0
2. lim
f (x)
3. lim
f (x)
xx0 g(x)
xx0 g(x)
0
0
xx0
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0.

xx0
xx0
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = .

xx0
xx0
4. lim (f (x) g(x)) lim f (x) = lim g(x) = .

xx0
xx0
xx0
.
.

.
,
. , 6.2.
, , ,
. ,
sin2
1
lim 2 = lim sin2 x 2
x0 x
x0
x
00 0
.
144
6.
, ,
0 . , , 0 , 0, .
, LHpital.
00

.
6.1. ( LHpital) f, g
f 0 (x)
= L.
xx0 g 0 (x)
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0,
xx0
lim
xx0

f (x)
= L.
xx0 g(x)
lim
, L = , , ,
f, g .
LHpital , .
.
.
6.2. ( LHpital)
lim
x0
tan x sin x
,
x + sin x
0/0, LHpital. ,
1
1
cos x
1
tan x sin x
2
= lim cos x
= 1
= 0.
x0 x + sin x
x0 1 + cos x
1+1
lim
6.3. ( LHpital) . 0:
x3 + 3x 4
.
x1 x3 + x2 2
lim
, , LHpital:
x3 + 3x 4
3x2 + 3
6x
=
lim
= lim
= 1.
x1 x3 + x2 2
x1 3x2 + 2x
x1 6x
lim
, , LHpital:
lim (3x2 + 3)
x3 + 3x 4
3x2 + 3
6
x1
lim
= lim 2
=
= .
x1 x3 + x2 2
x1 3x + 2x
lim (3x2 + 2x)
5
x1
, , . ,
, . LHpital
.
6.2. LHPITAL
145
6.4. ( )
LHpital, , :

x2 sin x1
lim
.
x0
sin x
, ,

x
x2 sin x1
1
lim
= lim
lim x sin
.
x0
x0 sin x x0
sin x
x
sin x
x0 x
, 1, lim
= 1 ( 3.12).
, 3.10 0. ,
0.
, LHpital

2x sin x1 + x2 cos x1 x12
x2 sin x1
lim
= lim
x0
x0
sin x
cos x

2x sin x1
sin x1
= lim
lim
.
x0
x0 cos x
cos x
, 0,

3.10. , , sin x1 (
3.16). , . ,
, . 3.24.
, . :
LHpital, .
, , , ,
,
.
sin x
)
x0 x
6.5. ( lim
, LHpital

sin x
cos x
= lim
= 1.
x0 1
x
3.12. , .
, , (sin x)0 = cos x,
5.1 ! ,
, ,
.
lim
x0
6.2. ( 0/0) , , 00 :
sin2 x
,
x0 x
lim
sin2 x
,
x0 x4
lim
lim
x0
sin x
.
x2
.
, .
146
6.
6.3. ( LHpital) 3.32

LHpital:
sin3 x + sin2 x + sin x
.
x0
x3 + x2 + x
lim
6.3
.
, . ,
, , , ,
.
6.2. ( ) f : A R. f
I
x0 , x1 I, [0, 1],
f ((1 )x0 + x1 ) (1 )f (x0 ) + f (x1 ).
f I f .
: , I,
I .
, :
(
)
( x ) (
).
,
. 6.2. (x0 , f (x0 )), (x1 , f (x1 )) ,
x0 , x1 I. . ,

f (x1 ) f (x0 )
y = f (x0 ) +
(x x0 ).
x1 x0
( x = x1 x = x2
(x0 , f (x0 )), (x1 , f (x1 )).)
, x x0
x1 x = x0 + (1 )x0 [0, 1]. , [0, 1], 0
1 0,
x0 = x0 + (1 )x0 x0 + (1 )x1 x1 + (1 )x1 = x1 .
= 0 x = x0 , = 1 x = x1 , = 1/2 x = (x0 + x1 )/2, ...
y x = (1
6.3.
147
f(x)
y = (1 ! 3)f(x0 ) + 3f(x1 )
y = f(x0 )
y = f(x1 )
y = f((1 ! 3)x0 + 3x1 )
x0
(1 ! 3)x0 + 3x1
x1
6.2: .
)x0 + x1
f (x1 ) f (x0 )
(x x0 )
(1 )x0 + x1 x0
f (x1 ) f (x0 )
= f (x0 ) +
((1 )x0 + x1 x0 )
x1 x0
f (x1 ) f (x0 )
= f (x0 ) +
(x1 x0 )
x1 x 0
= (1 )f (x0 ) + f (x1 ).
y = f (x0 ) +
, , ,
. [0, 1],
, , .
x0 , x1 I,
.
f . ,

. . ,
.
,
.
6.6. ( )
f : R R f (x) = ax + b a, b R.
f ((1 )x0 + x1 ) = a(1 )x0 + ax1 + b = (1 )(ax0 + b) + (ax1 + b)
= (1 )f (x0 ) + f (x1 ).
148
6.
, , f (x) . , f
, f , f .
( 6.5)
.
.
, . ,
,
.
6.7. ( f (x) = |x| ) f : R R f (x) = |x|.
f (x) . ,
f ((1 )x0 + x1 ) (1 )f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) |(1 )x0 + x1 | (1 )|x0 | + |x1 |
|(1 )x0 + x1 | |(1 )x0 | + |x1 |,
|a + b| |a| + |b|.
6.8. ( x2 ) f (x) = x2 x R R
.

f ((1 )x0 + x1 ) (1 )f (x0 ) + f (x1 )
(1 )2 x20 + 2 x21 + 2(1 )x0 x1 (1 )x20 + x21
x20 [(1 )(1 (1 ))] + x21 [(1 )] + 2(1 )x0 x1 0
(1 )(x0 + x1 )2 0,
x0 , x1 R [0, 1].
,
. ,
, .
.
6.1. ( ) f, g : I R I.
h = max{f, g} h(x) = max{f (x), g(x)}.
: . , , x0 , x1 I [0, 1].
:
h((1 )x0 + x1 ) =
=
=
max{f ((1 )x0 + x1 ), g((1 )x0 + x1 )}

max{(1 )f (x0 ) + f (x1 ), (1 )g(x0 ) + g(x1 ), }
max{(1 )f (x0 ), (1 )g(x0 )} + max{f (x1 ), g(x1 )}
(1 ) max{f (x0 ), g(x0 )} + max{f (x1 ), g(x1 )}
(1 )h(x0 ) + h(x1 ).
6.3.
149
,
. 6.7.
6.1. ( ) f1 , . . . , fn : I R ,
g=
n
X
ai 0.
ai f i ,
i=1
: .
g((1 )x0 + x1 ) =
n
X
i=1
n
X
ai fi ((1 )x0 + x1 )
ai ((1 )fi (x0 ) + f (x1 ))
i=1
= (1 )
n
X
ai fi (x0 ) +
i=1
n
X
ai fi (xi )
i=1
= (1 )g(x0 ) +
n
X
g(x1 ),
i=1
. , ,
ai 0.

6.2. ( ) f : I R.
1. f I f 0 I, f
I.
2. f I f 00 0 I, f
I.
:
1. x0 , x1 I [0, 1] x2 = (1 )x0 + x1 . [x0 , x2 ] [x2 , x1 ]
( 5.5), a, b
f 0 (a) =
f (x2 ) f (x0 )
,
x2 x0
f 0 (b) =
f (x1 ) f (x2 )
.
x1 x2
f 0 , f 0 (a) f 0 (b),
f (x2 ) f (x0 )
f (x1 ) f (x2 )
f (x2 ) f (x0 )
f (x1 ) f (x0 )
x2 x0
x1 x2
(x1 x0 )
(1 )(x1 x0 )
f (x2 ) f (x0 ) f (x1 ) f (x0 ) f (x2 ) (1 )f (x0 ) + f (x1 )
f ((1 )x0 + x1 ) (1 )f (x0 ) + f (x1 ),
.
150
6.
2. f 00 0 I, 5.5 f 0 ,
f .

6.9. ( )
f (x) = x3 10x2 + 27x 18,
[0, 7), 5.9, 5.10, 5.11.
f 0 (x) = 3x2 20x + 27,
f 00 (x) = 6x 20,
[10/3, 7) [0, 10/3].

5.4.
6.4. ( )
.
.
6.5. ( )
I , f (x) = ax + b, a, b R.
6.6. f I,
x0 < x1 < x2 I f (x1 ) > f (x0 ) f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
6.7. ( ) , a, b, c, d R.
max{a + b, c + d} max{a, c} + max{b, d},
min{a, b} = max{a, b}.
6.8. [/, ] ( ) .
6.9. [/, ] ( ) .
6.10. [/, ] ( ) .
6.11. ( ) h : [a, b] R, [a, b]. g : [c, d] R,
[c, d], h([a, b]) [c, d]. g h [a, b].
g, h!
6.12. [??] ( ) g I
. g I
g .
6.13. ( ) S Rn x0 , x1
S,
,
x0 , x1 S, [0, 1],
(1 )x0 + x1 S.
, S1 , S2 , S1 S2 .
, ;
6.14. ( = )
.
6.4.
6.4
151
,
4.4, ,
.
(Newton), Newton-Raphson.
, , ,
x f (x) f 0 (x)
x. , x
f (x ) = 0. , ,
x |f (x )| < Ef , Ef .
,
.
.
. x0 f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ). ( )
- ( ) ,
- ( x)
- ( f (x)). ,
(
f 00 (x).) .

.
, , : x0 ,
f (x0 ), f 0 (x0 ), . x1
x , x0
x. . , x2 , ...
( ) x .
xn+1 xn ,
xn
y = f (xn ) + f 0 (xn )(x xn ),
y = 0, x = xn+1 , xn+1 ,
f (xn )
xn+1 = xn 0
.
f (xn )
6.3.
,
, .
.
, x. ,

152
6.
(x(n); y(n))
(x(n + 1); y(n + 1))
x(n)
x$
x(n + 1) = x(n) !
f (x(n))
f 0 (x(n))
f(x)
6.3: , xn+1
xn .
1. x0 x , .
2. , xn+1 x ,
, xn x . , ,
103 , 1012 !
, , ,

. , .
/* NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD */
function newton_raphson(f,f',x(0),M,Ef)
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
INPUT:
f: A function whose root is needed
f': The derivative of the function
x(0): Starting location of the iterations
M: Maximum number of iterations
Ef: Maximum tolerance in value of function
at estimated root location.
1:
n=0;
/* Initialization */
2:
WHILE n<M & |f(x(n))|>Ef & |f'(x(n))|>0,
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
6.4.
153
3:
4:
5:
x(n+1)=x(n)-f(x(n))/f'(x(n));
n=n+1;
END;
6:
RETURN x(n) /* x(n) is an estimate of the root */
. 4
, .
6.10. (f (x) = x cos x, x0 = 0) ,
f (x) = x cos x, x0 = 0.
:
n
0
1
2
3
4
5
xn
0
1.0000
0.7504
0.7391
0.7391
0.7391
f (xn )
1.0000
0.4597
0.0189
0.0000
0.0000
0
f 0 (xn )
1.0000
1.8415
1.6819
1.6736
1.6736
1.6736
3 , 4 ,
5 . ,
4.9 .
6.4 .
6.11. (f (x) = x cos x, x0 = 4) ,
f (x) = x cos x, x0 = 4. :
n
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
xn
4.0000
15.1352
16.0706
10.2856
4.8068
2.3508
3.3483
2.0959
9.7403
5.7613
1.3381
f (xn )
4.6536
14.2948
17.0056
9.6338
4.9011
1.6475
4.3270
1.5946
10.6909
6.6282
1.5687
f 0 (xn )
0.2432
0.4581
0.6452
1.7584
1.9955
0.2891
0.7948
0.1347
0.6897
1.4985
0.0269
.
, ,
. ,
30 , ,
.
6.5 .
154
6.
0.6
0.4
f (x) = x ! cos x
0.2
2; 3; 4; 5
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0
-1
-1.2
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
x
6.4: f (x) = x cos x x0 = 0
6.10. 3 .
20
15
f (x) = x ! cos x
8
10
60
5
0
5710
-5
-10
1
-15
-20
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
x
6.5: f (x) = x cos x x0 = 4
6.11. 10 .
6.4.
155
0.16
0
f (x) = x=8 ! sin(x ! 3)
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
1; 2
0
-0.02
-0.14
-0.12
-0.1
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.02
x
6.6: f (x) = x/8 sin(x 3)
x0 = 0 6.12. 3 .
6.12. (f (x) = x/8 sin(x 3), x0 = 0) ,

f (x) = x/8 sin(x 3), x0 = 0.
:
n
0
1
2
3
xn
0
0.1266
0.1259
0.1259
f (xn )
0.1411
0.0008
0.0000
0.0000
f 0 (xn )
1.1150
1.1249
1.1249
1.1249
3 .
, 4.9.
.
6.6 .
6.15. [??] ( ) . , ,
,
.
, ,
156
6.
Ef . (, xn |f (xn ) Ef .)
. ,

.
6.16. ( ) 6.15
f (x) = 2 cos x + x3 .
6.17. [?] ( ) 6.15 arctan 1 .
. (
.)
. , tan /4 = 1 arctan 1 = /4.
!
6.18. [??] ( )
x0 ,
, x1 , .
6.5

.
,
, .
.
, ,
, . , . ,

( ) .
.
.
, ,
, TCP/IP,
,
,
( , Kirchhoff
, ). , ,
,
.
, 6.3. 5
,
6.2.

Boyd Vandenberghe [BOYD] ( ) [BERT].
6.5.
157
, ( ) ,
. .
, .
.
, , . ,
, .
[FORE], [FORG], [PRES], [].
158
6.
7

, , ,
.
.
7.1 , Darboux, . 7.2
,
. 7.3 7.4
, , . ,
, . 7.5
Riemann, .
7.1
Darboux,
Darboux. Darboux,
.
7.1. (/ Darboux)
1. [a, b]. [a, b] P = {p0 , p1 , . . . , pn } [a, b] n N
a = p0 < p1 < < pn1 < pn = b.
2. f : [a, b] R P = {p0 , p1 , . . . , pn1 , pn }. infimum supremum :
mi = inf{f (x) : pi1 x pi },
Mi = sup{f (x) : pi1 x pi },
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Darboux s(f ; P ) Darboux S(f ; P ) f P

s(f ; P ) =
n
X
mi (pi pi1 ),
i=1
S(f ; P ) =
n
X
i=1
159
Mi (pi pi1 ).
160
7.
n+1 [a, b] n .
, , f
!
. , ,
a = b = . , / . ,
[a, b]. , mi , Mi
, , f ,
infimum supremum ( ). , , f , supremum
, , , . , , ,
,
.
Darboux .
f 0, () Darboux ,
, () f . ,
, x,
x = a x = b Darboux,
. ,
,
x,
x.
f , f . 7.1,
Darboux
x2 2 sin x.
, .
7.1. ( ) P
s(f ; P ) S(f ; P ).
7.1. ,
.
7.2. ( ) P, P 0 P P 0 . ,
s(f ; P ) s(f ; P 0 ),
S(f ; P ) S(f ; P 0 ).
7.2.
: ,
, . , .
, .
7.3. ( ) P, Q.
s(f ; P ) S(f ; Q).
7.1.
161
f (x) = x2 , s(f ; P ) = 0:308; n =40
f (x) = x2 , S(f ; P ) = 0:359; n =40
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
f (x) = 2 sin x, S(f ; P ) = 1:269; n =40
-1
-1
-2
-2
1
f (x) = 2 sin x, s(f ; P ) = !1:273; n =40
0.8
7.1: Darboux
f (x) = x2 [0, 1] f (x) = 2 sin x [0, 2]
n = 40 .
.
162
7.
: S(f ; P )s(f ; P )
[a, b], ,
.
, R = P Q P R Q R. ,
7.2
s(f ; P ) s(f ; R),
S(f ; R) S(f ; Q).
, 7.1
s(f ; R) S(f ; R).
, .
, (
). supremum. , infimum.
.
7.2. ( , Darboux) f : A
R. [a, b] A P[a, b] [a, b].
1. f [a, b] , ,
Z
Z
f=
sup s(f ; P ),
f=
P P[a,b]
inf
P P[a,b]
S(f ; P ),
2. , f ,
Z b
Z b
f (x) dx
f.
a
, , f [a, b].
3. , f .
,
, .
, P, Q s(f ; P ) S(f ; Q),
1.4 ,
. , ,
Z b
Z b
f<
f.
a
, , .
7.3. ( )
Z b
Z b
Z b
f,
f,
f,
a
, , :
7.1.
163
1. f
2. [a, b] ,
3. a , b ,
4. a, b, , .
supremum
. , infimum
.
, f 0,

,
. ,
, x,
x = a x = b. f ,

. , , ,
! , ,
.

:
( )
[a, b].
, (
7.2).
:
, ; : ,
, , . ,
. ,

, .
7.3 .
7.4. ( )
1. f : A R a A
Z a
f = 0.
a
2. f : A R [a, b] a < b
Z a
Z b
f =
f.
b
164
7.
, . , , ,
a, b.
: , ,
, ,
.
7.1. ( 7.1) 7.1 s(f ; P ), S(f ; P ) .

7.2. ( 7.2) 7.2. , , P 0 = P {q}, q 6 P , .
7.2

7.2. , , .
7.1. ( ) f : [a, b] R f (x) = c [a, b].
:
s(f ; P ) =
n
X
n
X
mi (pi pi1 ) =
i=1
c(pi pi1 ) = c
i=1
n
X
(pi pi1 ) = c(b a).
i=1

n
X
(pi pi1 ) = (p1 p0 ) + (p2 p1 ) + (p3 p2 ) + + (pn pn1 ) = pn p0 .
i=1
.
, , , supremum ,
c(b a),
Z
f = c(b a).
a
,
S(f ; P ) =
n
X
i=1
Mi (pi pi1 ) =
n
X
c(pi pi1 ) = c
i=1
n
X
(pi pi1 ) = c(b a),
i=1
f = c(b a),
a
Rb
a
f = c(b a).
7.2.
165
7.2. ( Dirichlet) Dirichlet [a, b]:

(
1, x Q [a, b],
fD (x) =
0, x (R Q) [a, b].
, , ,
1, , 0. ,
,
s(f ; P ) =
S(f ; P ) =
n
X
n
X
mi (pi pi1 ) =
i=1
i=1
n
X
n
X
Mi (pi pi1 ) =
i=1
0 (pi pi1 ) = 0,
1 (pi pi1 ) = (b a).
i=1
,
Z
0=
f = (b a),
f<
a
. , ,
,

.
7.3. ( ) f : [1, 1] R
(
0, x 6= 0,
f (x) =
1, x = 0.
, , s(f ; P ).
s(f ; P ) =
n
X
mi (pi pi1 ) =
i=1
n
X
0 (pi pi1 ) = 0.
i=1
, [pi , pi1 ] x = 0, , mi = 0,
x. , s(f ; P ) = 0,
Z
1
f = 0.
1
, . ,

S(f ; {1, 1}) = 2, S(f ; {1, 1/2, 1/2, 1}) = 1.
( ,
.) ,
. , P ,
x = 0 ,
0, x = 0 (
) , Mi = 1. ,
0 . , > 0, < 2.
S(f ; {1, /2, /2, 1}) = .
166
7.
, 0 S(f ; P ), ,

R 1 , . , infimum
S(f ; P ). , 1 f = 0,
R1
1 f = 0.
7.4. ( ) f (x) = x2
[0, a]. ,
. Pn ,
s(f ; Pn ), S(f ; Pn ) . , ,

a
2a
na
Pn = p0 = 0, p1 = , p2 =
, . . . , pn =
=a ,
n
n
n

ia
,
i = 0, 1, . . . , n.
n
, s(f ; Pn )
, mi = f (pi1 ) = p2i1 ,
n
n
n
X
X
X
(i 1)2 a2 a
2
s(f ; Pn ) =
mi (pi pi1 ) =
pi1 (pi pi1 ) =
n2
n
i=1
i=1
i=1

n
X
(i 1)2
(n 1)n(2n 1) 3 a3
1
1
3
= a
=
a =
1
1
.
n3
6n3
3
n
2n
pi =
i=1
1.12. s(f ; Pn )
3
a3 .
, , , S(f ; Pn ),
, .
Mi = f (pi ) = p2i ,
S(f ; P ) =
n
X
Mi (pi pi1 ) =
i=1
= a3
n
X
i=1
n
X
p2i (pi pi1 ) =
i=1
i2
n
X
i2 a2
i=1
n2
a
n
a3

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 3
1
1
=
a =
1+
1+
.
n3
6n3
3
n
2n
S(f ; Pn ) , a3 /3.
7.2
Darboux a = 1, n = 10.
,
R a ,
. , 0 f a3 /3, , , ,
a3 /3.
Ra
0 f a3 /3. , . , ,
Z a
Z a
Z a
Z a
a3
a3
f ,
f ,
f
f,
3
3
0
0
0
0
a3 /3,
a3 /3.
7.2.
f (x) = x2 , s(f ; P ) = 0:280; n =10
167
f (x) = x2 , S(f ; P ) = 0:391; n =10
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
7.2: Darboux
7.4 a = 1 n = 10.
7.5. [F] ( ) , A =
{a0 , a1 , . . . , an } n N, n > 2,
a0 < a 1 < < a n
f : [a0 , an ] R
(
si , ai1 x < ai , i = 1, . . . , n 1,
f (x) =
sn , an1 x an .
.
.
,
, . (,

.)

Z b
n
X
f (x) dx =
si (ai ai1 ).
(7.1)
a
i=1
k A M
, ,
k = min {ai ai1 },
i=1,...,n
M=
max |si sj |.
i,j=1,...,n
, , > 0.

= min

,k .
2M (n 1)
168
7.
k, i = 1, . . . , n 1
ai1 < ai < ai < ai + < ai+1 .

P = {a0 , a1 , a1 , a1 + , a2 , a2 , a2 + , . . . , an , an1 , an1 + , an }.

S(f ; P )
n
X
si (ai ai1 ) =
i=1
n1
X
2|si+1 si |
i=1
n1
X
i=1

M =
M (n 1)
S(f ; P ) =
n
X
si (ai ai1 ) + . (7.2)
i=1
. ( 7.4.)

S(f ; P )
n
X
si (ai ai1 ) =
i=1
n1
X
|si+1 si | 0 S(f ; P )
i=1
n
X
si (ai ai1 ).
i=1
, > 0 , infimum

Z an
n
X
f=
si (ai ai1 ),
a0
i=1
. ,
Z
an
f=
a0
n
X
si (ai ai1 ),
i=1
(7.1).
, ,
.

, .
, ,
.
7.3. ( ) f : [1, 1] R
(
f (x) =
1
2,
12 ,
x Q [1, 1],
x (R \ Q) [1, 1].
, .
7.3.
169
7.4. (/ )
7.5 ,
(7.2).
7.5. ( ) 7.4
f (x) = x [0, a] a2 /2.
1.11.
Rb
7.6. [/, ] ( ) f 0 a f = 0, f = 0 [0, 1].
7.7. [?] ( ) f 0 [a, b],
Rb
a f = 0, f = 0 [a, b].
7.3
, .
, ,
. , .
.
7.4.
7.1. ( ) f : [a, b] R
I > 0 P, Q
I < s(f ; P ) I S(f ; Q) a f . a f supremum .
,
Z b
f I.
a

R b
R b 7.8.
, , a f a f .
,
Z
Z
b
f I,
a
Z
f I,
Z
f
f,
a
R I,
b
[a, b] a f = I.
170
7.
, supremum infimum
, , f
I, > 0 P, Q (7.3).
7.2. ( ) f [a, b],
[c, d] [a, b].
: I =
Rb
a
f . > 0. P, Q
s(f ; P ) > I /2,
S(f ; Q) < I + /2 S(f ; Q) s(f ; P ) < .
, Q, P c, d , , P 0 , Q0 . 7.2 s(f ; P 0 ) s(f ; P )

S(f ; Q0 ) S(f ; Q),
S(f ; Q0 ) s(f ; P 0 ) < .
(7.4)
P 00 Q00 P 0 , Q0
[c, d],
P 00 = P 0 [c, d],
Q00 = Q0 [c, d].
(7.4),
S(f ; Q00 ) s(f ; P 00 ) < .
, S(f ; Q0 ) s(f ; P 0 ) -
[a, b], S(f ; Q00 ) s(f ; P 00 )
[c, d] [a, b]. > 0 P 00 , Q00
, 1.26
Z
sup s(f ; P ) =
P P[c,d]
Rd
c
inf
P P[c,d]
S(f ; P )
Z
f=
f,
c
f.
7.3. ( )
1. a, b, c R a 0. , P1 , Q1 [a, b] P2 , Q2 [b, c]

Z
Z
f /2 < s(f ; P1 )
f S(f ; Q1 ) <
f + /2.
Z
f /2 < s(f ; P2 )
Z
f S(f ; Q2 ) <
f + /2.
b
,
Z
f < s(f ; P1 ) + s(f ; P2 )
f+
a
Z
f+
Z
S(f ; Q1 ) + S(f ; Q2 ) <
Z
f+
f + .
b
, ,
s(f ; P1 ) + s(f ; P2 ) = s(f ; P1 P2 ),
S(f ; Q1 ) + S(f ; Q2 ) = S(f ; Q1 Q2 ).
(7.6)

( 7.10).

Z
Z
f < s(f ; P1 P2 )
f+
a
Z
f S(f ; Q1 Q2 ) <
f+
a
Z
f+
f + .
b
, R
7.1, f
Rc
b
[a, c] a f + b f .
, a, b, c, .
7.4.
7.10.

7.4. ( ) c1 , c2 R. f, g : [a, b] R
[a, b], c1 f + c2 g [a, b],
Z
Z
(c1 f + c2 g) = c1
Z
f + c2
g.
a
: [F] c1 = c2 = 1. ,
,
Z b
Z b
Z b
(f + g) =
f+
g.
a
172
7.
,
7.11. , , f, g
R b R
b
[a, b] a f a g. > 0.
, P1 , P2 , Q1 , Q2 ,
b
Z
f /2 < s(f ; P1 )
f S(f ; Q1 ) <
f + /2
Z
a
g /2 < s(g; P1 )
g S(f ; Q1 ) <
g + /2.
P = P1 P2 Q = Q1 Q2 , ,
7.2,
b
Z
f /2 < s(f ; P )
f S(f ; Q) <
f + /2
Z
a
Z
g /2 < s(g; P )
Z
g S(g; Q) <
g + /2.
a
,
Z
g < s(f ; P ) + L(g; P )
f+
a
Z
f+
Z
S(f ; Q) + S(g; Q) <
Z
f+
g + .
a

s(f ; P ) + s(g; P ) s(f + g; P ) S(f + g; Q) S(f ; Q) + S(f ; Q).
infimum f, g P infima f, g ( 2.12).
7.3.
( 2.13). ,
Z
Z
g < s(f + g; P ) S(f + g; Q) <
f+
a
Z
f+
g + .
a
,
Z
(f + g)
a
f+
a
g,
a
, , .

Z
Z
(f + g)
Z
f+
g,
a
7.3.

Rb
(f + g)
173
Rb
(f + g),
Rb
Rb
a f + a g, f + g
Z b
Z b
Z b
(f + g) =
f+
g.
a

7.1. ( ) f : [a, b] R [a, b]
[a, b] ,
.
7.12.
, .
(
sin x1 , x 6= 0,
f (x) =
0,
x = 0,
,
0.
,
.
7.2. ( )
1. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b], f g [a, b].
2. f : [a, b] R [a, b], |f | [a, b].
3. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) 6= 0 1/f (x) ,
1/f [a, b].
7.13, 7.14, 7.15.
7.8. (
) 7.1 Rb
a f I.
7.9. [?] ( / ) (7.6)
/ .
7.10. [?] ( ) 2 7.3.
7.11. [?] ( ) 7.4. c2 = 0,
.
7.12. [??] (Grand Guignol) 7.1.
174
7.
7.13. [??] ( ) 1 7.2.

7.14. [??] ( ) 2 7.2.
7.15. [??] ( ) 3 7.2.
7.16. [??] ( ) a, b, c R a < b. ,
, f (x) [a, b],
f (x c) [a + c, b + c],
Z
b+c
Z
f (x c) dx =
f (x) dx.
a+c
7.17. [?] ( ) c R . ,
, f (x) [a, b], f (sx)
[a/s, b/s],
Z b/s
Z b
f (sx) dx =
f (x) dx.
a/s
7.18. [??] ( ) f : [a, b] R [a, b] . .

7.19. [/, ] ( ) |f |,
f.
7.20. [?] ( )
[a, b] [h, b] h > a, [a, b].
7.21. [/, ] ( )
b
Z
fg =
Z
f

g
.
7.22. [/, ] ( )
Z
a
f
=
g
Z
Z
f
1
g
a
7.4
7.5. ( ) f : [a, b] R , m f (x) M .
Z
b
m(b a)
f M (b a).
a
7.4.
175
: P = {p0 = a, p1 , . . . , pn = b} [a, b],

s(f ; P ).
s(f ; P ) =
n
X
mi (pi pi1 ) m
n
X
(pi pi1 ) = m(pn p0 ) = m(b a).
i=1
i=1
supremum , s(f ; P ),
. ( 7.23.)
7.5
. .
7.6. ( )
sin x
cos x + 1
f (x) =
[0, /2]. , .
, ( 2.5.) ,
x = 0 x = /2. ,
Z
f (0)(/2 0)
/2
/2
Z
f (x) dx f (/2)(/2 0) 0
sin x
/2.
cos x + 1
, , 7.5
. .
7.6. ( )
1. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f g [a, b],
Z
Z
f
g.
2. f : [a, b] [a, b].

Z b Z b

f
|f |.

a
:
1. f g, g f 0, 7.5
7.4
Z
Z
(g f ) 0
Z
g
Z
f 0
Z
f
g.
a
176
7.
2. |f | f |f |,
Z b Z b
Z b
Z b
Z b
Z b
Z b
Z b

|f |
f
|f |
|f |
f
|f |
f
|f |.
a

,
.
7.7. ( ) f : [a, b] R .
Z x
F (x) =
f
a
Lipschitz , , [a, b].

: x, y [a, b].
Z x
Z y Z x

|F (x) F (y)| =
f
f =
f
a
y
Z ay
|f | M |x y|.
x
|f | M . f , ,
, M |f | M .

7.7. ( Cauchy-Schwarz) f, g : [a, b] R .
, Cauchy-Schwarz.
Z b Z b 12 Z b 12

f g
f2
g2 .

a
, :
b
Z
fg
12 Z
12
.
(7.7)
:
Z
F () =
b
2
(f + g) =
a
b
2
2 2
(f + g + 2f g) =
a
b
2
g + 2
a
Z
fg +
f 2.
,
.
Rb
. a g 2 = 0.
F ()
Z b
Z b
F () = 2
fg +
f 2.
a
7.5. RIEMANN
177
Rb
F () , , a f g =
0, (7.7) 0
.
Rb
a g 2 > 0. , F () .
, . ,
, ,
. ,
2
Z
4
fg
Z
4
Z

0,
(7.7).
, (7.7) f, g, (7.7)
1
b
Z
fg
a
12 Z
12
.
(7.8)
(7.7) (7.8), Cauchy-Schwarz.
7.23. ( ) 7.5.
7.24. ( Cauchy-Schwarz) CauchySchwarz .
Rb
7.25. ( ) a g 2 = 0, f [a, b]
Rb
a f g = 0. .
7.5
Riemann
,
, Riemann.
7.5. ( Riemann)
1. |P | P = {p0 , p1 , . . . , pn } :
|P | = max |pi pi1 |.
i=1,...,n
2. P = {p0 , p1 , . . . , pn } S = {1 , 2 , . . . , n } n
i
pi1 i pi , i = 1, . . . , n.

R(f ; P, S) =
n
X
(pi pi1 )f (xi )
i=1
Riemann f P S.
178
7.
3. f : [a, b] R. f
Rb
Riemann () () Riemann a f > 0
> 0 P |P | < S,
Riemann R(f ; P, S)

Z b

R(f ; P, S)
f < .

a
7.2 7.5
7.2 () Darboux.
7.5 S P P , S
S P .
, f Riemann
Z
lim R(f ; P, S) =
|P |0
f,
a
3,
3 7.5.
7.3. ( Riemann Darboux) Riemann, 7.5, f : [a, b] R
Darboux , 7.2. ,
.
, . , ( !) 7.2 7.5 , .
. ,
7.8, .
Riemann Darboux:
f . , , Riemann,
Darboux, i [pi1 , pi ],
. , f .
, , f , Riemann
, 7.5, , ,
7.3.
, 7.3,
3 7.5,
.
7.8. ( Riemann) f : [a, b] R
. Pn
R b Sn .
|Pn | 0 n , R(f ; Pn , Sn ) a f n .
7.5. RIEMANN
179
:
. , , > 0. ,
> 0

Rb

|P | < S R(f ; P, S) a f < .
|Pn | 0, N n > N

Z b

|Pn | < R(f ; Pn , Sn )
f < .
a
, > 0 N

Z b

n > N R(f ; Pn , Sn )
f < ,
a

.
7.8. ( )
n
1X
cos
n n
lim
i=1
i
2n

.
(7.9)
[0, /2] Riemann. , , cos x [0, /2]

i
n
Pn = p0 = 0, p1 =
, . . . , pi =
, . . . , pn =
=
,
2n
2n
2n
2
|Pn | = 2n
0 n . [pi1 , pi ]
xi = pi , Sn = Pn {p0 },
Riemann
" n

#
n
n
X
X
i
1X
i
R(f ; Pn , Sn ) =
(pi pi1 ) cos xi =
cos
=
cos
.
2n
2n
2 n
2n
i=1
i=1
i=1
, Riemann 2/. ,
n , Pn 0,
n
1X
cos
n
i=1
i
2n
Z
n
2X
2 /2
=
R(f ; Pn , Sn )
cos x dx.
0
i=1
cos x dx = 1.
,
n
1X
lim
cos
n n
i=1
i
2n
2
=
Z
0
cos x dx =
2
.
180
7.6
7.
. Darboux
, Spivak [SPIE], [SPIG], [],
[] ( ) Apostol [APE1], [APG1].

Riemann, 7.4. [] Thomas [THOE], [THOG]. ,
infimum supremum. , ,
. ,
( ) , , .
( )
Struik [STRU].
, . , ,
Lebesgue, Riemann
0,
.
0,
, !
Lebesgue Riemann
. ,
,
Lebesgue. Riemann. ,
[a, b], ,
. , . ,
[a, b], Lebesgue Riemann. , Dirichlet
7.2 Riemann, Lebesgue,
0! , Riemann ,
Lebesgue, .
Lebesgue, , . Lebesgue
Royden [ROYD] Rudin [RUDI].
, , ,
,
Riemann Riemann . ,
7.6.
181

, , , .
(.., [STEW], [THOE], [THOG], [VARB]) ,
.
182
7.
8

. , ,
: , .
,
. , , .
8.1 .
, , ,
.
8.2 . 8.3 8.4
.
8.5 .
8.1
.
. , ,
. ,
.
.
8.1. ( ) f : [a, b] R . c [a, b]. x0 [a, b] f ,
Z x 0

f
= f (x0 ).
(8.1)
c
x=x0
x0 = a x0 = b, .
: F : [a, b] R
Z x
F (x) =
f.
c
183
184
8.
7.7 F Lipschitz , ,
f . f ,
F .
x0 (a, b). x0 = a x0 = b , 8.1.

R x0 +h
R x0 +c
R x0
f
f
f
F (x0 + h) F (x0 )
c
= c
= x0
.
h
h
h
h 0, f (x0 ).
. , , > 0.
f , > 0
|x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| < f (x0 ) < f (x) < f (x0 ) + .
0 < h < . [x0 , x0 + h] ,
f (x0 ) < f (x) < f (x0 ) +

Z x0 +h
Z
(f (x0 ) ) dx <
x0
x0 +h
x0
x0 +h
f (x) dx
(f (x0 ) + ) dx
x0
x0 +h
(f (x0 ) )h
f (x) dx (f (x0 ) + )h
x0
R x0 +h
f (x) dx
x0
f (x0 )
f (x0 ) +
h
R x0 +h

x0 f (x) dx

f (x0 ) < .

h
,
R x0 +h
lim+
x0
= f (x0 ).
h
f (x0 ), . ( 8.2.) , ,
R x0 +h
f
lim x0
= f (x0 ),
h0
h
h0
. , f ,
, .
, , , ,
. 8.1.
.
8.1.
185
f (x)
F (x) =
Rx
x0
f (t) dt
8.1:
R x . 0
f (x), F (x) F (x) = f (x), c f = F (x) F (c). F (c) = 0.
f (x) () , F (x) ().
186
8.
8.1. ( ) f :
[a, b] R [a, b], .
: , 8.1,
Z
F (x) =
f
a
f ,
Z
Z x
f=
f + C.
a

, , ,
. , , , , . ,
.
8.1 . ,
. ,
.
8.2. ( ) F : [a, b] R
, F 0 : [a, b] R . c, d
[a, b]
Z d
F 0 = F (d) F (c).
(8.2)
c
: c < d. c = d 0, c > d
c < d.
7.8. , [c, d] 0, Riemann
.

(d c)
i(d c)
n(d c)
Pn = p0 = c, p1 = c +
, . . . , pi = c +
, . . . , pn = c +
=d ,
n
n
c

dc
n
0. [pi1 , pi ] xi
F (pi ) F (pi1 )
= F 0 (xi ).
pi pi1
, ! Sn
. , Riemann R(f ; Pn , Sn )
R(f ; Pn , Sn ) =
n
X
i=1
F 0 (xi )(pi pi1 ) =
n
X
[F (pi ) F (pi1 )]
i=1
= F (pn ) F (p0 ) = F (d) F (c).
8.2.
187
. , R(f ; Pn , Sn ) =
F (d) F (c). , 7.8, R(f ; Pn , Sn )
Rd 0
F (x) dx. , .

c
(8.2) c = x0 d = x,
Z x
F (x) = F (x0 ) +
F 0 (t) dt,
x0
F , , , F , x, x0
F 0 x0 x.
.

R d
0
Riemann, c F
F 0 (x) dx. ,
F 0 (x) dx dF
[x, x + dx]. , , ,
F x = c x = d,
F (d) F (c). 8.1.
8.1. ( 8.1) 8.1 x0 = a, x0 = b.

8.2. ( 8.1) 8.1
R x0 +h
f
lim x0
= f (x0 ).
h
xx0
8.3. ( 8.1) G : [a, b] R .
f1 , f2 : [c, d] R f1 ([c, d]), f2 ([c, d]) (a, b). x (c, d)
!0
Z
f2 (x)
G(t) dt
= G(f2 (x))f20 (x) G(f1 (x))f10 (x).
f1 (x)
, , x
x. (: .)
8.2
( ) ,
,
. ( ).

R b . ,
a f f .
F F 0 = f , , ,
R
f = F + C, 8.2
Z b
Z b
f (x) dx =
F 0 (x) dx = F (b) F (a).
a
188
8.
.
8.1. ( )
1. (sin x)0 = cos x,
b
Z
cos x dx =
(sin x)0 dx = sin b sin a.
2. ( cos x)0 = sin x,

b
Z
sin x dx =
( cos x)0 dx = cos a cos b.
3. (tan x)0 = 1/ cos2 x,

b
Z
a
dx
=
cos2 x
(tan x)0 dx = tan b tan a.
4. n Q {1}. (xn+1 )0 = nxn ,

Z
b
n
Z b
x dx =
a
xn+1
n+1
0
dx =
bn+1
an+1
.
n+1 n+1
n = 1.
, 8.3.
. , / , .
a, b .
, ,
a, b. ,
Z
1
dx,
2
0 cos x
/2, , ( /2)
. ,
8.1
Z
Z
1
dx =
(tan x)0 = tan tan 0 = 0,
2
0 cos x
0
, , .
, , 8.2 ,
,
. :
8.2.
189
8.3. ( ) f, g
f 0 , g 0 [a, b].
Z
f g = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a)
a
f g0.
(8.3)
: F = f g, F 0 = f 0 g + f g 0 ,
. 8.2
Z
F = F (b) F (a)
a
(f 0 g + f g 0 ) = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a),
: f (b) f (a) , :
f (b) f (a) = [f ]ba = (f )ba = f |ba .
, (8.3) , ,
Z b
Z b
0
b
f g = f (x)g(x)|a
f g0.
a
8.3
R b
R b 0
0
f
g
f g .
a
a
.
, 5.6. ,
(f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0 . , :
1. , 5.6, ,
8.2. ,
,
.
2. 8.3 . .
.
8.2. ( )
Z
0
Z
x sin x dx,
0
x cos x dx.
190
8.
,
Z
Z
x sin x dx =
x( cos x) dx = (x cos x)|0 +
Z
= 00+
(sin x)0 dx = sin
(x)0 cos x dx
sin 0 = 1.
2
,
Z
Z
x cos x dx =
x(sin x) dx = (x sin x)|0
0
2
( cos x)0 dx =
(x)0 sin x dx
+ cos 1 = 1.
2
2
2
, 5.13 8.2.
, ,
, 5.7.
8.4. ( ) f : J R J.
g : I R g(I) J g 0 . a, b I.
Z
b
0
g(b)
f (g(x))g (x) dx =
a
f (x) dx.
(8.4)
g(a)
: f , , F .

Z
f (g(x))g (x) dx =
a
(F (g(x))0 dx = F (g(b) F (g(a)),
g(b)
g(b)
f (x) dx =
g(a)
F 0 (x) dx = F (g(b) F (g(a)),
g(a)
8.4 5.7 , , .
, (F (g(x))0 = F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x).
5.7, 8.4 , .

(8.4), . (, .)
:
Rb
1. a k(x) dx .
8.2.
191
2. u = g(x), g(x)
,
, . , , x = g 1 (u),
g .
3. , , dx
1
g 0 (x)
du.
Rb
4. a f (u) du f , Rb
a f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx. g, f .
, u = g(x).
5. ,
a g(a) b g(b) 8.4
Z b
Z g(b)
k(x) dx =
f (u) du.
a
g(a)
, , .

5.7. , ,
.
, ,
:
1. 5.7 ,
8.2. ,
.
2. 8.4 .
.
. .
8.3. ( )
Z 4
x sin x2 dx.
2
u = x2 , du = 2x dx, x = 2 u = 4 x = 4 u = 16.

Z 4
Z
Z
1 16
1 16
2
x sin x dx =
sin u du =
( cos u)0 du = cos 4 cos 16.
2
2
2
4
4
, 5.14,
, 8.2.
192
8.
, , , ,
. , , Bessel , :
Z
J0 (a) =
cos(a sin x) dx,
(8.5)
0
a .
, ,
.
[] ( ) f : [a, a] R .
R8.4.
a
a f = 0.
Ra
8.5. ( ) f : [a, a] R . a f =
Ra
2 0 f.
8.6.
Z
sin(a sin x) dx.
8.7. ( ) :
1.
2.
0
0
x2 sin x dx.
x2 cos x dx.
8.8. ( ) 7.16 , ,
.
8.9. ( ) 7.17 , ,
.
8.3
,
.
8.1. ( ) log x, x R+ ,

Z x
dt
log x =
.
t
1
log x x.
8.2 .
x > 0, . ,
8.3.
193
y = log x
4
-2
-4
0
10
8.2: log x.
.
, , ,
x.
,
.
8.2. ( )
:
1.
(log x)0 =
1
,
x
(log x)00 =
1
.
x2
H log x R+ .
2. log 1 = 0, log x > 0 x > 1, log x < 0 x (0, 1).
3. x, y R,
log xy = log x + log y,
log
1
= log y,
y
log
x
= log x log y.
y
4. x R n Z
log xn = n log x.
5.
lim log x = ,
lim log x = .
x0+
194
8.
:
1. 8.1, ,
,
Z x 0
dt
1
= > 0,
t
x
1
x > 0. , 5.5
. ,
0
1
1
= 2,
x
x
6.2 f (x) .
2. x = 1
log 1 = 0. log x , x > 1 log x > log 1 = 0
x (0, 1) log x < log 1 = 0.
3.
Z
log xy =
1
xy
dt
=
t
Z
1
dt
+
t
Z
x
xy
dt
.
t
= t/x, t = x = 1,
t = xy = y, dtt = d
,
Z x
Z y
dt
d
log xy =
+
= log x + log y.
t
1
1
y, y1 ,
0 = log 1 = log y
1
1
1
= log y + log log = log y.
y
y
y
,
log
x
1
1
= log x = log x + log = log x log y.
y
y
y
4. n = 0. n,
n = 1, n .
, n .
log xn+1 = log xn x = log xn + log x = n log x + log x = (n + 1) log x.
n,
log xn = log x|n| = log x|n| = |n| log x = n log x.
, |n|. , n Z.
8.3.
195
5. ,
. , k > 1,
log k n = n log k,
, log k > 0. , , 3.40 .
,
1
= ,
x
3.54 .
lim log x = lim log x = lim log
.
8.4. ( ) , , .
Z
log x dx = x log x x + C.
:
Z
Z
Z
0
log x dx =
(x) log x dx = x log x x(log x)0 dx
Z
= x log x 1 dx = x log x x + C.
8.5. ( 1/x) (log x)0 = 1/x,

Z
1
dx = log x + C.
(8.6)
x
, :
(0, ). , (log x)0 = 1/x.
1/x, , x < 0.
(, 0). , , x < 0
(log(x))0 =
1
1
(1) = ,
x
x
1
dx = log(x) + C.
(8.7)
x
(8.6) (8.7), . ,
: (0, ), , , (, 0) .

Z
1
dx = log |x| + C.
x
R, 0,
, ,
.
196
8.
,
.
.
8.6. ( )
Z
tan x dx = log | cos x| + C.

Z
Z
tan x dx =
sin x
dx.
cos x
u = cos x, du = sin x dx,

Z
Z
du
tan x dx =
= log |u| + C = log | cos x| + C.
u
8.10 , .
8.7. ( 1/(y(1 y)))
Z
dx
.
x(1 x)

1
a
b
= +
x(1 x)
x 1x
a, b R.
x R, ,
1
a
b
= +
1 = a(1 x) + bx (b a)x + (a 1) = 0,
x(1 x)
x 1x
x a = b = 1. ,

Z
Z
Z
x
dx
dx
dx

+ C.
=
+
= log |x| log |x 1| + C = log
x(1 x)
x
1x
x 1
, 8.14. 8.15.
, x ,
.
8.8. ( )
(log x)n
=0
x
x
lim
n N .
n = 1. -
8.3.
197
/, LHpital,
:
lim
log x
1/x
= lim
= 0.
x
x
1
, x x .
n N ,
x x . ,
. n = 1. n. ,
LHpital, n + 1. ,
(n + 1)(log x)n
(log x)n+1
= lim
x
x
x
1
lim
1
x
(log x)n
= 0.
x
x
= (n + 1) lim
, , , ! ,

log(2 106 ) = log 2 + log(106 ),
106 , log 2.
,
.
, . , ,
1
log(log x)
log x
= lim
1
x
x
log x
x
lim
1
x
= lim
x log x
= 0.
8.9. ( )
log(1 + ax)
= a,
x0
x
lim
a R.
0/0, LHpital
a
log(1 + ax)
= lim 1+ax = a.
x0
x0 1
x
lim
8.10.
cot x dx.
8.11. ( 0) n N
lim x (log x)n = 0.

x0+
, 8.8.
8.12. ( ) n
.
198
8.
8.13. ( )
1. A, B R
1
A
B
= +
.
x(10 x)
x
10 x
2.
Z
dx
x(10 x)
(0, 10).
8.14. [??] ( ) 8.13.

P (x)
R(x) =
Q(x)
P (x) Q(x), Q(x)
, Q(x) = (x a0 )(x a1 ) . . . (x an ) ai
. R(x)
R(x) =
n
X
i=1
bi
,
x ai
bi Q(x),
K(x) = 0, K(x) ,
.
8.15. ( ) :
R
1. (x2dx
.
4)
2.
8.4
dx
(x1)(x2)(x3) .
, (0, ) R.
, R (0, ).
:
8.2. ( )
exp y.
y = log x x = exp y.
8.3 . , , , , exp y.

. .
8.4.
199
8.3. ( ) :
1.
x > 0, exp(log x) = x,
y R, log(exp y) = y.
2. ,
(exp y)0 = exp y,
R.
3. exp 0 = 1, exp y > 1 y > 0, exp y < 1 y < 0.
4. , a, b R:
exp(a + b) = exp(a) exp(b),
exp(a) =
1
,
exp a
exp(a b) =
exp a
.
exp b
5. x R n Z
exp(nx) = (exp x)n .
6.
lim exp y = ,
lim exp y = 0.
:
1. .
2. log x 1/x x (0, ),
, 5.2
y = log x,
(exp y)0 =
1
=
(log x)x=exp y
0
1
1
x x=exp y
= exp y.
exp y log x, (0, ). ,

. (exp y)0 = exp y, (exp y)00 = exp y, exp y
.
3. exp 0 = 1 log 1 = 0. exp y ,
exp y > 1 y > 0, exp y < 1 y < 0.
4.
exp(a + b) = exp(a) exp(b) log exp(a + b) = log(exp(a) exp(b))
a + b = log exp(a) + log exp(b) = a + b,
200
8.
x = exp y
10
0
-4
-2
8.3: exp x.
. ,
exp(a) =
1
1
log exp(a) = log
exp a
exp a
a = log(exp a)1 = log exp a = a,
. ,
exp(a b) =
exp a
exp a
log exp(a b) = log
= log exp a log exp b a b = a b,
exp b
exp b
.
5. . 8.16.
6. , f (y) = exp y g(y) = y + 1
f (0) = g(0) = 1 f 0 (y) g 0 (y) y > 0. ,
5.15, lim exp y = .
y
,
1
= 0.
x exp x
lim exp x = lim exp(x) = lim
8.4.
201
3.55 3.35.

. exp x exp x
, .
8.10. ( ) ,
(exp(x))0 = exp(x),
Z
exp x dx = exp x + C.
,
Z
x exp x dx = (x 1) exp x + C.
,
Z
Z
x(exp x)0 dx = x exp x x0 exp x dx
Z
= x exp x exp x dx = x exp x exp x + C = (x 1) exp x + C.
x exp x dx =
,
Z
x exp x2 dx =
1
exp x2 .
2
, u = x2 , du = 2x dx,
Z
Z
1
1
2
x exp x dx =
exp u du = exp x2 + C.
2
2
,
Z

exp x2 dx.
. . , ,
8.24.
, , .
8.11. ( )
lim
exp x
=
xn
n N .
n = 1. /.
LHpital
exp x
exp x
= lim
= .
x x
x 1
lim
202
8.
n, .
n. , LHpital
lim
exp x
x xn+1
= lim
x (n
exp x
= ,
+ 1)xn
.
, ,
, x . , , , exp(exp(x)). ,
exp(exp x)
exp x exp(exp x)
= lim
= lim exp x = .
x
x
x
exp x
exp x
lim
8.16. 5 8.3.
8.17. ( )
R1
, 0 x2 exp x dx.
x2 exp x dx. -
8.18. ( )
sinh x, cosh x, tanh x,
coth x,
sinh x =
exp x exp(x)
,
2
cosh x =
exp x + exp(x)
,
2
tanh x =
sinh x
,
cosh x
coth x =
cosh x
.
sinh x

.
,
.
8.19. [] ( ) ,
:
1. x .
2. .
3. .
, .
4. .
5. .
( 8.18
.)
8.20. ( ) 8.19
.
8.5.
203
8.21. ( ) 8.19
.
8.22. ( ) 8.19
.
8.23. ( ) :
Z p
1 + x2 dx.
(: 8.19.)
8.24. ( ) :
Z x

1
1
(x) = +
exp t2 /2 dt.
2
2 0
( ,
R
). exp(x2 ) dx
.
an+1
n an
8.25. [??] ( ) an > 0 lim
= r R,
lim (an ) n = r. (: 3.71

n
bn = an+1
an .)
, , , an
1
lim (an ) n = r R, lim an+1
= r.
n
n an
( ) ,
12, ( 12.3)
( 12.4).
8.26.
Z
ex sin x dx,
8.5
ex cos x dx.
b
a = m
( 1.9).
n
, , a.
ba a ,

ba = lim ban ,
(8.8)
n
an a. , ,
. , ,
,
a. , bx ,
.
, , ,
, :
204
8.
8.3. ( ) a, b R a > 0.
ba , exp(a log b).
To b , a , ba b a.
1.9
a , a = m
. , ,
n
m

1
(bm ) n = exp
log b ,
n
1.9. . ,
h
m
in
h m
i
exp
log b
= exp
log b n
n
n
= exp [m log b] = (exp(log b))m = bm .
5 8.3. n-
, .
, , , , an a,
lim ban = lim exp(an log b) = exp( lim an log b) = exp(a log b) = ba ,
(8.9)
(8.8) .
,
( 1.9). ,
:
8.4. ( ) x, y R+ a, b R
:
xa xb = xa+b ,
xa y a = (xy)a , (xa )b = xab .
: .
8.27.
, , x R+ a, b R. an a bn b.
xa xb = lim xan lim xbn = lim xan xbn = lim xan +bn = xa+b .
n
(8.9). ,
() ( 1.9).

, , ,
.
8.12. ( xa ) f : R+ R f (x) = xa , a R .
(xa )0 = axa1 ,
, , 5.8. , ,
a
a
(xa )0 = (exp(a log x))0 = (exp(a log x)) = xa = axa1 .
x
x
8.5.
205
8.13. ( 00 )
lim xx = 1.
x0
, 00 . , ,
, LHpital,
lim xx = lim exp(x log x) = exp(lim x log x) = exp(0) = 1.
x0
x0
x0
8.3.
exp x 4.5, 8.11.
8.14. ( 1 )

a x
lim 1 +
= exp a.
x
x
1, ,
, 1 .
, LHpital, , :

h

h

a x
a i
a i
lim 1 +
= lim exp x log 1 +
= exp lim x log 1 +
x
x
x
x
x

x
1
= lim log (1 + ah) = exp a.
h0 h
8.9.
, , , bx .
. 8.28.
8.5. ( bx ) b > 0
bx = exp(x log b),
x R.
bx :
1. bx > 0.
2.
(bx )0 = (log b)bx ,
(bx )00 = (log b)2 bx .
3. H bx b > 1, 1 b = 1,
b < 1.
4. H bx .
5. b > 1
lim bx = ,
lim bx = 0,
lim bx = 0,
lim bx = ,
b < 1
x
206
8.
6. b 6= 1 bx
x=
log y
.
log b
log b = 1 , bx = exp x. ,
, .
8.4. ( e) e :
Z e
dt
log e = 1 exp 1 = e
= 1.
1 t
, exp x , 8.3 exp x = ex ,
.
bx b e ,
b = 10. .
8.5. ( b) b R+ , b 6= 1.
b logb : R+ :
logb y ,
log y
.
log b
.
, 8.29.
8.6. ( logb y) logb y :
1.
1
1
(logb y)0 =
,
(logb y)00 = 2
.
y log b
y log b
H logb y b > 1 b < 1. , logb y
b > 1 b < 1.
2. logb 1 = 0. b > 1 log x > 0 x > 1, log x < 0 x (0, 1). b < 1
log x < 0 x > 1, log x > 0 x (0, 1).
3. x, y R,
logb xy = logb x + logb y,
logb
1
= logb y,
y
logb
x
= logb x logb y.
y
4. x R n Z
logb xn = n logb x.
5. b > 1
lim logb y = ,
lim logb y = ,
y0+
b < 1
lim logb y = ,
lim logb y = .
y0+
8.5.
207
b = 100
b=5 b=e
3.5
3
y = bx
2.5
b = 1:5
2
1.5
b=1
b = 0:75
0.5
b = 1=e
b = 0:2
0
b = 0:01
-0.5
-2
-1
x
b=e
b = 1:5
b=1
2
x = logb y
1.5
1
b=5
0.5
b = 100
0
b = 0:01
-0.5
b = 0:2
-1
b = 1=e
-1.5
b = 0:75
-2
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
8.4: y = bx , b = 0.01, 0.2, 1/e, 0.75, 1, 1.5, e, 5, 100

x = logb y b = 1.
208
8.
8.4 y = bx x = logb y b, .
8.5 8.6.
8.27. ( ) 8.4.
8.28. ( bx ) 8.5.
8.29. ( logb y) 8.6.
8.30. ( xa ) a > 0
lim xa = ,
lim xa = 0,
x0+
a < 0
lim xa = 0,
8.6
lim xa = .
x0+
, ,
, ... ,
. ,
Courant John [COUR], Thomas [THOE], [THOG], Stewart [STEW] Varberg et
al. [VARB]. ,
,
Gradshteyn Ryzhik [GRAD] (1200 !). ,
.

.
.
Riemann, , ,

.
,
. ,
Abramowitz Stegun [ABRA], ,
.
8.6.
209

. ,

exp x = 1 + x +
x2 x3 x4
+
+
+ ...,
2!
3!
4!
[RUDI], [MARS], [SAGA].

.
,
1. , (8.8), . ( .)
2. e,

n
1
e = lim 1 +
.
n
n
3. ex
.
[], [], []. ,
.
, [], [SAGA],
[COUR], [SPIE], [SPIG], [APE1], [APG1]. [SPIE], [SPIG], [APE1], [APG1] .
.
logb xy = logb x + logb y.
( x, y) (
) , logb x logb y,
:
1. logb x, logb y, x, y.
2. logb x, logb y. logb xy.
3. x, y logb xy.
,
b = 10.
1 10 ( 0 1),
log10 10k x = k +log10 x (
1 10).
, 1350 0.37.
210
8.
1. 1350,
log10 1350 = log10 103 1.35 = 3 + log10 1.35,
log10 1.35 , 0.1303 . . . . , 0.37,
log10 0.37 = log10 101 3.7 = 1 + log10 3.7,
log10 3.7 , 0.5682 . . . .
2. ,
log10 (1350 0.37) ' 3 + 0.1303 1 + 0.5682 = 2.6985.
3. , 0.6985
4.9946, :
1350 0.37 = 10log10 13500.37 = 102.6985 = 102 100.6985 = 100 4.9946 = 499.46.
499.50,
4 .
(slide rule). ,
( )
. hipster !
9

, , .
, Riemann.
9.1 (
). 9.2 (
2.3). ,
, ,
. 9.3 9.4 . 9.5
( 2.4).
9.1
7, , , ,
[a, b] , ,
. ,

,
, .
, , , ,
. ,
,
,

. , , .
.
9.1.1
9.1. ( ) ,
, ( ):
211
212
9.
1.
Z
f , lim
f,
a
a R f : I R [a, ) I.
2.
Z
Z
f , lim
f,
h
a R f : I R (, a] I.
, :
. , , , ,
.
, .
, h
, ,
,
x = a, [a, ) (, a], .
,
,
, .
( 12),
.
( )
,
0. , 0 . ,
, ,
, , .
. , : , .
9.1. ( 1/xp [1, )) , , f (x) = 1/xp [1, ),
Z
Z h
dx
dx
=
lim
,
p
h 1 xp
x
1
p R.
, , p 6= 1. :

Z h
Z h

dx
1
1 0
1
=
dx =
h1p 1 .
p
p1
(1 p) 1 x
(1 p)
1 x
: p < 1, 1 p > 0, lim h1p = ,
h
Z
1
dx
= lim
h
xp
Z
1
dx
1
=
lim (h1p 1) = .
xp
(1 p) h
9.1.
f (x) = x!p ; p > 1
f (x) = x!1
f (x) = x!p ; 0 1. f (x) R
1
,
R A B, |A| = 0+ f ,
|B| = 1 f . 9.1 |B| = p 1 |B| 1. 9.5 |A| = p 1 |A| < 0 1, 1 p < 0, lim h1p = 0,

h
Z
= lim
h 1
dx
1
1
=
lim (h1p 1) =
.
xp
(1 p) h
p1
, , p = 1,
Z
1
dx
= lim
h
x
Z
1
dx
= lim
h
x
(log x)0 dx = lim (log h 0) = .

h
,
Z
1
dx
=
xp
(
,
1
p1 ,
p 1,
p > 1.
p (0, 1) 0 x ,
. ,
p = 1, 1/xp [1, ) .
p > 1, .
1/xp .
9.1 f (x) = 1/xp [1, ) p.
p (0, 1), p = 1, p > 1. , |B| B
[1, ), f (x) = 1/xp
x = 1, , ,
B , 0.
A 9.5.
9.2. ( ex [0, ))
Z
ex dx = 1.
0
214
9.
dx = lim
h 0
dx = lim
h 0
(ex )0 dx = lim (eh + e0 ) = 1.

h
. ,
ex , ,
ex .
9.3. ( xex [0, )) ,
Z
xex dx = 1.
0
,
Z
xe
dx = lim
x(ex )0 dx
h 0
h 0

Z h
h
h
h i
= lim xex 0 +
ex dx = lim heh + 0 ex 0
dx =
lim
xe
lim (he
+ 1).
,
lim eh = 0,
h
1
= lim h = 0,
h
h e
h e
lim heh = lim

.
9.4. ( sin x [0, ))
Z
sin x dx.
0
,
Z
Z
sin x dx =
( cos x)0 dx = cos 0 cos h = 1 cos h,
h ( 3.51). ,
.
: h ,
lim , .
h
9.1.2
. ,
,
.
9.1.
215
9.2. ( ) ,
, ( ):
1.
b
f , lim
f,
hb
Z
a
a < b, f [a, h] h < b,

[a, b].
2.
Z
a+
Z
f , lim+
ha
f,
h
a < b, f [h, b] h > a,

[a, b].
() [a, b] ,

. [a, b]. (
7.20, [a, b],
[a, b], [a, b].)

. , . , ,
, . , h b h a+ ,
,
[a, b], , x = a,
x = b.
. , :
, , , .
, .
9.5. ( 1/xp [0, 1]) 9.1 f (x) = 1/xp [0, 1],
Z 1
Z 1
dx
dx
=
lim
p
p
+
x
+
h0
0
h x
p > 0. p 0, 1/xp
, .
, , p 6= 1.
Z 1
Z 1
0
dx
1
1
=
x1p dx =
(1 h1p ).
p
x
1
p
1
p
h
h
, 0 1. 0 0
Z 1
dx
1
1
= lim
(1 h1p ) =
.
p
+1 p
x
1
p
+
h0
0
216
9.
, , p > 1, 1 p < 0 lim h1p = ,

h0+
0+
dx
1
= lim
(1 h1p ) = .
xp
h0+ 1 p
, p = 1
Z 1
Z 1
Z 1
dx
dx
= lim
= lim
(log x)0 dx
h0 h x
h0 h
0+ x
= lim [log x]1h = lim (log 1 log h) = 1 () = .
h0+
h0
, ,
Z
0+
dx
=
x
(
,
1
1p ,
p 1,
p < 1.
9.1 . p 1, A
f (x) = 1/xp , x, y, x = 1
|A|. p < 1, |A| . , p = 1 |A|
.
,
.
: ,
+ . , ,
Z 1
Z 1
dx
dx

.
x
0
0+ x
, ,
, .
, .
9.1.3
, ,
. . .
9.3. (
Rb
R c ) a, b, c a 0,
Z
Z 1
Z
dx
dx
dx
=
+
= ,
p
p
x
x
xp
0
0
1
, ( p = 1) .

. .
.
9.7. ( 1/xp [1, 9])
Z
dx
p
= 8.
|x|
,
0. ,
Z 9
Z 0
Z 9
Z 0
Z 9
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
p
p +
p
.
=
=
+
x
x
|x|
|x|
|x|
1
1
0
1
0
,
Z 9
Z 9
Z 9

0
dx
dx
= lim
= lim
2 x dx = lim 2 3 h = 6.
h0 h
h0
x
x h0 h
0
,
y = x,
Z 0
dx
p
= 2.
|x|
1
, .
9.1. (
)
Z
Z a
Z
f=
f+
f,
, a.
R
9.2. [?, ] ( xn ex ) 0 xn ex dx
n N.
218
9.
9.3. ( )
Z
Z
x
e sin x dx,
ex cos x dx.
0
( log x) ,
R9.4.
log
x dx.
0
9.5. :
R 2 dx
1. 1+ x log
x.
2.
R1
3.
9.2
0
0
tan
x
2
dx.
ex sin(ex ) dx.
2.3 .
. ,
.
9.1. ( ) f : A
[0, ) [a, b] A b a 2 .

R = {[r, ] : a b, 0 r f ()} .
(9.1)
A(R) R
1
A(R) =
2
f 2.
(9.2)
, (9.1). , . ,
[a, b]. , r 0 f ().
[0, f ()]
[f (), ] = (f () cos , f () sin ). R, , . 9.2. 9.1, ,
A(R) R (9.2).
,
. S R
A(S) = 12 R2 . , R2 ,
2
R2 = 12 R2 .
9.3. , Pn [a, b] :
Pn = {0 = a < 1 < < n = b},
9.2.
219
f(3)
3=a
x 9.2: R
(9.1).
(9.2).
3=b
|Pn | 0. , , n x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
i1 < xi < i . ( ) gn : [a, b] [0, ) :
gn () = f (xi ),
i1 xi < i ,
i = 1, . . . , n
gn (b) = f (b). A(Rn )

Rn = {[r, ] : a b, 0 r gn ()}.
gn . 9.4, Rn 4
n. ,
A(Rn ) Rn ,
n
X
1 2
A(Rn ) =
f (xi )(i i1 ).
2
i=1
A(Rn ) Riemann 12 f 2 [a, b].
n , :
1. A(Rn ) R,
Rn R, 9.4.
Rb
2. A(Rn ), Riemann 12 f 2 , a 12 f 2 .
Rb
A(Rn ) , A(R) a 12 f 2 ,
, 9.1.
, , (9.2) :
R , [a, b],
d f (). 12 (f (x))2 d, , ,
Rb
12 a f 2 (x) dx.
220
9.
9.3: A(S)
S R 12 R2 .
3
R
3=a
3=a
3=b
3=b
3=a
3=a
3=b
3=b
9.4: R 9.2 Rn gn (). , Rn R A(Rn ) A(R).
9.2.
221
9.1 ba 2. , ,
R, (9.1), ,
(r, ). , (9.2)

.
Rb
. f , 12 a f 2
(9.1).
.
9.8. ( ) ,
R = {[r, ] : a b, 0 r f ()}.
2.2 2.
, R f () = | cos | a = 0,
b = 2.
Z
Z
1 2 2
1 2
A =
f () d =
cos2 d
2 0
2 0
Z
Z
Z
1 2
1 2
1 2
=
(1 + cos 2) d =
d +
(sin 2)0 d = .
4 0
4 0
8 0
2
, R f () = e/10 a = 0,
b = 2.
Z
Z
Z
1 2 2
1 2 /5
5 2 /5 0
A =
f () d =
e
d =
e
d
2 0
2 0
2 0
i 5h
i
5h
= e2/5 1 =
1 e2/5 .
2
2
, R f () = sin2 2 a = 0,
b = 2.

Z
Z
Z
1 2 2
1 2 4
1 2 1 cos 4 2
A =
f () d =
sin 2 d =
d
2 0
2 0
2 0
2
Z
Z
1 2
1 2
2
=
(1 cos 4) d =
(1 + cos2 4 2 cos 4) d
8 0
8 0
Z
Z
Z
1 2
1 2 1 + cos 8
1 2
=
d +
d
cos 4 d
8 0
8 0
2
4 0
Z 2
1
1
1

3
=
+
d +
[sin 8]2
[sin 4]2
+ +00=
.
0
0 =
4 16 0
128
16
4
8
8
9.5.
9.6. [] ()
R = {[r, ] : 0 2, 0 r |cos k/2|} ,
k N . ; ;
222
9.
f (3) = j cos 3j
f (3) = sin2 23
f (3) = exp(!3=10)
0.5
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1
-1 -0.5 0
0.5
-1 -0.5 0
0.5
-1 -0.5 0
0.5
9.5: 9.8.
9.7. ( )

R = [r, ] : a b, cos2 2 r 2 cos2 2 .
9.8. ()
R = {[r, ] : a b, 0 r 1 + cos } .
9.9. () 9.1 f () =
R, 0 2, R .
9.3
x. ( 9.4
y.)
9.2. ( ) f : [a, b] [0, ). S
x
, x, x = a x = b. V (S)
S
Z
b
f 2.
V (S) =
(9.3)
, .
, ,
.
9.9. ( f (x) = 1 + sin(x 1)) f (x) = 1 + sin(x 1)
[a, b] = [1, 1 + ], 9.2.
9.3.
223
y
2
1
f (x) = sin(x ! 1) + 1
3
f(x)
0
z
-1
1
0
-1
-1
a=1
-2
0
b=1+:
-2
-1
1
2
0
3
4
1
2
9.6: f (x) = sin(x 1) + 1 [a, b] = [1, 1 + ]

x
f (x), x, x = 1 x = 1 + .
, , 9.6.
Z 1+
Z 1+
2
V (S) =
f (x) dx =
(1 + sin(x 1))2 dx
1
1
Z 1+

=
1 + sin2 (x 1) + 2 sin(x 1) dx
1
Z 1+
Z 1+
1 cos 2(x 1)
2
= +
dx 2
(cos(x 1))0 dx
2
1
1
Z 1+
= 2 + 2 /2
(sin 2(x 1))0 dx 2(cos cos 0)
4 1
2
3 2
= 2 +
(sin 2 sin 0) 2(1 1) =
+ 4.
2
4
2
9.10. ( f (x) = 2 exp(|x 3|)) f (x) = 2 exp(|x 3|)

[a, b] = [1, 5], 9.2.
, , 9.7.
Z 5
Z 5
Z 5
2
V (S) =
f (x) dx =
4 exp(2|x 3|) dx = 8
exp(2(x 3)) dx
1
1
3
Z 5
= 4
[exp(2(x 3)]0 dx = 4 [exp(2(x 3))]35 = 4(1 exp(4)).
3
224
9.
f (x) = 2 exp[!jx ! 3j]

3
2
f(x)
1
0
a=1
b=5
-1
0
x
9.7: f (x) = 2 exp(|x 3|) [a, b] = [1, 5]
x
f (x), x, x = 1 x = 5.
f (x) x = 3.
,
, .
9.2 9.1.
, , f : [a, b] [0, ),
, 9.2,
.
Pn = {a = p0 < p1 < < pn = b}
(9.4)
|Pn | 0, , , {x1 , . . . , xn }
pi1 < xi < pi ,
i = 1, . . . , n.
(9.5)
, , Pn , gn (x) :
(
f (xi ), pi1 x < pi , i = 1, . . . , n
gn (x) =
(9.6)
f (xn ), x = pn .
Sn gn , x, x = a
x = b. n (
9.2, ), . , i
9.3.
225
f (xi ) (pi pi1 ), f 2 (xi )(pi pi1 ),

Sn
V (Sn ) =
n
X
f 2 (xi )(pi pi1 ).
(9.7)
i=1
V (Sn ) Riemann f 2 [a, b].

: n ,
n , :
1. V (Sn ) S, n Sn
Sn .
Rb
2. V (Sn ), Riemann f 2 [a, b], a f 2 .
, , (9.3) 9.2.
9.8 Sn 9.9 n. , , Vn ,
9.9.
, , (9.3) :
, x [a, b], dx
f (x). (f (x))2 dx,
Rb
, , a f 2 (x) dx.
9.10. f (x) =
| cos kx| x = 0 x = 2 x. k N . ;
; 9.6
.
9.11. ()

f (x) = sin kx
x x = 0 x = 1. .
9.12. ()

f (x) = (2 + sin 3x) exp(x)
x x = 0 x = 5. .
9.13. ( )
y = 1 1 x2 y = 1,
x = 1, x = 1.
9.14. [] ( )
1.
f (x) = cos x x = /2 x = /2 x.
2. y =
1.
226
9.
n = 2; V (Sn ) = 39:4784
n = 5; V (Sn ) = 27:6997
0
z
0
z
-1
-1
-2
0
2
2
0
4
-2
-2
0
2
2
0
4
-2
9.8: x n , n = 2, 5, 20, 60
9.9.
, , (9.7),
3 2 /2 + 4 ' 27.3708 9.9.
9.4.
9.4
227
, ,
y. , :
9.3. ( ) f : [a, b] [0, ). S
y
, x, x = a x = b. V (S)
S
Z
b
V (S) = 2
xf (x) dx.
(9.8)
x, , , ,
.
.
9.11. ( f (x) = sin(x1)+1) f (x) = sin(x1)+1 [a, b] = [1, 1+],
9.9. , ,
9.3. 9.9.
9.6 9.9. , .

Z 1+
Z 1+
Z 1+
V (S) = 2
x(1 + sin(x 1)) dx = 2
x dx + 2
x sin(x 1) dx
1

= 2
1+
x2
2
Z
2
1+
x (cos(x 1))0 dx
1

Z 1+
(1 + )2 1
1+
= 2
2 [x cos(x 1)]1 + 2
(sin(x 1))0 dx
2
2
1

1 2
1
= 2
+
+
2 [(1 + ) cos cos 0] + 2 [sin(x 1)]1+
1
2
2
2
= 3 + 2 2 + 2(1 + + 1) + 2(0 0) = 3 + 2 2 + 4 + 2 2
= 3 + 4 2 + 4.
9.12. ( f (x) = 2 exp(|x 3|)) f (x) = 2 exp(|x 3|) [a, b] =

[1, 5], 9.10. 9.3. 9.10.

Z 5
Z 3
Z 5
V (S) = 2
x exp(|x 3|) dx = 2
x exp(x 3) dx + 2
x exp(3 x) dx.
1
,
Z 3
Z 3
Z
3
0
x exp(x 3) dx =
x(exp(x 3)) dx = [x exp(x 3)]1
1
= 3 exp(2) [exp(x 3)]31

= 3 exp(2) 1 + exp(2) = 2.
exp(x 3) dx
228
9.
f (x) = sin(x ! 1) + 1
3
f(x)
2
1
0
-5
1
0
a=1
-1
-1
b=1+:
2
y
-5
z
0
9.9: f (x) = sin(x 1) + 1 [a, b] = [1, 1 + ]

y
f (x), x, x = 1 x = 1 + .
f (x) = 2 exp[!jx ! 3j]

3
2
f(x)
1
0
a=1
b=5
-1
0
x
9.10: f (x) = 2 exp(|x 3|) [a, b] = [1, 5]
y
f (x), x, x = 1 x = 5.
,
Z 5
Z 5
Z
5
0
x exp(3 x) dx =
x(exp(3 x)) dx = [x exp(3 x)]3 +
3
= 5 exp(2) + 3 [exp(3 x)]53

= 3 5 exp(2) exp(2) + 1 = 4 6 exp(2).
,
V (S) = 2(2 + 4 6 exp(2)) = 12(1 exp(2)).
exp(3 x) dx
9.4.
229
, ,
, . ,
, .
, , f : [a, b] [0, ),
9.3.
Pn (9.4), n x1 , . . . , xn
(9.5), (9.6).
Sn gn , f ,
y. Sn n , i
pi1 , pi , f (xi ).
f (xi ) pi
pi1 ,
V (Sn ) =
n
X
p2i f (xi )
p2i1 f (xi )
i=1
n
X
n
X
f (xi )(p2i p2i+1 )
i=1
f (xi )(pi pi+1 )(pi + pi+1 ).
i=1
, ,
Riemann. , , : xi
[pi1 , pi ], Riemann
, |P | 0. , , xi = (pi1 + pi )/2,

V (Sn ) =
=
n
X
i=1
n
X
f (xi )(pi pi+1 )(pi + pi+1 ) = 2
n
X
f (xi )(pi pi+1 )(pi + pi1 )/2
i=1
2xi f (xi )(pi pi+1 ),
i=1
Riemann, 2xf (x)! , ,

Rb
, V (Sn ) a 2xf (x) dx,
Riemann, V (Sn ) V (S) S,
Sn S. , (9.8).
9.11 Sn 9.11 n. , , Vn ,
9.11.
, , (9.8) :
, x [a, b], dx,
f (x), 2x. 2xf (x) dx,
, ,
Rb
2 a xf (x) dx. Ta-dah!
9.15. ( y)
f (x) = x g(x) = x2 x = 0
x = 1 y.
230
9.
n = 2; V (Sn ) = 101:491
n = 5; V (Sn ) = 83:8966
y
2
1
0
-4
-2
0z
x0
2
-5
2
1
5
0
-4
5
-2
0z
x0
2
-5
9.11: y n , n = 2, 5, 15, 40 9.11.

, , (9.8),
3 + 4 2 + 4 ' 83.0511 9.11.
9.5.
231
9.16. f (x) = 1 x2 [0, 1].

x. ,
y.
, ;
9.5
2.4.
, .
.
9.4. ( )
1. C
x = f (t),
y = g(t),
a t b,
f, g .
2. P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn } [a, b] n N
a = t0 < t1 < < tn1 < tn = b,

n
X
p
l(C, P ) =
(f (ti ) f (ti1 ))2 + (g(ti ) g(ti1 ))2 .
i=1
3. C
l(C) =
sup l(C, P ),
P P[a,b]
P[a, b] [a, b].

l(P, C) : n n + 1
(f (ti ), g(ti )) . 9.12
. ,
, supremum .
. , . ,
,
. 9.12. , ,
: , suprema .
.
232
9.
9.12: . ,
C.
9.4. ( ) C
x = f (t),
y = g(t),
a t b,
f, g . l(C) C

Z bp
l(C) =
(f 0 (t))2 + (g 0 (t))2 dt.
(9.9)
a
,
. ,
,
f, g, . ,
.
, .
9.13. ( 1)
x = sin t,
y = sin 2t,
0 t 2,
9.5.
233
2.3 2.10.

1
Z 2
p
1 + cos 2t
1 + cos 4t 2
2
2
cos t + (2 cos 2t) dt =
+4
dt
2
2
0
0
Z 2
1
1
[1 + cos 2t + 4 + 4 cos 4t] 2 dt

2 0
Z 2
1
1
[5 + cos 2t + 4 cos 4t] 2 dt ' 9.4294,

2 0
Z
l(C) =
=
=
, , .
9.14. ( 2) , ,
x = et/5 sin 2t,
y = et/5 cos 2t,
0 t 2,
2.3, 2.11.
,
Z
l(C) =
et/5 sin 2t
5
!2
+ 2et/5 cos 2t
et/5 cos 2t
5
!2 12
2et/5 sin 2t
dt
12
sin2 2t
4
cos2 2t
4
2
2
=
e
+ 4 cos 2t sin 2t cos 2t +
+ 4 sin 2t + sin 2t cos 2t dt
25
5
25
5
0

1
Z 2
Z
2
2
1
101
=
et/5
+ 4 dt =
et/5 dt
25
5
0
0
Z 2
0
h
i
h
i
= 101
et/5 dt = 101 e2/5 1 = 101 1 e2/5 .
Z
t/5
, !
.
9.15. ( ) ,
(x0 , y0 ) (x1 , y1 ). ,
9.4;
, .
x = tx0 + (1 t)x1 ,
y = y0 + (1 t)y1 ,
0 t 1.
(9.10)
, t = 0 (x, y) = (x0 , y0 ), t = 1 (x, y) = (x1 , y1 ),

, x, y x0 x1 y0 y1 .
, t ,
, . ( 9.17).
. 9.9,
Z 1p
p
l(C) =
(x0 x1 )2 + (y0 y1 )2 dt = (x0 x1 )2 + (y0 y1 )2 ,
0
234
9.
(x0 , y0 )
(x1 , y1 ).
9.16. ( )
x = R sin t,
y = R cos t,
t [a, b],
R (b a). ,
Z bp
l(C) =
(R cos t)2 + (R sin t)2 dt
a
Z bp
= R
cos2 t + sin2 t dt = R(b a).
a
, (b a) = 2,
, 2R.
9.4. , . ,
, .
, , Pn [a, b] :
Pn = {t0 = a < t1 < < tn = b},
|Pn | 0. l(C, P )
l(C, P ) =
n
X
p
(f (ti ) f (ti1 ))2 + (g(ti ) g(ti1 ))2 .
i=1
,
Riemann.
s
2
2
n
X
f (ti ) f (ti1 )
f (ti ) f (ti1 )
l(C, P ) =
(ti ti1 )
+
.
ti ti1
ti ti1
i=1
f, g , [ti1 , ti ] xi yi
f 0 (xi ) =
f (ti ) f (ti1 )
,
ti ti1
g 0 (yi ) =
g(ti ) g(ti1 )
,
ti ti1

l(C, P ) =
n
X
(ti ti1 )
p
(f 0 (xi )2 + (g 0 (yi ))2 .
i=1
, , g 0 , n g 0 (yi ) ' g 0 (xi ),

n
X
p
l(C, P ) =
(ti ti1 ) (f 0 (xi )2 + (g 0 (xi ))2 ,
i=1
9.5.
235
p
Riemann, (f 0 (x))2 + (g 0 (x))2 . , , . n Pn 0, :
Rbp
1. Riemann a (f 0 (x))2 + (g 0 (x))2 dx,
2. Riemann l(C) C,

C.
, ,
(9.9).
(9.9) .
. f 0 (t)
x. ,
x t. , g 0 (t) p
y t. , (f 0 (t))2 + (g 0 (t))2
t,
dt
[t, t + dt]. p t [a, b],
(f 0 (t))2 + (g 0 (t))2 [a, b], ,
[a, b].
9.17. ( )
x = tx0 + (1 t)x1 ,
y = y0 + (1 t)y1 ,
tR
(x0 , y0 ) (x1 , y1 ),
t . .
9.18. ( )
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2
b
. ( ,
.)
9.19. [] ( )
y = ax2 (0, 0) (1, a). (: 8.23.)
9.20. ( ) y =
1/x (a, 1/a) (b, 1/b).
9.21. ()
x = cos3 t,
y = sin3 t,
0 t 2.
9.22. ( )
cos t x = 0 x = 2.
236
9.6
9.

,
.

(, , 9.5),
, ,

x y.
(.., [STEW], [THOE], [THOG], [VARB]), []
Courant John [COUR] .
, , .
,
, [a, b] X
[a, b]. Ross [ROSE], [ROSG], [],
[BETE], [BETG]
.
, , . , , , /
, ... (.., [HALL],
[HRG1], [HRG2], [OHE1], [OHG1], [OHE2], [OHG2]), .
, , ( ) ,
, ( 7.6).
10

, , . ,
, ,
, , . (). ,
, ,
, . ,
, , , ,
.
.
10.1 . 10.2 10.3
,
.
10.4
. 10.5

, Euler. 10.6 ,
.
10.1
10.1. ( ) ()
I y(x)
. ,
,
, n-
n, n- . y(x)
I .

y 0 (x) = f (x),
237
(10.1)
238
10.
I. , 5,
F (x) f (x) I,

Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C,
C R,
f (x) I,
R . f (x) ,
x
F (x) = a f (t) dt, a I,
Z
Z
f (x) dx =
f (t) dt + C,
C R.
(10.1),
. , (10.1) (x0 , y0 ),
x0 I,
Z
x
y(x) =
f (t) dt + y0 .
x0

. , :
10.2. ( ) I.
1. .
2. , , , .
, . ,
F (y 0 (x), y(x), x) = 0,
F . ,
y 0 (x) = F (y(x), x),
(10.2)
F . , ,
, ,
, . ,
1.
. , (10.1).
10.2, 10.3, 10.4.
2. (10.2)
. ,
Euler, 10.5 10.6.
10.2.
10.2
239
.
10.3. ( )
y 0 (x) + f (x)y(x) = g(x)

(10.3)
I, f (x), g(x).

. y1 (x) y2 (x) g(x) = 0,
ay1 (x) + by2 (x) . ( 10.1.)
, .
(10.3), (m(x)n(x))0 = m0 (x)n(x) + m(x)n0 (x). ,
.
.
10.1. ( )
y 0 (x) + f (x)y(x) = g(x)

I. F (x) f (x) I, H(x)
g(x) exp(F (x)), I.
C R.
y(x) = exp [F (x)] (H(x) + C) ,
, (x0 , y0 )
Z x
Z x
Z u

y(x) = exp
f (t) dt
g(u) exp
f (t) dt du + y0 .
x0
x0
(10.4)
(10.5)
x0
:
y 0 (x) + f (x)y(x) = g(x) exp(F (x))y 0 (x) + exp(F (x))f (x)y(x) = exp(F (x))g(x)
(y(x) exp(F (x)))0 = (H(x))0 (y(x) exp(F (x)) H(x))0 = 0.
exp(F (x)) 6= 0 I.
(m(x)n(x))0 = m0 (x)n(x) + m(x)n0 (x) H(x). ,
5.5
(y(x) exp(F (x)) H(x))0 = 0 y(x) exp(F (x)) = H(x) + C,
CR
y(x) = exp [F (x)] (H(x) + C) ,
.
C R,
240
10.
(x0 , y0 ), :
Z

Z
Z
x
F (x) =
f (t) dt,
H(x) =
x0
g(u) exp
x0
f (t) dt du.
x0
, (10.4) y(x0 ) = y0 , C = y0 ,
(10.5).

,
, f (x) g(x) exp(F (x)). ,
, , ,
,
. , :
1. y 0 (x) + f (x)y(x) = g(x).
2. F (x) f (x)
exp(F (x)).
3. (y(x) exp(F (x))0 H 0 (x),
4. y(x) exp(F (x)) = H(x) + C, y(x) .
5. (x0 , y0 ),
x0 , y0 C.
.
10.1.
x2 y 0 (x) + xy(x) = x tan x,
(0, /2) x
x = /4.
(10.3).
(0, /2), x,
y 0 (x) +
1
tan x
y(x) =
,
x
x
, 1/x log x
exp(log x) = x,
xy 0 (x) + y(x) = tan x (xy(x))0 = tan x.
, ,
. , 8.6
(0, /2)
Z
tan x dx = log(cos x) + C,

(xy(x))0 = ( log(cos x) + C)0 y(x) =
C log(cos x)
,
x
C R.
10.2.
241
,
. ,
"
#

1
C log(cos x)
2 0
2 cos x ( sin x)x + log(cos x) C
x y (x) + xy(x) = x
+
x
x2
x
= x tan x + log(cos x) C + C log cos x = x tan x.
. , ,
.
, x x = /4
1
y(/4) = 0 C log(cos /4) = 0 C = log(cos /4) = log( 2/2) = log 2,
2

y(x) =
log(cos x) + 12 log 2
.
x
10.2. ,
y 0 (x) = ay(x) + b,
y 0 (x) y(x).
,
y 0 (x) = ay(x) + b y 0 (x) ay(x) = b eax y 0 (x) aeax y(x) = beax

ax
0
b ax 0
b ax
ax
e y(x) = e
y(x) = e
C e
a
a
b
y(x) = + Ceax ,
a
C R. (10.6)
b = 0,
y 0 (x) = ay(x).
(10.7)
b = 0 10.6, (10.7)
y(x) = Ceax ,
C R.
(10.7) ,
,
a, , . :
1.
, a,

.
2. -
242
10.

, (, ).
.
,
y(x0 ) = y0 , ,
.
10.3.
y 0 (x) + y(x) cos x = cos x,
R,
2.
, (sin x)0 = cos x,
y 0 (x) + y(x) cos x = cos x esin x y 0 (x) + esin x y(x) cos x = esin x cos x

0
0
C
esin x y(x) = esin x esin x y(x) = esin x + C y(x) = 1 + sin x ,
e
C R.
, 2,
1 + C/e1 ,
1 + C/e1 = 2 C = e1 ,

y(x) = 1 + e1sin x .
10.1. ( ) y 0 (x) + f (x)y(x) = 0.

y1 (x), y2 (x) , ay1 (x) + by2 (x).
10.2. () 10.2 10.3
.
10.3. ( 1) . ,
, .
1. y 0 (x) + (log x + 1)y(x) =
xx
1+x2
I = (0, ), y(1) = 2.
2. y 0 (x) + (1 + 1/x)y(x) = 1 I = (0, ), y(1) = 0.

10.4. [] ( 2) , (0, ):
y 0 (x) + (log x)y(x) = ex log x .
. , x .
10.5. [] ( 3)
1
1
y(x) =
2
cos x
cos2 x
(/2, /2). , x /2
x /2. (: tan x;)
y 0 (x) +
10.3.
10.3
243
,
,
.
,
.
10.4. ( )
f (y)y 0 (x) = g(x)
.

Lipschitz
dy
f (y)y 0 (x) = g(x) f (y)
= g(x) f (y) dy = g(x) dx,
(10.8)
dx
x, y. , y , x
. , dx, dy ,
.
10.2. ( )
f (y)y 0 (x) = g(x)
(10.9)
I, G(x) g(x) I
F (y) f (y) y(I).
y(x) C R
F (y(x)) = G(x) + C
(10.10)
I.
: . ,
y(x).
(F (y(x))0 = F 0 (y(x))y 0 (x) = f (y(x))y 0 (x) = g(x) = G0 (x) F (y(x)) = G(x) + C
I C R. , F (y(x)) = G(x) + C I
C, .

,
dy
f (y)y 0 (x) = g(x) f (y)
= g(x)
dx
f (y) dy = g(x) dx
Z
Z
f (y) dy = g(x) dx
F (y(x)) = G(x) + C C R.
244
10.
, ,
, f (y) dy =
g(x) dx . ,
, .
, 10.2 ,
.
, 10.2 10.1 . ,
:
1. 10.2 C F (y(x)) = G(x) + C

y(x) . C. C
x I.
2. 10.2 , F (y(x)) =
G(x) + C ,
y(x).
3.
y(x) f (y)y 0 (x) = g(x). ( ,
y(x) 6= 0.)
(10.9),
.

(10.10), C,

(10.9). .
10.4. ( )
y 0 (x) = ay(x)(1 y(x)),
(10.11)
. ,
, , 0 < y(x) < 1.
a > 0. y(x) 0 < y(x) < 1, , ,
, . , y(x) 0 1
. , , 1 x ,
0, x . , a < 0,
0 x , 1, x .
, ,
.
10.3.
245
y 0 = y(x)(1 ! y(x))
4
3
2
y(x)
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
10.1: 10.4 ( 0 < y(x) < 1), 10.6 ( y(x) > 1) 10.7 ( y(x) < 0), a = 1.
10.2, :
y 0 (x) = ay(x)(1 y(x))
Z
Z
y0
dy
dy
=a
= a dx
= a dx
y(1 y)
y(1 y)
y(1 y)

y
y
= ax + C log
log
= ax + C

y1
1y

y
= eax+C y = eax+C yeax+C y 1 + eax+C = eax+C

1y
eax+C
1
y(x) =
y(x) =
,
k > 0.
1 + eax+C
1 + keax
8.7. C R, k , eC > 0. , ,
.
10.1 a > 0. , ,
y(x) > 1 y(x) < 0. (, ,
10.6 10.7.)
(10.11) -
246
10.
. , , a > 0
y(x) . ,
0
( ) 1 ( ) y 0 (x) = 0,
. , 0 < y(x) < 1 (
)
y 0 (x)
.
, y(x)(1y(x)).
,
, .
10.5. ( ) ,

y 0 (x) = ay(x)
x R. , 10.2,
.
, y(x) = 0 , . , ,
y(x) 6= 0 R. y(x) 10.2
Z
Z
dy
dy
0
y (x) = ay(x)
= a dx
= a dx
y
y
log |y(x)| = ax + C |y(x)| = eax+C .
, y(x) 6= 0
|y(x)| = eax+C C R.
(10.12)
y(x) , ,
, (10.12)
y(x) = Keax K R .
(10.13)
, y(x) = 0, ,
(10.13), .
, , .
, y(x), y(x0 ) > 0 x0 . ( y(x0 ) < 0
.) y(x) > 0 x > x0 ,
, y(x) 0 x > x0 .
1. x0 ,
b = inf{x > x0 : y(x) = 0}.
, , , x0 ,
infimum .
2. , , y(x) x0 . , Bolzano, x0 ,
b .
10.3.
247
y(x) = tan(x2 + C)
4
3
2
C=
y(x)
:
2
!1
0
-1
-2
-3
C = ! :2 + 0:001
-4
-1
-0.5
0.5
10.2: 10.6.
y(b) = 0, y(x) ,
4.5. , , y(x) > 0 [x0 , b),
y(x) = 0 b,
y(x) < 0 Bolzano y (x0 , x)
b.
, , y(x) [x0 , b),
(10.12) K > 0. ,
lim y(x) = lim Keax = Keab > 0,
xb
xb
lim y(x) = lim 0 = 0,
xb+
xb
, y(x) b . ,
y(x) 6= 0 (x0 , ). , y(x) 6= 0
(, x0 ), .
, (10.13) y(x) = 0,

y(x) = Ceax ,
C R.
10.5
10.2. ,
10.2.
248
10.
10.6.
y 0 (x) = 2x(1 + y 2 (x))
(1, 1). ,
(0, 10).
, 10.2, :
Z
Z
dy
dy
0
2
y = 2x(1 + y )
= 2x dx
= 2x dx
1 + y2
1 + y2
arctan y = x2 + C y(x) = tan(x2 + C),
C R.
1
(arctan y)0 = 1+x
2 , 5.6.
, (1, 1).
, , 5.6 ,
(/2, /2). , (1, 1),
1 + C /2 C /2 1 ' 0.5708 0 + C > /2 C > /2, ,
C (/2, /2 1].
,
y(x) = tan(x2 + C),
C (/2, /2 1].
, y(0) = 0 C = 0,
y(x) = tan x2 .
,
10 = tan C C = arctan 10 ' 1.4711,
(/2, 1/2] C. ,
(1, 1) (0, 10).
, (1, 1),
x
x2 + arctan 10 =
x = /2 arctan 10 ' 0.3157,

2
(1, 1).
10.2. , y(x) =
tan(x2 + C) C (/2, /2 1].
C C = /2 1. ,
x = 1 x = 1. C
C = /2+0.001. C /2, x = 0 .
. ,
(1, 1),
.
10.6.
y 0 (x) = ay(x)(1 y(x)),
y(x) > 1. a R+ . ;
10.4 10.1.
10.4.
249
10.7.
y 0 (x) = ay(x)(1 y(x)),
y(x) < 0. a R+ . ;
10.4 10.1.
10.8. 10.6 10.7 a < 0.
.
10.9. []
y 0 (x)y(x) + x = 0
(10, 10). , ,
(0, 10) (0, 5), .
10.10. ( ) . ,
, .
1. y 0 (x) cos y(x) + x = 0 [1, 10], y(0) = 0.
2. y 0 (x) sin y(x) = ex [1, 10], y(0) = 0.
10.11.
y 0 (x) = 2y(x)(10 y(x))
y(x) (0, 10) x R. , , .
, y(0) = 5.
10.4
, ,
.
10.4.1
Bernoulli
10.5. ( Bernoulli) Bernoulli
y 0 (x) + f (x)y(x) = g(x)(y(x))k

I, f (x), g(x) k R.
k = 0 k = 1 ,
Bernoulli . , k 6= 0, 1,
. , ,
, , k > 0, y(x) 6= 0. ,

z(x) = (y(x))1k z 0 (x) = (1 k)(y(x))k y 0 (x),
250
10.
, z(x) ,
y 0 (x) + f (x)y(x) = g(x)(y(x))k
(1 k)y 0 (x)(y(x))k + (1 k)f (x)(y(x))1k = (1 k)g(x)
z 0 (x) + (1 k)f (x)z(x) = (1 k)g(x),
, .
.
10.7. ( Bernoulli)
y 0 (x) + y(x) cos x = (y(x))2 cos x
R. y(x) = 0 . y(x) 6= 0
R. , (y(x))2
y 0 (x)
cos x
+
= cos x.
2
(y(x))
y(x)
,
z(x) =
1
y 0 (x)
z 0 (x) =
,
y(x)
(y(x))2

z 0 (x) + z(x) cos x = cos x,
:
z 0 (x) + z(x) cos x = cos x e sin x z 0 (x) (cos x)e sin x z(x) = (cos x)e sin x
(e sin x z(x))0 = (e sin x )0 e sin x z(x) = e sin x + C
z(x) = Cesin x + 1 y(x) =
1
Cesin x
+1
y(x) R, Cesin x +
1 , .
x R, Cesin x + 1 > 0 x R, C > e sin x C > e1 .

x R, Cesin x + 1 < 0 x R, C < e sin x C < e
, C [e, e1 ]. C > e1
y(x) > 0, C < e y(x) < 0. 10.3.
10.4.2
n n 1,
n 2, y(x) n 1. ,
z(x) = y (n1) (x). .
10.4.
10
251
y 0 (x) + y(x) cos x = (cos x)(y(x))2

C = !e!1 + 0:03
8
6
4
y(x)
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-10
C = !e ! 0:02
-5
10
10.3: 10.7
R. ,
R,
.
252
10.
10.8. ( )
y 000 (x) ky 00 (x) = 0
R. y(x).
y(x), y 0 (x), z(x) = y 00 (x),

z 0 (x) = kz(x) z(x) = C1 ekx ,
C1 R,
10.2. ,
y 00 (x) = C1 ekx y 0 (x) =
C1 kx
e + C2 ,
k
C2 R,

y(x) =
C1 kx
e + C2 x + C3 ,
k2
C3 R.
C1 /k 2 R,
y(x) = C1 ekx + C2 x + C3 ,
C1 , C2 , C3 R,
,
. : e
, n- n .
10.4.3
, , ,
.
, ,
ay 00 (x) + by 0 (x) + cy(x) = 0,
a, b, c R a, c 6= 0. ( a = 0,
.)
y(x) = 0.
y(x),
y 0 (x). y(x) = kesx , k 6= 0,
. ,
kas2 esx + kbsesx + kcesx = 0 as2 + bs + c = 0.
, . , , ,
, , .
10.3. ( )
ay 00 (x) + by 0 (x) + cy(x) = 0,
(10.14)
10.4.
a R b, c R,
253
as2 + bs + c = 0
. :
1. r1 , r2 ,

y(x) = k1 er1 x + k2 er2 x ,
k1 , k2 R.
2. r,
y(x) = k1 erx + k2 xerx ,

k1 , k2 R.
3. r1,2 = r is,

y(x) = k1 erx cos sx + k2 erx sin sx,
k1 , k2 R.
, , ,
. ,
, . .
c = 0 , z(x) = y 0 (x)
, 10.2.
.
10.9. ( )
y 00 (x) 4y 0 (x) + 3y(x) = 0.
,
(0, 0), (1, 1).

s2 4s + 3 = (s 1)(s 3) = 0,

y(x) = k1 e3x + k2 ex ,
k1 , k2 R.
, y(0) = 0 y(1) =
1,
0 = k1 + k2 ,
1 = k1 e3 + k2 e k1 = 1/(e3 e),

y(x) =
e3x ex
.
e3 e
k2 = 1/(e3 e),
254
10.
10.10. ( )
y 00 (x) 4y 0 (x) + 4y(x) = 0.
,
(0, 0), (1, 1).

s2 4s + 4 = (s 2)2 = 0,

y(x) = k1 e2x + k2 xe2x ,
k1 , k2 R.
, y(0) = 0 y(1) =
1,
0 = k1 ,
1 = k1 e2 + k2 e2 k1 = 0, k2 = e2 ,

y(x) = xe2(x1) .
10.11. ( ) ,
y 00 (x) 4y 0 (x) + 8y(x) = 0.
,
(0, 0), (1, 1).

s2 4s + 8 = (s 2 2i)(s 2 + 2i) = 0,

y(x) = k1 e2x cos 2x + k2 e2x sin 2x.
, y(x) = 0 y(x) =
1,
0 = k1 ,
1 = k1 e2 cos 2 + k2 e2 sin 2 k1 = 0, k2 =

y(x) =
e2(x1) sin 2x
.
cos 2
1
e2 cos 2
10.5. EULER
10.5
255
Euler
, Euler,

y 0 (x) = f (y(x), x).
, (x0 , y(x0 ))
y(x),
(xi , yi ) , , .
,
, .
.
(x0 , y0 ). ,
: y 0 (x0 ) = f (x0 , y0 ). ,
, , . ,
y 0 (x0 ) = lim
xx0

y 0 (x0 ) '
y(x) y(x0 )
x x0
y(x) y(x0 )
y(x) ' y(x0 ) + y 0 (x0 )(x x0 ),
x x0
x , x x0 . , , ,
y(x0 + x) = y(x0 ) + y 0 (x0 )x.
, , (x0 , y0 ) ,
(x0 + x, y(x0 ) + xy 0 (x0 , y0 ))
y(x). , , ... ,
(xi , yi ) , .
:
/* EULER METHOD */
function euler(f,x(0),y(0),x,N)
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
INPUT:
f: A function of x,y such that y'=f(x,y)
(x(0),y(0)): Starting location for the iterations
x: Step size
N: Number of iterations
1: FOR i=1 TO N
2:
x(i)=x(i-1)+x;
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
256
10.
3:
y(i)=y(i-1)+x*f(x(i-1),y(i-1));
4: END;
/* Return locations estimated to belong in graph of y(x) */
5: RETURN (x(i),y(i)), i=1,2,...,N.
, ,
. , ,

x. , x,
.
10.12. ( Euler y 0 (x) = cos x)
Euler, 10.4
,
y 0 (x) = cos x
y(0) = 0. ,
y(x) = sin x. ;
. [0, 10]
x, x = 1, 0.5, 0.1. ,
, .
,
(x0 , y0 ). ,
x. .
10.13. ( ) 10.5
y 0 (x) = y(x) y(0) = 1,
, x = 0.2 x = 0.2, 5 .
, y(x) = ex . ,
.
. ,
.
10.6
10.6 Euler

y 0 (x) = f (y(x), x)
(x0 , y(x0 )) f (y(x0 ), x0 ).

, .
10.6.
257
y 0 (x) = cos x; y(0) = 0; "x = 1

1
-1
0
10
10
10
y (x) = cos x; y(0) = 0; "x = 0:5

1
-1
0
y (x) = cos x; y(0) = 0; "x = 0:1

1
-1
0
10.4: Euler y 0 (x) = cos x, y(0) = 0,

x = 1, 0.5, 0.1.
258
10.
y 0 (x) = y; y(0) = 1; "x = 1
5
4
1
-4
-5
-3
-2
-1
0
-1
-0.5
0.5
10.5: Euler y 0 (x) = y(x), y(0) = 0,

, x = 0.2 x = 0.2.
.
.
x y. , ,
. GPS
, ,
, .

, :
1. (x, y) , GPS.
2. f (x, y) .
3. ,
f (x, y).
.
,

( f (x, y) ,
),
. ,
Euler . , ,
.

, , .
10.14. 10.6
y 0 (x) = y(x) x
10.6.
y 0 (x) = y ! x
0.5
259
-0.5
-1
-1
y 0 (x) = cos(y ! x)
-1
-0.5
0.5
-2
-2
-1
10.6: y 0 (x) = y(x) x y 0 (x) = cos(y(x) x).

y 0 (x) = cos(y x).
, ,
. ( 10.12.) , ,
.
y 0 (x) = y(x) x
x. ,
(x0 , y0 ) x .
y 0 (x) = cos(y x), (x0 , y0 ) y0 > x0 ,
y(x) y = x. , ,
(x0 , y0 ) y0 < x0 , y = x,
.
10.12. y 0 (x) = y(x) x 10.14.

10.13. 10.7 :
1. y 0 = x2 + y 2 .
2. y 0 = y.
3. y 0 = exp(x y).
4. y 0 = x2 .
, .
260
10.
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
1
-0.5
0.5
-1
-1
1
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
0.5
10.7: 10.13.
10.7.
10.7
261
(10.14) , :
1. .
2. . ,
.
, ,
. :
1. x .
2. H y(x) . ( ,
. ,
.) , y 0 (x) y 00 (x)
.
3. cy(x) y(x)
.
4. by 0 (x) , .
5. ay 00 (x) , a .
, (10.14)
. , :
1. ( , ). ,
, , ,
.
2. .
, a, b, c
a(x), b(x), c(x) x.
3.
. , ay(x)
, .
4. .
, by 0 (x) , .
10.1,
10.2, 10.3, 10.4, .
[] et al. [],
[].
262
10.
. ,
. , . . ,
. ( ,
.) , Maxwell, ,
. [HALL], [HRG1], [HRG2], [OHE1], [OHG1],
[OHE2], [OHG2] .
Euler .
, ,

( ),
, . .
.
11
Taylor
Taylor.
, , , ,
.
11.1 , 11.2 , 11.3 ,
11.4
Taylor .
11.1
(x0 , f (x0 )) f

y = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ).
, (x0 , f (x0 )) ,
f x0 .
:
P1 (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ).
, , x0 , (x0 , f (x0 )),
. ,
P1 (x0 ) = f (x0 ),
P10 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ).
(11.1)
( 11.1),
x0 .

x0 , ,
P1 , P2 . ,
, ,
f .
263
264
11. TAYLOR
P2 . ,
f x0 ,

P2 (x) = a + b(x x0 ) + c(x x0 )2 ,
P1 (x) = a + bx + c2 . P2 (x0 ) = f (x0 ),
a + b(x0 x0 ) + c(x0 x0 )2 = f (x0 ) a = f (x0 ).
,
P20 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) b + 2c(x0 x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) b = f 0 (x0 ).
,
P200 (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ) 2c = f 00 (x0 ) c = f 00 (x0 )/2,
, ,
1
P2 (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) + f 00 (x0 )(x x0 )2 .
2

P2 (x0 ) = f (x0 ),
P20 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ),
P200 (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ),
(11.2)
(, ) , ,
f x0 .
1
P2 (x) = P1 (x) + f 00 (x0 )(x x0 )2 ,
2
P2 (x) P1 (x),
.
, , .
, , .
11.1. ( Taylor) f : A R x0 A
n , n N. Taylor n x0
Pn (x) , f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) +
=
n
X
f (k) (x0 )
k=0
k!
f 00 (x0 )
f (n) (x0 )
(x x0 )2 + +
(x x0 )n
2
n!
(x x0 )k .
(11.3)
Taylor,
Pn (x; f, x0 ). x0 = 0, (11.3)
Maclaurin.
, g (n) n- g, n
N , ( ) g, n = 0. ,

n! = 1 2 3 n, n N ,
, , 0! = 1. To n! n .
11.2.
265
n = 0. ,
Taylor
P0 (x) = f (x0 ),
, , f (x)
(x0 , f (x0 )).
11.1. Taylor n f x0
n
f (k) (x0 ) = P (k) (x0 ),
k = 0, 1, . . . , n.

, 11.2.
Taylor ,
x0 . ,
Taylor, x0 .
, Taylor.
, , :
1. Taylor
. ,
, ( )
, . (
; Taylor, .)
, ,
, .
2. , , Taylor.
3. Taylor ,
.
11.1. ( ) f : A x0 .
P1 (11.1) P1 (x) = f (x0 ) +
f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ).
11.2. ( n) 11.1.
11.2
, , Taylor . ,
:
, (11.3) .
266
11. TAYLOR
n=3
n=1
n=5
1.5
log x
1
0.5
n=0
0
-0.5
n=2
-1
n=4
-1.5
-2
-1
x
11.1: Taylor n = 0 5 log x x0 = 1.
11.1. ( Taylor f (x) = log x x0 = 1) f (x) = log x
f (0) (x) = log x

1
f (1) (x) =
x
1
f (2) (x) = 2
x
2
(3)
f (x) = 3
x
6
f (4) (x) = 4
x
24
(5)
f (x) = 5
x
f (0) (1) = 0,
f (1) (1) = 1,
f (2) (1) = 1,
f (3) (1) = 2,
f (4) (1) = 6,
f (5) (1) = 24,
, , n N ,
f (n) (x) = (1)n+1
(n 1)!
f (n) (1) = (1)n+1 (n 1)!
xn
, (11.3) :
P0 (x) = 0,
P1 (x) = 0 + 1 (x 1) = (x 1),
P2 (x) = 0 + 1 (x 1) +
1
1
(1) (x 1)2 = (x 1) (x 1)2 ,
2
2
11.2.
267
1
1
(1) (x 1)2 + 2 (x 1)3
2
3!
1
1
= (x 1) (x 1)2 + (x 1)3 ,
2
3
P3 (x) = 0 + 1 (x 1) +
1
1
1
(1) (x 1)2 + 2 (x 1)3 + (6) (x 1)4
2
3!
4!
1
1
1
2
3
4
= (x 1) (x 1) + (x 1) (x 1) .
2
3
4
P4 (x) = 0 + 1 (x 1) +
P5 (x) = 0 + 1 (x 1) +
1
1
1
(1) (x 1)2 + 2 (x 1)3 + (6) (x 1)4
2
3!
4!
1
24 (x 1)5
5!
1
1
1
1
= (x 1) (x 1)2 + (x 1)3 (x 1)4 + (x 1)5 .
2
3
4
5
+
, n N,
n
X (1)k+1
1
(1)n+1
Pn (x) = (x 1) (x 1)2 + +
(x 1)n =
(x 1)k .
2
n
k
k=1
11.1 6 Taylor, n = 0
n = 5.
, , x0
.
, , n
x0 ! , ,
x .
11.1 ,
Taylor k < n Taylor n,
k.
, .
, Taylor n.
11.2. ( Taylor f (x) = exp x x0 = 0)
f (x) = exp x,

(exp x)(n) = exp x (exp x)(n)
= exp 0 = 1,
x=0
Taylor n- x0
1
1
1
Pn (x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + + xn
2
3!
n!
n
X
1 k
=
x .
k!
k=0
11.2 6 .
268
11. TAYLOR
50
exp x
n=5
40
n=4
30
n=3
20
n=2
10
n=1
n=0
-10
-4
-3
-2
-1
x
11.2: Taylor n = 0 5 exp x x0 = 0.
n = 5; 6 n = 9; 10
4
n = 1; 2
3
2
1
sin x
n=0
0
-1
-2
n = 7; 8
n = 3; 4
-3
-4
-6
-4
-2
x
11.3: Taylor n = 0 10 sin x x0 = 0.
11.2.
269
11.3. ( Taylor f (x) = sin x x0 = 0)

f (x) = sin x, , 5.10,
sin(4n) x = sin x,
n N,
sin(4n) 0 = 0,
sin(4n+1) 0 = 1,
sin(4n+2) 0 = 0,
sin(4n+3) 0 = 1,
, ,
sin(2n) 0 = 0,
sin(2n+1) 0 = (1)n ,
Taylor 0
P0 (x) = 0,
P2n+2 (x) = P2n+1 (x) = x
1 3
1
1
x + x5 + + (1)n
x2n+1
3!
5!
(2n + 1)!
n
X
(1)k 2k+1
=
x
,
(2k + 1)!
n N.
k=0
, x0 = 0, 2n + 2
2n + 1.
11.3 Taylor sin x x0 = 0 n = 0
10.
Taylor , , . . , ,
11.5.
11.4. ( Taylor f (x) = cos x x0 = 0)
f (x) = cos x, , 5.10,
cos(4n) x = cos x,
cos(4n+2) x = cos x,
n N,
cos(4n) 0 = 1,
cos(4n+1) 0 = 0,
cos(4n+2) 0 = 1,
cos(4n+3) 0 = 0,
, ,
cos(2n) 0 = (1)n ,
cos(2n+1) 0 = 0,
n N,
Taylor x0 = 0
P2n (x) = P2n+1 (x) = 1
=
1 2
1
1
x + x4 + (1)n
x2n
2!
4!
(2n)!
n
X
(1)k
k=0
(2k)!
x2k ,
n N.
, x0 = 0,
2n + 1
2n.
11.4 Taylor cos x x0 = 0 n = 0
11.
270
11. TAYLOR
n = 8; 9
4
3
n = 4; 5
2
n = 0; 1
cos x
0
-1
n = 10; 11
-2
n = 6; 7
-3
n = 2; 3
-4
-6
-4
-2
x
11.4: Taylor n = 0 11 cos x x0 = 0.
4
3
n = 8; 9
n = 4; 5
2
n = 0; 1
1
sin x
0
-1
n = 10; 11
n = 6; 7
-2
n = 2; 3
-3
-4
-6
-4
-2
x
11.5: Taylor n = 0 11 sin x x0 = /2.
11.3.
271
11.5. ( Taylor f (x) = sin x x0 = /2) , Taylor sin x, 11.1,

x0 = /2.
sin(4n) x = sin x,
n N, ,
sin(4n) /2 = 1,
sin(4n+1) /2 = 0,
sin(4n+2) /2 = 1,
sin(4n+3) /2 = 0,
, ,
sin(2n) /2 = (1)n ,
sin(2n+1) /2 = 0,
n N,
P2n (x) = P2n+1 (x) = 1

=
1
1
1
(x /2)2 + (x /2)4 + (1)n
(x /2)2n
2!
4!
(2n)!
n
X
(1)k
k=0
(2k)!
(x /2)2k ,
n N.
Taylor Taylor
0 ( 11.4) /2,
/2 . ( 11.2),
.
11.3. [] Taylor f (x) = x cos x

x0 = 0.
11.4. ( Taylor) Taylor x0 n R. ,
Taylor n = 4 .
1. f (x) = x2 + 4x + 6 x0 = 2.
2. f (x) = x2 + 4x + 6 x0 = 0.
3. exp x2 x0 = 0.
4. arctan x x0 = 0.
5. 10x x0 = 0.
11.5. Taylor x0 (, ) f
(, ) .
11.3
272
11. TAYLOR
11.2. ( ) f : A R n
x0 , Taylor Pn (x) x0 . a, b R a 6= 0. g(x) =
f (ax + b) Taylor, y0 = (x0 b)/a, Pn (ax + b).
: Taylor Qn (x) g(x) y0 , o (11.3) , Pn (ax + b):

n
n
X
X

1 (k)
1 k (k)
k
Qn (x) =
g (y0 )(x y0 ) =
a f (ax + b) x=y0 (x y0 )k
k!
k!
k=0
k=0
n
X
1 k (k)
=
a f (ay0 + b)(x y0 )k
k!
k=0

k
n
X
1 k (k)
x0 b
x0 b
=
a f
a
+b
x
k!
a
a
k=0
n
X
1 (k)
=
f (x0 )(ax + b x0 )k = Pn (ax + b),
k!
k=0
g(ax + b) f (x)
, f b/a ( b/a < 0 ) ,
, a, x0
y0 = (x0 b)/a. a ,
y. , |a| < 1, . 11.6.
: ,
Taylor g Taylor f , .
, 11.5
11.4.
11.6. ( Taylor f (x) = exp(x)) 11.2 11.2, f (x) = exp(x) Taylor 0 :
1
1
(1)n n
Pn (x) = 1 x + x2 x3 + +
x
2
3!
n!
n
X
(1)k k
=
x .
k!
k=0
11.3. ( ) f, g : A R
n x0 , Taylor Pn (x), Qn (x) x0 . a, b R.
af (x) + bg(x) Taylor, x0 , aP (x) + bQ(x).
11.3.
273
11.7. ( Taylor f (x) = log[(x + 1)/(x 1)]) 11.1 11.2 f (x) = log(1 + x) Taylor
x0 = 0
n
1 2 1 3
(1)n+1 n X (1)k+1 k
Pn (x) = x x + x +
x =
x ,
2
3
n
k
k=1
f (x) = log(1 x) Taylor x0 = 0

Pn (x) =
n
X
(1)k+1
k=1
(x) =
n
X
(1)2k+1
k=1
n
X
1 k
x =
x
k
k
k=1
1
1
1
= x x2 x3 xn .
2
3
n
,

f (x) = log
1+x
1x

= log(1 + x) log(1 x)
Taylor x0 = 0 :
Pn (x) =
n
X
(1)k+1
k=1

n
X
1 k
x3 x5
x +
x =2 x+
+
+ ... ,
k
3
5
k
k=1
P0 (x) = 0,
n
X
x2k+1
P2n+1 (x) = P2n+2 (x) = 2
,
2k + 1
n N.
k=0
11.3 11.2
, 11.7. :
Pn (x) f (x), Qn (x) g(x), af (x) + bg(x) aPn (x) + bQn (x).
11.4. ( Taylor) f : A R n
x0 , Taylor Pn (x) x0 . Pn0 (x)
Pn (x) Taylor n 1 f 0 (x).
11.2 11.8. Taylor
. , ,
. 11.3 11.4
.
11.8. ( Taylor x1 ) 11.4 11.1
Taylor f (x) = x1 x0 = 1
Pn (x) = 1 (x 1) + (x 1)2 (x 1)3 + . . .
n
X
=
(1)k (x 1)k .
k=0
274
11. TAYLOR
11.6. ( ) f (x) g(x) = f (ax+b)

:
1. f (x) = sin x, a = , b = 0.
2. f (x) = xu(x)u(1 x), a = 2, b = 1.
3. f (x) = xu(x)u(1 x), a = 2, b = 1.
4. f (x) = xu(x)u(1 x), a = 1/2, b = 1.
5. f (x) = xu(x)u(1 x), a = 1/2, b = 1.
Heaviside u(x) 3.1.
11.7. ( ) 11.3.
11.8. ( Taylor) 11.4.
11.9. ( Taylor sinh x, cosh x) Taylor sinh x, cosh x 8.18:
sinh x =
exp x exp(x)
,
2
cosh x =
exp x + exp(x)
.
2
11.10. 11.6, 11.7, 11.8

Taylor.
11.11. ( Taylor ) f : A R n
x0 Pn (x) Taylor n f R x0 .
Rx
x
P
Taylor n + 1 x0 f x0 .
x0 n
11.12. ( Taylor 1/(1 x2 )) Taylor f (x) = 1/(1
x2 ) x0 = 0 . , , , , log[(1+x)/(1
x)] 11.4 11.7.
11.13. f (x) Taylor n x0 = 0 Pn (x),
xf (x) Taylor n + 1 x0 = 0 xPn (x).
11.14. 11.3 11.13.
11.4
Taylor
x0 . ,
.
, Taylor.
, .
11.4.
275
11.2. () A f : A R
n x0 A. Pn (x) Taylor n
x0 . Rn (x)
Rn (x) = f (x) Pn (x) f (x) = Pn (x) + Rn (x).
,
Rn (x; f, x0 ).
, Rn (x) n x0 (
n )
Pn f
x.
.
11.1. ( Taylor) A f : A R
n + 1 A f (n+1) A.
Pn (x) Taylor x0 A Rn (x) . ,
K(x0 , x) x0 , x, K = [x0 , x] x0 x K = [x, x0 ]
x x0 .
1. Rn (x)
Z
Rn (x) =
x0
f (n+1) (t)(x t)n

dt.
n!
(11.4)
2. x1 K(x0 , x),
Rn (x) =
f (n+1) (x1 )(x x0 )n+1

(n + 1)!
(11.5)
(11.5) Lagrange,
3. x2 K(x0 , x),
Rn (x) =
f (n+1) (x2 )(x x2 )n (x x0 )

.
n!
(11.6)
(11.6) Cauchy.
: , (11.4).
11.15 11.16.
(11.4) ,
.
, , n = 0. ,
R0 (x) = f (x) P0 (x) = f (x) f0 (x),
x0
f (0+1) (t)(x t)0

dt =
0!
x0
f 0 (t) dt = f (x) f (x0 ),
276
11. TAYLOR
8.2.
, , k < n.
k + 1 n.
f (x) = Pk (x) + Rk (x),
f (x) = Pk+1 (x) + Rk+1 (x),

Rk+1 (x) = Rk (x) + Pk (x) Pk+1 (x) = Rk (x)
f (k+1) (x0 )(x x0 )k+1

.
(k + 1)!

f (k+1) (x0 )(x x0 )k+1
Rk+1 (x) = Rk (x)
(k + 1)!
Z x (k+1)
f
(t)(x t)k
f (k+1) (x0 )(x x0 )k+1
=
dt
k!
(k + 1)!
x0

Z x (k+1)
0
f
(t) (t x)k+1
f (k+1) (x0 )(x x0 )k+1
= (1)k
dt
(k + 1)!
(k + 1)!
x
0(k+1)

Z
x
x (k+2)
f
(t)(t x)k+1
f
(t)(t x)k+1
= (1)k
(1)k
dt
(k + 1)!
(k + 1)!
x0
x0
f (k+1) (x0 )(x x0 )k+1
(k + 1)!
Z x (k+2)
(k+1)
(x0 )(x0 x)k+1
f
(t)(t x)k+1
k+1 f
k+1
= (1)
+ (1)
dt
(k + 1)!
(k + 1)!
x0
f (k+1) (x0 )(x x0 )k+1
(k + 1)!
Z x (k+2)
f
(t)(x t)k+1
=
dt.
(k + 1)!
x0
, t,
x x0 . .
,
(1)k+1
. , , .

11.1
, x1 , x2 . ,
, , .
11.1. ( Taylor) A f : A R
n + 1 A, f (n+1)
A. Pn (x) Taylor x0 A Rn (x)
. :
|f (n+1) (t)| M,
t K(x0 , x),
11.4.
277
K(x0 , x) A x x0 , [x, x0 ],
[x0 , x]. |Rn (x)| :
|Rn (x)|
M |x x0 |n+1
.
(n + 1)!
: (11.5) Lagrange:
(n+1)

n+1
(n+1)
f
(x
)(x
x
)
(x1 )||x x0 |n+1
M |x x0 |n+1
1
0
= |f
|Rn (x)| =
.
(11.7)

(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
, 7.6 (11.4). , x > x0 . :
Z x (n+1)

n

f
(t)(x
t)
|Rn (x)| =
dt
n!
x0
Z x (n+1)
f
(t) (x t)n
dt
n!
x0
0
Z
M x (x t)n+1
dt
n! x0
n+1

M |x x0 |n+1
M
n+1
=
(x x0 )
0 =
.
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
x < x0 . 11.17.
. , n + 1,
Taylor. , n + 1
, . (, , ,
11.18.) , , n, n! , , ,
. .
.
11.9. ( sin /5) ,
sin /10 104
. 11.4, ,
x0 = 0,
(1)k 2k+1
P2n+2 (x) = P2n+1 (x) =
x
,
n N.
(2k + 1)!
sin x , , 1. ,
11.1
(/5)n+1
|Rn (x)|
.
(n + 1)!
n, :
n
|Rn (x)|
1
0.1974
2
0.0413
3
0.0065
4
8.16 104
5
8.54 105
278
11. TAYLOR
, n = 5 Taylor
sin /5, 104 . ,
(/5)
(/5)3 (/5)5
+
= 0.5877928809 . . .
3!
5!

sin(/5) = 0.5877852522 . . .
sin /5 .
, , Rn (x) ' 7.62 106 .
. , /5 , ,
. ,
|x x0 |, 11.1 . ,
11/5, 1 n 18. (
11.19). , sin 11
= sin 5 ' 0.5877. , 11.1
5
.
, Taylor
! , ,
. ,
sin /5
sin /5, , .., . ( )
Taylor , , , .
, , Taylor, (,
11.23).
, , ,
. ,
, Taylor.
11.15. [?] ( Lagrange) Lagrange 11.1.

11.16. [?] ( Cauchy) Cauchy 11.1.
11.17. ( Taylor) 11.1
x < x0 .
11.18. ( n ) f : A R n+1 f (n+1) (x) = 0
[x0 , x] A. , x, Taylor
x0 , f (x) = Pn (x; f, x0 ).
11.19. ( ) 11.1 f (x) = sin x, x0 = 0, x = 11/5 n = 1, 2, . . . , 30.
, n
n 1.
11.5.
279
11.20. e 4 Taylor
11.2.
11.21. ( log 2) log 2 4 Taylor 11.1.
11.22. ( sin x) ( ) f (x) = sin x
x (/2, /2). ( .) x E, sin x
Taylor Pn (x) x0 = 0,
, |Rn (x)| Rn (x), E.
:
|Rn |
|x|n+1
.
(n + 1)!
(11.8)
sin x ,
, n Taylor:
1. P (x) x.
2. Rn (x) ( ).
3. (11.8).
(11.8). , x = 1 E = 106
.
11.23. [/] 11.22 f (x) = exp x x (, 0), x0 = 0,
: x = 1 x = 40. (11.8) .
;
11.24. ( cos x) 11.22 , cos x.
11.5
Taylor , . Apostol [APE1],
[APG1], Spivak [SPIE],
[SPIG].
Taylor
,
, .
, ,
1
1
1
eA = 1 + A + A2 + A3 + + An + Rn (A)
2
3!
n!
280
11. TAYLOR
A !
, . , , Apostol [APE1], [APG1]
Strang [STRE], [STRG], .

, , , Taylor. ,
, Taylor f x0
f x x0
. , x |x 1| < 1,
X (1)k+1
1
(1)n+1
log x = (x 1) (x 1)2 + +
(x 1)n + =
(x 1)k .
2
n
k
k=1
x |x 1| < 1,
lim
n
X
(1)k+1
k=1
(x 1)k = log x.
, 1.
, x R
X 1
1
1
exp x = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + =
xk .
2
3!
k!
k=0
x ,
n
X
1 k
x = exp x.
n
k!
k=0
lim
, .
12
, .
12.1 , , ,
. 12.2 . 12.3 ,
. 12.4
, , , ,
, .
12.1
12.1.1
12.1. () sn : N R
n
X
sn =
ak ,
k=1
ak : N R . sn
.
,
P
s(n), {sn } sn , ak .
sn , P ,
, lim sn , , ,
k=1 ak . ,
n
X
k=1
ak = lim
n
X
ak .
(12.1)
k=1
, ,
a1 + a2 + a3 + . . .
P
k=1 ak ,
k=1 ak .

, N {1} N.
, ,
.
Pn
281
282
12.
, , :
1. , , ,
2. .
. ,
, . , ,
. , P
. ,
k=1 ak ,
(12.1).
:
2 3
X 1 k
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
2
2
2
2
X
(1)k = (1) + 1 + (1) + . . .
X1
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + + + + + + + ...
k
2 3 4 5 6 7
X
k
(2) = (2) + (2)2 + (2)3 + . . .
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
log k
log 2 log 3 log 4
k=2
2 3
k
X
1
1
1
1
= 1+ +
+
+ ...
2
2
2
2
k=0
.
, k = 1 k = .
, .
, ,

, ,
. :
1. 1, 2, . . . ,
Pn ak . n-
k=1 ak ,
Pn
k=1 ak
.
n
, , ai
, ,
,
.
2. ,
. ,
, . 12.1.
12.1.
283
3. A v1 , L
t0 = 0, B v2 < v1 .
A B t1 A
B t0 , A
B t1 , . ,
A B
.
A B , , . ,
, :
( ) . 12.2.
. ,
. , ,
. , ,
. ,
an , bn
b 1 = a1 , b 2 = a2 a1 , a 3 a2 ,

an =
n
X
bk ,
k=1
, ,
.
12.1.2
12.1. ( ) , :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1+ + + + + + + + +
+ ...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
,
. , , ( 3.64). , .
, ,
.
, ! , ,
, ,
. , :
n
sn
10000
9.7876
10001
9.7877
10002
9.7878
10003
9.7879
10004
9.7880
, ! , , , 0, , , , !
, .
284
12.
, , . , :
X1
k
1
1
2
1
+ +
3
1
+ +
5
1
+ +
9
+...
+
1
4
1 1 1
+ +
6 7 8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
+
+
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
, , 12 . , .
, . , M , 2(bM c + 1) , .
, ( 3.64).
, , ,
,
" n
#
X1
lim
log n = ,
n
k
k=1
' 0.5772 Euler.

12.2. ( ) ,

n
X
ak = 1 + a + a2 + a3 + . . . ,
(12.2)
k=0
a . .
(12.2)
. , 1.10
(1 an+1 ) = (1 a)(1 + a + a2 + + an ),
, a 6= 1,
sn = 1 + a + a2 + + an =
1 an+1
.
1a
(12.3)
a:
1. , , |a| < 1. , 12.3
an+1 0 , ,
X
1
ak =
.
1a
12.2.
285
2. a > 1. , 12.3,
lim
n
X
ak = .
k=1
3. a = 1, 12.3,
(12.3),
lim
n
X
k=1
a = lim
n
X
k=1
1 = lim n = .
n
4. , a 1, 12.3 ,
.
a = 1,
X
(1)k = 1 + (1) + 1 + (1) + 1 + . . . ,
, , . ,
1 0.
12.1. ()
1
. , 10

. (, , 90 .)

.
12.2. () , A B, v1 v2 < v1 ,
x . x = 0 B
x = L > 0. A B,
, : A
B, .
12.3. ( rn ) an = rn :
1. |r| < 1, lim rn = 0.
n
2. r > 1, lim rn = .
n
3. r = 1, lim rn = 1.
n
4. r 1, lim rn , .
n
an =
12.2
rn
, ,
:
ak
286
12.
P
1. :
k=1 ak = L.
P
2. :
k=1 ak = .
P
3. :
k=1 ak = .
4. : . , .
, , .
,
, 3.64
, L, , ,
.
,
, , L. , ,
L. .
, , L, .
, , . ,
.
,
. ,
,
, .
P
P
12.1. ( ) ak ak+M
P
P
M , M NP
. ak+M
ak . ,
k=1 ak = L, L R,
ak+M = L
k=1
M
X
ak .
k=1
: n ,
, .
12.2. ( )
M N ,
ak
bk bk = akM k > M
b1 , b2 , . . . , bM 1 , bM , a1 , a2 , . . .
P
P

M
a
.
bk
k
P
P
ak . ,
a
=
L,
R,
k=1 k
X
k=1
bk = L +
M
X
k=1
bk .
12.2.
287
P
12.3. ( ) ak c R .
P
P
P
1.
k=1 ak = L R,
k=1 cak = c
k=1 ak = cL R.
P
P
P
2. k=1 ak = , k=1 cak = , c > 0,
k=1 cak = , c < 0.
P
P
P
3. k=1 ak = , k=1 cak = , c > 0,
k=1 cak = , c < 0.
P
P
4. ak , cak .
12.4. ( )
n
X
ak +
k=1
n
X
bk =
k=1
ak
bk ,
n
X
(ak + bk ).
k=1
:
P
P
1. ak , bk L M ,
ak +
k=1
2.
ak ,
ak +
k=1
ak ,
(ak + bk ).
k=1
bk ,
3.
bk =
k=1
bk = .
k=1
bk ,
ak +
k=1
bk = .
k=1
4. , , , .

. ,
4 ( 12.8.)
P
12.5. ak L, lim ak = 0.
k
: ,
lim
n
X
ak = L,
k=1

lim
n+1
X
k=1
ak = L.
288
12.
( 3.70.) , :
an+1 =
n+1
X
k=1
ak
n
X
k=1
ak lim an+1 = lim

n
n+1
X
ak lim
k=1
n
X
ak
k=1
lim an+1 = L L lim an = 0.

n
3.70.

, ,
0, , an , .
, !
12.4. ( ) 12.1.
12.5. ( ) 12.2.
12.6. ( ) 12.3.
12.7. ( ) 12.4.
12.8. () 12.3
4 .
P
12.9. ( ) an L, n1 ni=1 ai = L.
12.3
, (
),
.
12.1. ( ) an , bn 0. c R, c > 0,
n0 N,
n > n0 , an cbn ,
(12.4)
P
P
bn , an .
P
P
: bn , bn+n0 , . , (12.4) :
n
X
i=1
an0 +i c
n
X
bn0 +i cM,
i=1
P
M
bn+n0 . ,
P
P
P an+n0 , , , an+n0 ,
an .
12.3.
12.3.
1
n!
289
,
1
1
1
n
n!
2 2
n > n0 = 4,
1
2n
(r = 12 ).
12.2. ( ) an , bn > 0
an
= c.
n bn
lim
:
P
an bn .
P
P
P
2. P
c = 0, bn an , an
bn .
P
P
P
3. c =
an
bn ,
bn
P,
an .
1. c 6= 0, ,
: .
, .
, = 2c > 0 n0 N
n > n0 ,
c
an
3c
c
3c
b n an b n .
2
bn
2
2
2
,
(c/2)bn an bn (2/c)an
an (3c/2)bn .
12.4.
lim
1
n
1/n
p
= lim
n(n + 1) n
n 1/

1 n
2
p 1
,
n(n+1)
n(n + 1)
= lim
n
n2
( ),

1
1 n
log n 2

lim
1 n
n
2
1
log n

1 n
2 .
= lim
n log n
= 0,
1+
1
= 1.
n
290
12.
12.3. ( d Alembert) an > 0

an+1
= r.
n an
lim
1. r > 1,
an ( ).
2. r < 1,
an .
:
1. r = 1, . (,
) .
2. . ,
,
. ( an = rn an+1
= r ,
an
.)
3. an
an+1
.
an
: r < 1. ,
, n0 N r0 R r < r0 < 1 n > n0 ,
an+1
an+1
an
< r0 n+1 < n ,
an
r0
r0
an /r0n n > n0 , K
n > n0 ,
an
K an Kr0n ,
r0n
P
P
, r0n , an .
r > 1. , ,
n0 N r0 R r > r0 > 1 n > n0 ,
an+1
> r0 an+1 > an ,
an
n > n0 , an > an0 , an 0,
.

12.5.
:
X (n!)2
X 2n n!
X 3n n!
,
,
n(2n)!
nn
nn
, :
12.3.
291
1. an > 0, . :

1
an+1
[(n + 1)!]2
[n!]2
=
an
(n + 1)(2(n + 1))! n(2n)!
n(n + 1)!(n + 1)!(2n)!
n(n + 1)(n + 1)
1
=
=
,
(n + 1)[2(n + 1)]!n!n!
(n + 1)(2n + 1)(2n + 2)
4
.
2. ,
n+1

an+1
2
(n + 1)! 2n n! 1 2n+1 (n + 1)!nn
2
2
n < 1.
=
=
=
1
n+1
n
n+1
n
an
(n + 1)
n
(n + 1)
2 n!
e
1+ n
, .
3. , , :
an+1
3
= > 1,
an
e
, .
P
12.6. 1/np , :
"
#p

1

an+1
1
1
n p
1
=
=
=
1.
an
(n + 1)p np
n+1
1 + n1
.
12.4. ( Cauchy) an > 0

1
lim (an ) n = r.
1. r > 1,
an ( ).
2. r < 1,
an .
: , .

:
1. r = 1, .
.
2. . ,
, 1
. ( an = rn (an ) n = r
, .)
292
12.
3. an
1
(an ) n .
12.7. , :

X 1
X
1 n
2
nn
,
en
2
, :
1.
1
1
1
(an ) n = n n .
2
1
f (x) = x x 1 x , f (n) = n n 12
.
1
2
n ,
2. ,
. :
h
i1
1
2 n
ann = en
= en 0,
.
12.8.

1
np
1
=
1
1
nn
1/np , :
p 1,
1
. ( lim n n = 1
n
.)
( ) f : [1, ) R
R .
P12.5.
k=1 f (k) 1 f .
, .
: , f ,
Z n
n
n1
X
X
f (i)
f
f (i).
i=2
(12.5)
i=1
Rn
1 f (x) dx , ( f )
P ,
P
(12.5) nk=2 f (k), nk=1 f (k),
( f )
Pn .
,
k=1 f (k), , (12.5)

Rn
1 f (x) dx, ( f ) .
, .
12.3.
293
P 1
12.9.
np , p R, p > 1.
f (x) = xp .
( 1p
Z
Z n
n
1
1
1
1p , p 6= 1,
dx
=
lim
dx
=
lim
n 1 xp
n log n,
xp
p = 1.
1
, p > 1, n1p 0, ,
. p = 1, log n , ,
. , p < 1, n1p ,
, .
:
1. ,
.
2. .
. ,
(.. .)
n
P 1 n
12.10.
+ 13
. 2
, ,
. ( ;)
P
12.11. n tan (1/n).
1

1
sin n1
sin n1
1
1
1
lim n tan
= lim
cos
= lim
lim cos
1
1
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

1
sin x
= lim
lim cos (x)
= 1.
x0+ x
x0+
lim f (x) = L, lim f (1/n) = L. ,
x0+
0, Cauchy, .
12.12.
an+1
an
(n + n)(n + 2)/n!. :

1
(n + 1 + n + 1)(n + 3) (n + n)(n + 2)
(n + 1)!
n!
(n + 1 + n + 1)(n + 3)
(n + 1)(n + n)(n + 2)
"
#
p
1 (1 + 1/n + 1/n + 1/n2 )(1 + 3/n)
,
n
(1 + 1/n)(1 + 1/ n)(1 + 2/n)

=
=
=
0, .
294
12.
P 1 n
n2
12.13.
| cos 11234
|.
3

P
1 n
, , ,

3
P 1 n
n2
. ,
| cos 11234 |.
3
12.14.
,
an+1
(n + 1)10000 en1
=
=
an
n10000 en
n10000 en . -
n+1
n
10000
e1 e1 ,
.
P n!
12.15.
10000n . ,

an+1
(n + 1)! .
n!
n+1
=
=
,
n+1
n
an
10000
10000
10000
.
12.16.
X
2
(log n)n /en +n+1 .
n, . ,
2
an = (log n)n /en +n+1 . :
1
lim ann = lim
log n
1
n en+1+ n
= lim
1/n
n en+1+1/n (1
1/n2 )
= 0.
, LHpital. , ,
.
P
12.17. (n + n)/(2n3 1).

, 1. ( !)
,
1. , an = (n + n)/(2n3 1) ,
an
n3 + n2 n
1 + n1/2
1
=
=
> 0,
2
3
3
1/n
2n 1
2n
2

P
, ,
1/n2 .
P
2
3
12.18.
n=1 n /(n +4n5).
, ,
1. , .
an , n, n1 .
, . . ,
12.3.
295
. bn = n1 .
an
=
bn

n2
n3 +4n5
1
n
n=1 bn ,
n3
1,
n3 + 4n 5
12.19.
X
(n3 [2 + sin n]n )/4n .
an = (n3 [2 + sin n]n )/4n . ,
. , ,
sin n. ( ;)
bn = (n3 [2 + 1]n )/4n = n3 (3/4)n .
0 an bn .
P
P
P
,
an
bn .
bn
, :

1
3
3
3
(bn ) n = n n
< 1.
4
4
1
lim n n = 1.
n

P 1
10000 en .
12.20.
n n
, , , ,
12.14.
, . , . ,
P 10000
n
en , ,
P1
n , .
P
1
12.21.
n=2 n(log n)2 .
, ,
. n = 2,
. R
dx
2 x(log
. y = log x dy = dx
x
x)2
:
Z
Z
dx
dy
1
=
= y 1 + C =
+ C.
x(log x)2
y2
log x
, ,
Z
X
1
1
,
dx
2
n(log n)
x(log x)2
2
n=2
.
0
Z
Z
1
1
dx =
dx = 0 + (log 2)1 ,
2
x(log
x)
log
x
2
2
296
12.
12.10. :
1.
n2 log n
.
n5 +n3 +n
2.
1
n sin(1/n) .
3.
n!
.
e n2
4.
n+cos n
.
n2 +n log n+10 sin n
5.
1
.
n log(106 n)
12.4
12.2. ( ) ak > 0,
(1)k1 ak = a1 a2 + a3 a4 + + (1)k1 ak + . . .
k=1
12.6. ( Leibniz) ak 0,
P
k1
(1)
ak ,
k=1

X

ai ak+1 .

i=k

k .
: .
12.22.
1
1 1 1 1
+ + ...
2 3 4 5
( log 2,
).
12.5.
297
P
12.3. (
P )
P
P
an
P |an | . an |an | , an .
12.7. ( )
|an |,
an .
: .
12.23. 1 12 + 13 14 + 15 . . . ,
( ) 1 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + . . . ,
, .
12.5
R
x
f : [1, ) R 0 f (t) dt. ,
,
.

. , Oppenheim et al. [OPPE].

. Knopp [KNOP]
[1], [2], [3]
[] .
298
12.

.1

f () : , .
. 2.2.
1. f () = | cos | [0, 2]: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22611.
2. f () = |e/10 | [0, 4]: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22612.
3. f () = | sin2 2| [0, 2]: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22613.

x = f (t),
y = g(t),
a t b.
t, x(t), y(t) xy.

2.3.
1. x(t) = sin t, y(t) = sin 2t, 0 t 2: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22643.
2. x(t) = et/5 sin 2t, y(t) = et/5 cos 2t, 0 t 2: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/
22644.
.2
3.1 :
http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22602.
, > 0 , ,
> 0 3.1. > 0
> 0, .

x0 , 3.1.
299
300
.
, > , ,
> 0 3.1. > 0
> 0, .
3.5
.
, > 0 , ,
N0 N 3.6. N0 N
> 0, .
.3
, 4.4, :
1. f (x) = x cos x, a = 0, b = : http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22645.
2. f (x) = x/8 sin(x 3), a = 0, b = 5: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22646.
3. f (x) = x/8 sin(x 3), a = 0, b = 4: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22631.
.
4.5
Lipschitz:

, .

4.5 Lipschitz:

, ,
.
.4
5.1 :
x1 x0 ,
(x0 , f (x0 )) (x1 , f (x1 ))
x0 .
.5. 6
.5
301
6.2 :
,
.
, 6.2:
,
.

, 6.4, :
1. f (x) = x cos x, x0 = 0: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22625 ( 6.10).
2. f (x) = x cos x, x0 = 4: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22626 ( 6.11).
3. f (x) = x/8 sin(x 3), x0 = 0: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22627 ( 6.12).
.6
Riemann
f (x) = 2 cos x [0, 2].
, .
:
1. : http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22608.
2. : http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/
22607.
3. . , Darboux:
4. . , Darboux:
302
.7

:
R F (x), , x
x
x0 f (t) dt,
f (x). , f (x) F (x),
F (x) x.
bx
, logb x, b:
bx logb x b > 1 b < 1.
, , b = 1 bx b = 1, logb x .
.8

x f (x) 0,
x, x = a, x = b. , :
1. ( 9.9) f (x) = sin(x 1) + 1, a = 1 b = 1 + : http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/
file/22615.
2. ( 9.10) f (x) = 2 exp[|x 3|], a = 1 b = 5: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/
file/22616.
y f (x)
0, x, x = a, x = b. , :
1. ( 9.11) f (x) = sin(x 1) + 1, a = 1 b = 1 + : http://repfiles.kallipos.
gr/file/22617.
2. ( 9.12) f (x) = 2 exp[|x 3|], a = 1 b = 5: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/
file/22618.
.9
10

:
1. y 0 (x) = y(x) x, http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22619.
2. y 0 (x) = cos(y(x) x), http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22620.
.10. 11
303
Euler
y(x) = cos x y(0) = 0:
y(x) = sin x.
, .
.10
11
Taylor , x0 :
1. ( 11.1) f (x) = log x, x0 = 0: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22632.
2. ( 11.2) f (x) = exp x, x0 = 0: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22635.
3. ( 11.3) f (x) = sin x, x0 = 0: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22633.
4. ( 11.4) f (x) = cos x, x0 = 0: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22634.
5. ( 11.5) f (x) = sin x, x0 = /2: http://repfiles.kallipos.gr/file/22636.
304
.1
. . , . . , , 4 , , 2015, ISBN 978 960 524 022 6.

. , . , . , . , . , . , , ,
, ISBN 960 06 0703 6.
. , , 2 , , 1991.
. , . , , , . , 2010, ISBN
978 960 8249 73 8.
. , , , ISBN 978
960 351 903 4.
1 . , . , . , , ,
, 1999, ISBN 960 266 020 1.
2 . , . , . , , ,
, 2000, ISBN 960 266 077 5.
3 . , . , . , , ,
, 1999, ISBN 978 960 266 085 0.
. . , . . , . . , , 2
, , , 1996, ISBN 978 960 431 227 8.
. . , , &, , 1994, ISBN 960 431 108
5.
. , , , University Studio Press,
1985.
. , , . , 1993, ISBN 960 7306 36 8.
APG1 T. M. Apostol, , , 1962, ISBN 978
960 070 067 1.
305
306
APG2 T. M. Apostol, , , 1962, ISBN 978

960 070 069 5.
BETG . , . , , , 2010, ISBN 978
960 418 248 8.
FORG G. E. Forsythe, M. A. Malcolm, C. B. Moler, , , 1993, ISBN 978 960 7309 55
3.
FRAG J. B. Fraleigh, , , 2011, ISBN 978 960
7309 71 6.
HRG1 D. Halliday, R. Resnick, J. Walker, , ( , ),
Gutenberg, 2012, ISBN 978 960 01 1493 5.
HRG2 D. Halliday, R. Resnick, J. Walker, , (, ,
), 2013, ISBN 987 960 01 1594 9.
OHG1 H. Ohanian, , ( - ), , 1989, ISBN
978 960 266 192 5.
OHG2 H. Ohanian, , ( - ), , 1991, ISBN
978 960 266 049 X.
ROSG S. Ross, , , 2012, ISBN 978 960
461 457 8.
SPIG M. Spivak, , 2 ,
, 2010, ISBN 978 960 524 302 9.
STRG G. Strang, , ,1995, ISBN
978 960 7309 70 9.
THOG R. L. Finney, F. R. Giordano, M. D. Weir, Thomas ,
, , 2010, ISBN 978 960 524 182 7.
.2
ABRA M. Abramowitz, I. A. Stegun (editors), Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas,

Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, Dover Publication, Inc., New York, 1965, ISBN 0 486 61272
4.
APE1 T. M. Apostol, Calculus, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 1967, ISBN 978 0 471 00005 1.
APE2 T. M. Apostol, Calculus, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 1969, ISBN 978 0 471 00007 5.
BERT D. Bertsekas, Convex Analysis and Optimization, Athena Scientific, ISBN 978 1 88 652945 8.
BETE D. Bertsekas, J. N. Tsitsiklis, Introduction to Probability, 2nd Edition, Athena Scientific, 2008,
ISBN 978 1 886529 23 6.
.2.
307
BOYD S. Boyd, L. Vandenberghe, Convex Optimization, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 978
0 521 83378 3. : http://stanford.edu/~boyd/cvxbook/
COUR R. Courant, F. John, Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Volume 1, Springer, 1999, ISBN
978-3540650584.
DUFO D. S. Dummit, R. M. Foote, Abstract Algebra, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 2003, ISBN 978 0471433347.
FORE G. E. Forsythe, M. A. Malcolm, C. B. Moler, Computer Methods for Mathematical Computations,
Prentice Hall Inc., 1977, ISBN 978 0131653320.
FRAE J. B. Fraleigh, A First Course in Abstract Algebra, 7th Edition, Pearson, 2002, ISBN 978 0 20
17639 04.
GRAD I. S. Gradshteyn, I. M. Ryzhik, Table of Integrals, Series, and Products, 7th Edition, Academic
Press, 2007, ISBN 978 0123736376.
HALL D. Halliday, R. Resnick, J. Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, 9th edition, Wiley, ISBN 978
0470556535.
KNOP K. Knopp, Theory and Application of Infinite Series, Dover Publications, 1990 ISBN 978 0 48
666165 0.
MARS J. E. Marsden, M. J. Hoffman, Elementary Classical Analysis, 2nd edition, W. H. Freeman, 1993,
ISBN 978 0716721055.
OHE1 H. C. Ohanian, J. T. Markert, Physics for Engineers and Scientists, Volume 1, 3rd edition, W. W.
Norton & Company, 2007, ISBN 978 0393930030.
OHE2 H. C. Ohanian, J. T. Markert, Physics for Engineers and Scientists, Volume 2, 3rd edition, W. W.
Norton & Company, 2007, ISBN 978 0393930047.
OPPE A. V. Oppenheim, A. S. Willsky, S. H. Nawab, Signals and Systems, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall,
1996 ISBN 978-0138147570.
PRES W. H. Press, S. A. Teukolsky, W. T. Vetterling, B. P. Flannery, Numerical Recipies in C: The Art
of Scientific Computing, 3rd Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 978 0521880688.
ROSE S. Ross, A First Course in Probability, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2012, ISBN 978 0321794772.
ROYD H. L. Royden, Real Analysis, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1988, ISBN 978 0 02 404151 3.
RUDI W. Rudin, Principles of Mathematical Analysis, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1976, ISBN 0 07
054234 X.
SAGA H. Sagan, Advanced Calculus, Houghton Mifflin Co, 1974, ISBN 978 0395170908.
SPIE M. Spivak, Calculus, 4th edition, Publish or Perish, 2008, ISBN 978 0914098911.
STEW J. Stewart, Calculus, Cengage Learning, 7th Edition, 2012, ISBN 978 0538497817.
STRA W. A. Strauss, Partial Differential Equations, An Introduction, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 2007, ISBN 978 0470054567.
308
STRE G. Strang, Linear Algebra and Its Applications, 4th edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2006, ISBN
978 0030105678.
STRO K. D. Stroyan, Mathematical Background: Foundations of Infinitesimal Calculus, 2nd edition,
Academic Press, Inc., 1997.
STRU D. J. Struik, A Concise History of Mathematics, 4th edition, Dover Publications, Inc., ISBN 978
0 486 60255 9.
THOE R. L. Finney, Maurice D. Weir, and Frank R. Giordano, Thomass Calculus, Pearson, 13th Edition,
2014, ISBN 978 0321878960.
VARB D. Varberg, E. Purcell, S. Rigdon, Calculus, 9th Edition, Pearson, 2006, ISBN 978 0131429246.
.
.
: | .
, .
= .
, .
.
R , Q , N 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , Z
. R , Q , N Z 0.
R+ .
Q+ .
.
.
A B = {x : x A x B} .
A B = {x : x A x B} .
Ac = {x : x 6 A} .
A \ B = A B c .
6 .
dom f .
309
310
.
sin x x ( sine ), cos x x ( cosine ), tan x
x ( tangent ) cot x x ( cotangent ).
bxc x.
: b2.3c = 2, b2c = 2, b1.999999c = 1, b2.3c = 3, b10c = 10.
dxe x.
: d2.3e = 3, d2e = 2, d1.999999e = 2, d1.999999e = 1, d1e = 1.
f |x f x.
: Integer
: Necessary
: Axis
: Upper
: Sum, summation
: Sequence
( ): End point
(): Extremum (extrema)
: Algorithm
: Inequality
(): Open
: Opposite
: Substitution
: Antiderivative
: Inverse
: Commutativity
: Counterexample
/: Upper bounded
: Axiom
: Indefinite integral
: Infinite, infinity
: Proof
: Diverge
: Truncation
: Absolute value
: Harmonic
: Irrational
: Even
: Principle
: Increasing
: Base
: Neighborhood
: General antiderivative
: Geometric
: Locus
: Strict (proper) subset
: Strictly increasing
: Strictly decreasing
: Strictly monotonous
: Linear
: Linear Algebra
: Linear combination
: Graph
: Angle
: Partition
: Vector
: Vector space, linear space
: Interval
: Ordering
: Difference
: Separable
: Differential
(): Directrix
: Bisection
: Exponential
( ): Eccentricity
: Refinement
(): Minimum (minima)
: Ellipse
: One on one
: Alternating
(): Intermediate
: Union
: Equation
() ( ): Focus (foci)
: Inner product, dot product
: Distributive law
: Plane
: Surface, area
(): Interior
: Line
: Tangent
: Half-plane
: Sine
311
312
: Fundamental Theorem
: Theorem
: Sufficient
: Vertical
: Curve
: Rule, law
: Chain rule
: Cartesian
: Improper Integral
: Lower
: Lower bounded
: Shell
: Empty set
: Center
: Closed interval
: Step function
: Concave
( ): Vertex
: Criterion
: Circle ( cycle
: Cylinder
: Wave Equation
: Convexity
: Convex
: Conic section
: Smooth
: Logarithm
: Lemma
: Calculus
(): Maximum (maxima)
: Method
: Partial
: Transformation
: Translation
: Mean
: Length
: Complex
: Unit vector
: Monotonous, monotone
: Norm
: Volume
: Total
: Integral
: Integration
//: Integrable
: Integrability
: Homogeneous
: Uniform
.
: Orthogonal
: Limit
: Defined
: Term
: Identity element
: Parabola
: Antiderivative
: Factor
: Derivative
. : Higher order derivive
//: Differentiable
: Differentiability
: Parallel
: Parametric
: Parameter
: Field
: Slope Field
: Domain
: Range, image
: Periodic
: Rotation
: Odd
: Matrix
: Side
: Polar
: Polynomial
: Projection
: Approximation
: Associative law
: Sign
: Corollary
: Progression
: First Order
(): Dense
: Orthogonality
: Rational
: Root
: Rate
: Series
: Inflection Point
: Constant
: Solid
: Element
: Converge
: Convergence
: Complement
: Function
: Cotangent
313
: Cosine
: Ordinary
: Component
: Coefficient
: Coordinate
: Set
: Continuity
: Tend
: Square root
: Telescopic
: Intersection
: Arc
: Local
: Triangle inequality
: Trigonometric
: Subsequence
: Hyperbola
: Hyperbolic
: Conditional
: Remainder
: Subset
: Decreasing
: Bound
: Bounded
: Natural
: Chord
: Region
: Space
314

,

1.5: , 4 (
) . ,
4 0 = 0,
4 1 = 4,
4 2 = 2,
4 3 = 0,
4 4 = 4,
4 5 = 2,
, modulo 6, 4 .
;
1.22: . , {0, 1} {0, 0.5, 1},

sup{0, 1} = sup{0, 0.5, 1} = 1.
1.23: . , (0, 1) [0, 1], sup(0, 1) =

sup[0, 1] = 1.
2.1: . ,
fe (x) =
f (x) + f (x)
,
2
fo (x) =
f (x) f (x)
,
2
, :
fe (x) =
fo (x) =
f (x) + f ((x))
f (x) + f (+x)
=
= fe (x),
2
2
f (x) f ((x))
f (x) f (x)
=
= fo (x).
2
2
,
fe (x) + fo (x) =
f (x) + f (x) f (x) f (x)

+
= f (x),
2
2
315
316
2.2: . c. , ,
(
|x|, x 6= 0,
f (x) =
1/2, x = 0.
c = 0, .
2.8: f, g ,
x1 < x2 g(x1 ) < g(x2 ) f (g(x1 )) < f (g(x2 )) f g(x1 ) < f g(x2 ),
f g .
:
x1 < x2 g(x1 ) g(x2 ) f (g(x1 )) f (g(x2 )) f g(x1 ) f g(x2 ),
f g .
3.5: > 0. = > 0.

0 < |x 0| < 0 < |x| < 0 < |f (x) 0| < ,
lim |x| = 0.
x0
3.14: : > 0.
, lim f (x) = L, > 0
x0
0 < |x 0| < |f (x) L| < .
(.1)
0 = min{, 1}, 0 1 02 0 0
0 < |x 0| < 0 0 < x2 < 02 0 0 < |x2 0| < |f (xx ) L| < .
x x2 (.1).
3.15: . f (x)
0, x. ,
Heaviside, u(x), 0. , lim u(x2 ) .
x0
, u(x2 ) = 1, x > 0, x < 0 x = 0,

lim u(x2 ) = 1.
317
3.24: . , lim (f (x)+g(x)). ,

xx0
3.5 (f (x) + g(x)) f (x) = g(x),

.
3.25: . , Dirichlet fD (x)

( 3.17). , fD (x) . (
, , ,
3.5 k = 1.) u(x) + (u(x)) = 0
, 0.
3.27: , !
f x = x0 . ,
(
1, x 6= 0,
f (x) =
g(x) = 0.
0, x = 0,
3.35: . , > 0. > 0

0 < |x x0 | < |1/f (x) 0| < . ,

1

< |f (x)| > 1 f (x) > 1 .
0
f (x)

M =
1

> 0. lim f (x) = M

xx0
> 0 0 < |x x0 | < , f (x) > 1 , , |1/f (x) 0| < .

.
3.36: .
, f (x)
x0 . , , f (x) = 0.
, , . ,
1
1
lim x = 0,
lim
= ,
lim
= ,
x0
x0+ x
x0 x
lim (1/x).
x0
3.37: . 3.36,
. :

1
f (x) = x sin
x
lim f (x) = 0. ,
xx+
0
(0, a), f (x) , . ,

(0, a), f (x) ,
f (x) .
318
3.39:
c = sup{f (x) : x [a, )},
, f (x) .
lim f (x) = c.
(.2)
> 0. c supremum {f (x) : x [a, )}, X

f (X) > c , , f (x) , f (x) f (X) > c x > X. ,
x > X f (x) c < c + , c . ,
> 0 X x > X
c < f (x) < c + |f (x) c| < ,
(.2).
3.57: . g(x) 0.
, g(x) = 0 R h(x)
Dirichlet 3.17. g(x) g(x)h(x) 0 0, h(x)
0. , , 3.58. , , 3.24.
3.60: . ,
f (x) = sin(2x), lim f (x) , f (n) = sin(2n) = 0,
x
lim f (n) = 0.
3.73: . ,
a(n) = cos n,
b(n) = a(n) +
1
,
n
, 0. , , 3.74.
4.13: . , Dirichlet
3.17 (0, )
( (0, )) 0 (
(0, )) 1.
4.20: , f (x) = 0 x R.
319
4.21: , Dirichlet 3.17.
4.22: , f (x) = sin x, x R.
4.23: , f (x) = sin x1 3.2

(0, 1]. f (x) 0, ,
f (0), 0. ,
[0, 1].
4.24: ,
(
0
f (x) =
1,
x [1, 1],
x = 0.
, , , .
4.25: . ,
f : [1, 1] R
(
0,
x = 0,
f (x) =
1
x sin x , x [1, 1] \ {0},
3.16
x = 0, . f [1, 1] \ {0}
. f 0 ,

1

sin 1 x sin 1 |x| |x| x sin 1 |x|.
x

x
x
, lim |x| = lim |x|,
x0
x0
lim x sin
x0
1
= 0 = f (0),
x
f [1, 1]. , , f (x)

[1, 1], x x1 = k, k Z ,

1
x=
,
k Z .
k
, f .
4.32: . , f (x) =
1
x2 Lipschitz [0, a], x 2 Lipschitz

f ([0, a]) = [0, a2 ].
320
5.7: . ,
(
x2 ,
x 0,
f (x) =
2
x , x < 0,
, f 0 (x) = |x|,
.
5.8: f . x0 x0
, ,
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
,
h0
h
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
f (x0 h) f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
f (x0 + y) f (x0 )
= lim
= f 0 (x0 ).
y0
y
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
f 0 (x0 ), f ,
lim f (h) = lim f (y), y = h,
h0
y0
.
, , f . x0 x0
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
,
h
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
f (x0 h) f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
f (x0 + y) f (x0 )
= lim
= f 0 (x0 ).
y0
y
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
h0
f 0 (x0 ), f ,
lim f (h) = lim f (y),
h0
y0
5.9: . ,
.
(
x2 ,
x 0,
f (x) =
2
x , x 0.

(
2x,
x 0,
f (x) =
2x, x < 0,
f (x) = |x|, , , 0.
321
5.16: . , ,
f (x) = x3 f 0 (0) = 0, 0.
5.17: .
(
x,
x [1, 2),
f (x) =
x + 1, x [2, 3],
[1, 3], .
5.18: .
f (x) = x3
[1, 1], 0.
5.19: .
f (x) = x3
[1, 1], 0.
5.26: ,
5.1
Z
0 dx = {C : C R},

Z
0
Z
f (x) dx + 0
g(x) dx = {0 + 0} = {0},
. a, b
0, .
5.27: ! ,
V = {f (x) = 0},
W = {g(x) = x, h(x) = x2 },
Y = W.
V + W = Y, V = Y W.
{f (x) + C : C R},
, , 5.10.
322
6.8: . ,
f (x) = x, g(x) = x. |x|, .
6.9: . , f, g h = min{f, g}.

h = min{f, g} = max{f, g}.
6.7 f, g , f, g , ,
6.1, h , h .
6.10: . , f (x) = x
g(x) = x h(x) = min{f (x), g(x)} = |x|, .
7.6: . , 7.3.
7.19: . , f : [1, 1] R
(
f (x) =
1
2,
12 ,
x Q [1, 1],
x (R Q) [1, 1].
, ( 7.3), |f | |f | = 12 , .
7.21: . ,
. , a = 0, b = 2,
(
1, 0 x 1,
f (x) =
,
0, 1 < x 2,
(
0, 0 x 1,
g(x) =
,
1, 1 < x 2,
7.22: ,
. , a = 1, b = 10,
f (x) = g(x) = 10.
323
y(x) = sinh x
x(y) = arcsinh y
15
4
3
10
2
1
0
-1
-5
-2
-10
-3
-15
-4
-2
-4
-15
-10
-5
10
15
.1: .
8.4:
Z
f (x) dx =
0
f (t) dt =
f (t) dt =
0
f (x) dx.
a
t = x.
f (x) .
Z
f (x) dx =
a
f (x) dx +
a
f (x) dx
f (x) dx =
0
f (x) dx = 0,
a
8.19:
exp x exp(x)
2
1
1
=
lim exp x lim exp(x) = 0 = ,
2 x
2 x
exp x exp(x)
lim sinh x = lim
x
x
2
1
1
=
lim exp x lim exp(x) = 0 = .
2 x
2 x
lim sinh x =
lim
8.18 , , sinh x .
.1. R
R, R R.
.1. y(x) sinh x.
324
,
y = sinh x =
exp x exp(x)
2y = exp x exp(x) exp 2x 2y exp x 1 = 0
2
p

p
2y + 4y 2 + 4
exp x =
x = log y + y 2 + 1 .
2
, exp x > 0,
. , sinh x

p
arcsinh y = log y + y 2 + 1 ,
y R.
:
(arcsinh y)0 =
=

0
p
log y + y 2 + 1
=

1
p
y + y2 + 1
2y
1+ p
2 y2 + 1
p
(y + y 2 + 1)
p
p
.
(y + y 2 + 1) y 2 + 1
1
(arcsinh y)0 = p
,
y2 + 1
y R.
9.2: , , n > 1.
Z
n x
x e
0
dx = lim
xn (ex )0 dx
a 0
a 0
Z a

a
= lim xn ex 0 + lim n
xn1 ex dx
a
a
Z 0
n a

= lim a e 0 + n
xn1 ex dx
a
0
Z
= n
xn1 ex dx.
dx =
lim
n x
x e

an
= 0,
a ea
lim
LHpital n .
, n = 0,
Z
Z a
Z a
0
x
x
e dx = lim
e dx = lim
ex dx
a 0
a 0
0
x 0
= lim e
= lim (1 ea ) = 1.
a
a
, , , ,
Z
xn ex dx = n!,
0
(.3)
325
n n!
n! = n (n 1) 2 1,
n > 1. , 0! = 1. (.3) n = 0,
. n. n + 1. ,
n+1 x
Z
dx = (n + 1)
xn ex dx = (n + 1)n! = (n + 1)!,
9.6: ,
A(R) =
=
=
Z
Z
1 2
1 2
| cos k/2|2 d =
cos2 (k/2) d
2 0
2 0
Z
Z
Z
1 2 1 + cos k
1 2
1 2
d =
d +
cos k d
2 0
2
4 0
4 0
Z 2
+
(sin k)0 d = +
[sin 2k sin 0] = .
2 4k 0
2 4k
2
k. .2
k, k = 1 k = 10.
!
, k,
. , ,
.
.
9.14:
1.
Z
/2
/2
1 + cos 2x
V =
(cos x)2 dx =
dx =
2
2
/2
/2
/2
cos 2x dx
= 2 /2.
/2
2. x g(x) = 1 + cos x. ,
Z
V
/2
(1 + cos x)2 dx =
/2
= 2 + 2
/2
/2
/2
/2
dx +
/2
2 cos x dx +
/2
3
(sin x)0 dx + 2 /2 = 2 + 4.
2
/2
/2
cos2 x dx
326
f (3) = j cos 3j
f (3) = j cos 103j
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
.2: 9.6 k = 1 k = 10.

, k.
9.19:
x(t) = t,
y(t) = at2 ,
0 t 1,

Z 1p
Z
0
2
2
0
2
l(C) =
((t) ) + ((at ) ) dt =
0
1p
1 + (2at)2 dt.
x = 2at,
l(C) =
=

Z 2a p

2a
p
1
1 1 p
1
2
2
2
1 + x dx =
x 1 + x + log x + x + 1
2a 0
2a 2
2
0
h

i
p
p
1
2a 1 + 4a2 + log 2a + 4a2 + 1 .
4a
10.4: ,
log x.
Z
Z
Z
1
0
log x dx = (x) log x dx = x log x x dx = x log x x + C,
x
, ,
y 0 (x) + (log x)y(x) = ex log x ex log xx y 0 (x) + ex log xx (log x)y(x) = ex

0
ex log xx y(x) = (ex )0

y(x)ex log xx = ex + C
C ex
Cex 1
y(x) = x x log x = x log x .
e e
e
327
,
C ex
= 0.
x ex(log x1)
lim y(x) = lim
, C, x(log x 1) ,
.
10.5:
(tan x)0 =
1
.
cos2 x
,
etan x
etan x y 0 (x) + etan x
0
0
1
etan x
etan x
tan x
y(x)
=
e
y(x)
=
= etan x
2
2
2
cos x
cos x
cos x
y(x)etan x = etan x + C y(x) = 1 +
, tan x
x /2. ,
,
lim f (x) = 1,
lim f (x) = 1,
x/2
x/2
C
etan x
x /2 tan x
C > 0,
C = 0,
C < 0.
10.9: ,
Z
y (x)y(x) = x y dy = x dx
Z
y dy =
x dx
p
y2
x2
= + C y(x) = C x2 .
2
2
C y(x) (10, 10). , ,

p
y(x) = C x2 ,
C 100.
,
( ). C.
(0, 10), ,

p
10 = C 02 C = 100,

p
y(x) = 100 x2 .
(0, 5), ,
p
5 = C 02 C = 25,
328
y 0 (x)y(x) ! x
20
15
10
C = 25
C = 100
y(x)
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
.3: 10.9.
15
20
329
C. , (0, 5)
, x (10, 10)
.
.3 .
. x ,
x . C = 100 C = 25
. C = 100 (10, 10).
C = 25 (5, 5) (10, 10), .
11.3: 4
f 0 (x) = cos x x sin x,
f 00 (x) = sin x sin x x cos x = 2 sin x x cos x,
f 000 (x) = 2 cos x cos x + x sin x = 3 cos x + x sin x,
f (4) (x) = 3 sin x + sin x + x cos x = 4 sin x + x cos x,
f (0) = 0
f 0 (0) = 1
f 00 (0) = 0
f 000 (0) = 3
Taylor
f (x) = x
: 3/6/2016
3 3
x3
x =x .
3!
2
f (4) (0) = 0,

GF(2), 8
GF(5), 8
Supremum, 18
Trolling, 25, 173, 176, 196, 239
Riemann, 177
Darboux, 159
Darboux, 159
, 164
, 53, 76, 79
, 57
, 85
, 57
, 57
, 71
, 69
, 67
, 67, 73
, 63
, 162
, 57, 76, 79
, 71
, 83
, 85
, 83
, 6
, 6
, 23
, 13
, 6
, 143
0 , 143
00 , 205
0 , 205
0/0, 143
/, 143
, 143
, 13
, 6
, 13
, 89
, 89
, 7
, 134
, 138
, 137
, 137
, 135
, 11, 24, 204
, 15
, 285
, 162
, 7
, 159
, 177
, 15

. ., 252
, 237
n- , 237
Bernoulli, 249
, 238
, 239
, 237
, 238
, 237
, 237
, 243
, 12
, 204
, 24
, 204
, 24
330

, 160
, 218
, 31
, 31
1o , 183
2o , 186
Leibniz, 296
Bolzano, 95
Rolle, 129
Taylor, 275
, 98
, 12
, 96
, 129
, 97
, 6
, 6
, 6
, 43
, 43
, 231
, 43
, 231
, 140
( ), 123
, 10
, 10
, 146
, 128
, 65
( ), 130
, 169
, 292
( ), 64
, 291
Lipschitz, 133
, 288
, 289
, 146
, 150
, 206
, 193, 206
331
, 192
Euler, 255
, 222
, 106
, 227
, 152
, 31
, 162
, 162
, 162
1 , 211
2 , 215
, 216
Riemann, 177
, 187
, 187
, 162
, 190
, 162
(. .), 189
, 162
, 6
, 134
, 117
, 125
, 125
, 117
, 117
, 117
, 12
, 117
, 36
Taylor, 264
, 24
, 281
, 283
, 296
, 281
Euler, 284
Leibniz, 118
, 27
, 203
, 99
, 105
Dirichlet, 165
332
Infimum, 29
Maximum, 29
Minimum, 29
Supremum, 29
, 28
, 28
, 28
, 29
, 203
, 203
, 202
, 202
, 89
, 28
, 28
, 28
, 28
, 27, 38
, 198
, 29
, 29
, 29
, 29
, 28
, 160, 167
, 146
, 146
, 192
, 29
, 162
, 28
, 29
, 162
, 162
, 117
, 27
, 27
, 28
, 28
, 28
, 89
, 30
, 29
, 29
, 29
., 202, 274
, 28
, 28
Lipschitz, 110
, 89
, 89
, 89
, 89
, 31
, 31
, 297
, 297
, 6
, 16
, 27
, 16
, 16
, 16
, 150
, 6
, 6
, 31
, 126
, 6
, 6
Cauchy, 275
Lagrange, 275
Taylor, 275
, 17
, 146

ΛΟΓΙΣΜΟΣ ΣΥΝΡΤΗΣΕΩΝ ΜΙΑΣ ΜΕΤΑΒΛΗΤΗΣ

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ΛΟΓΙΣΜΟΣ ΣΥΝΡΤΗΣΕΩΝ ΜΙΑΣ ΜΕΤΑΒΛΗΤΗΣ

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Creative Commons - 3.0.

1.1. ( GF(2)) GF(2) = {0, 1} ,

, Galois (Galois Fields), variste Galois (18111832), ( GF(q) ).

(x + y) + ((x) + (y)) = (y + x) + ((x) + (y)) = ((y + x) + (x)) + (y)

= (y + (x + (x)) + (y) = (y + 0) + (y) = y + (y) = 0

8. x 6= 0, .12 , x > 0, x < 0.

1.6. SUPREMUM INFIMUM

1.6. SUPREMUM INFIMUM

1. , , (0, 1). (0, 1) [1, ).

6. B = [ 2, 2]. sup B = max B = 2 inf B = min B = 2.

1.6. SUPREMUM INFIMUM

x > sup B, x B, sup B B. x

1.25. ( supremum infimum) supremum, infimum, maximum minimum

1.28. ( ) x > 0 r Q, r = p/q p Z q Z .

1.30. [?] ( ) 1.9.

inf f , inf{f (x) : x B},

maxf , max{f (x) : x B}, minf , min{f (x) : x B},

2. sin , tan , cot , cos . , R,

sin( ) = sin cos cos sin ,

sin 2 = 2 sin cos , cos 2 = cos2 sin2 = 2 cos2 1 = 1 2 sin2 ,

sin + sin = 2 sin

sin sin = 2 cos

2.6. (x, y) R2 . (x, y)

2.5: . , x = r cos , y = r sin ,

2.6: f () = | cos | [0, 2] .

2.7: f (x) = e/10 [0, 4] .

2.8: f (x) = sin2 2 [0, 2] .

8. f () = 6/(1 + 0.7 cos ), [0, 2).

2.10. , f (t), g(t).

y = et/5 cos 2t,

y(t) = cos 20t,

4. x(t) = sin 19t,

2.10: x = sin t, y = sin 2t, 0 t 2.

x(t) = e!t=5 sin 2t

y(t) = e!t=5 cos 2t

y(t) = e!t=5 cos 2t

2.11: x = et/5 sin t, y = et/5 cos 2t, 0 t 2.

10. x(t) = exp(t/10) cos t,

y(t) = exp(t/10) sin t,

Thomas [THOE], [THOG] Stewart [STEW]

3.2: f (x) = sin x1 .

lim f (x) = L , , f (x) L x x0 .

0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < .

3.3: lim f (x) = L,

3.4: lim f (x) = L,

3.5: lim+ f (x) = L.

lim+ f (x) = L , , f (x) L x x+

lim f (x) = L , , f (x) L x x

x0 < x < x0 + |f (x) L| < .

x0 < x < x0 |f (x) L| < .

0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < ,

x0 | <  | x x0 | <  | x x0 | | x + x0 | < | x + x0 |

0 < |x x0 | < |x x0 | < ( x + x0 )

0 < |x x0 | < |x x0 | <  x0 |x x0 | < ( x0 + x) |f (x) x0 | < .

|f (x) 0| <  | x 0| <  x <  0 < x < 2 .

0 < |x x0 | < |x x0 | <

0 < |x x0 | < 0 < |x x0 | <

3.5. [] ( ) , , lim |x| = 0.

3.6. [?] ( 1/x) lim

f (x)) f (x) lim f (x) > 0. lim

3.9. ( ) lim f (x) = L lim (f (x) L) = 0.

3.10. ( 0) lim |f (x)| = 0 lim f (x) = 0.

3.11. ( ) , x1 R, lim f (x) = L lim f (x + x0 x1 ) = L.

0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < .

x0 < x < x0 + |f (x) L| < .

x0 < x < x0 |f (x) L| < .

0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < ,

x0 | < | x x0 | < | x x0 | | x + x0 | < | x + x0 |

0 < |x x0 | < |x x0 | < ( x + x0 )

0 < |x x0 | < |x x0 | < x0 |x x0 | < ( x0 + x) |f (x) x0 | < .

|f (x) 0| < | x 0| < x < 0 < x < 2 .

0 < |x x0 | < 1 |f (x) L1 | < =

x0 2 < x < x0 |f (x) L| < ,

lim g(x) = L. , , > 0.

0 < |x x0 | < 1 |f (x) L| < f (x) L > f (x) > L .

0 < |x x0 | < 2 |h(x) L| < h(x) L < h(x) < L + .

> 0, 0 > 0 lim f (x)

x > X |f (x) L| < .

x < X |f (x) L| < .

, , > 0. X x > X, |f (x)2| < .

x > X |f (x) 2| < ,

x > X |f (x) 0| < ,