.

2010

(u ,v)

||u ||||v ||

dsourlas@physics.upatras.gr
www.physics.upatras.gr

II


...............................................................................................................................................V
............................................................................................................................................1
........................................................................................................................1

1.1 ...............................................................................................................1
1.2
....................................................................................................................2
1.3 ........................................................................................................3
1.4 ..........................................................................................................................................3
1.5 ...........................................................................................9
1.6
............................................................................................................................13
1.7
..............................................................................................................................13
1.8
......................................................................................................................................14
.........................................................................................................................................19
..............................................................................................................................19
2.1
.........................................................................................................19
2.2
..................................................................................................22
2.3
.................................................................................................................................23
2.4 .........................................................................................................24
2.5 ................................................25
2.6 .......................................................26
2.7 .............................................................................29
2.8 ...................................................................29
2.9
........................................................................................................32
2.10
...........................................................................................................32
2.11
................................................................................39
2.12 (GRAMSCHMIDT)......................................................42
2.13
..........................................................................................47
)
Y,...............................................................51
)..........................................................................................................................52
).....................................................................................................53
.................................................................................................................................55
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10

.................................................................................................................................................55
................................................................................................................55
.....................................................56
...................................................................................................57
.............................................................................................................................59
..............................................................................................60
.........................................................................62
...................................................................................................................................63
...................................................................................................65
..........................................................................................................66
................................................................68

IV..................................................................................................................................81
.....................................................................................81
...............................................................................................................................................81
4.1
........................................................................................81
4.2
.......................................84
4.3
...........................................................................86
4.4
.........................................................................86
4.5
...............................................89
4.6
............................................................................................................89
4.7
..............................................................................................90
V...................................................................................................................................93
......................................................................................................93
5.1........................................................................................................................................93
5.2
...............................93
5.3
.......................................................................................................................97
5.3
..................................................................................................99
5.4
............................................................100
5.5
..........................................................................................................................104
5.6 ......................................................................................................................105
VI...............................................................................................................................112
.................................................................................112
6.1.......................................................................................................................................112
6.2...............................................112
6.3......................................................................118
6.4(HERMITIAN)...................................................119
6.5UNITARY.................................................................123
6.6.........125
6.7
.............................................................................130
6.8HERMITIANUNITARY.............................................................134
VII...............................................................................................................................141
.........................................................................................................................................141
..........................................................................141
7.1
...............................................................................................................................141
7.2
HILBERT....................................................................141
7.3,
.............................................................................................................................................................147
7.4
.................................................................148
7.5
HILBERT...............................................................149
.............................................................................................................................................156
............................................................................................................................156
1) ,..............................................................156
..........................................................................................................................157
........................................................................................................158

II

.......................................................................................................158
..............................................................................................158
.......................................................................................................................159
.......................................................................................................................160
..........................................................................................................................165
..........................................................................................................169
.......................................................................................................170
..............................................................................................172
..............................................................................................................................................172
.......................................................................................................................173

III


,
, ,
. .
F1 , F2 , ,

F = F1 + F2 . F

F . || F
>0 <0.

,
. ,
,
() , .

.

.
. ,
, ,
.
, ..
,
.
, ,
() . ()

. ..
,
.
,
,
.

.
.

.

V

 .
.
,
, (
),
.
, ,

.
.
:
) .
.. , ,
, , ,
,
nn n2 , ..
.
) .
, (
..).
,
.

, () .

, .


' ,
, (), ,
.
3,
,
.

.

,
. ,
.
.
VI

1.1

1.
: .
:
f : AAA
f : (, ) f (, ) = , ,
, ,
.
2.
:
:
)
: ,.
:
f : B A A
,
f : ( , ) f ( , ) =
.
)
: A,B.
:
f :AA B
,
f : ( , ) f ( , ) =
.
1 : R , :
+ :RRR
+ : ( , )
+
:RRR
: ( , )

,
, ( ).
2 : V , .
V = {v / v = xi + yj + zk , x, y, z R}
:

v u = x1

y1

z 1 = i (y 1z 2 y 2z 1) + j (z 1x 2 z 2 x 1) + k (x 1y 2 y 1x 2 )

x2

y2

z2

V.
3 : (), .
. ()

: (,)()() ()

: (,)()() ()
.
4: LA={f / f : A A}
,

(f,g) LALA f g LA
.
5 : V
R , :
: R V V
: ( , v)

v = xi + yj + zk

R V
.
6 : V , :
f :V V R

f :(v 1 , v 2 )

f (v 1 , v 2 ) = x 1x 2 + y 1y 2 + z 1z 2

v 1 = x1i + y 1j + z 1k
v 2 = x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2k
V.
, .

1.2

1 :
, ( ),
, , (algebraic structure). ,
.
2

1.3

1: G, , (semigroup),

:
(,, , G) [( ) = ( ) ]
(G, ) .

, , ,
.
2: , (monoid), G
e :
(G)[e=e=]
e , (identity element).
1 : , (
), , , ( ),
.
0 , ( 1 ).
2 : V
.
:
v (u w) = u (v w) w(v u )
(v u ) w = u (v w) v(u w)

:
v (u w) (v u ) w
1.4

1: , (group), (G, ) G
G, :
1.
(, , G) [( ) = ( )]

2.

( e G)( G) [ e = e = ]

3.

( G)( G) [ = = e]

-3-

2: :
4.
(, G) [ = ]

(G,*) .
1 : (G, )
G .
,
, ,
.
1: e G .
: G :
+ e=e+=
(1 )
e ,
+ e = e + =
G
(2)
(1) (2) , = e = e
e + e = e + e = e e + e = e + e = e
e = e.
2: G .
:
+ = + = e + = + = e .

= + e = + ( + ) = ( + ) + = e + = .
3: ,, G + = + = .
: + = + + + = + + e + = e + = .
1 : , Q , R C
,
, . = + , .
2 : nn
C
. :

e=

11

A= 21

n1

12
22

n2

1n
2n

nn

11

A= 21

n1

12
22

n 2

1n
2n

nn

3 : nn
C 0 ,
.
nk
lm k=l
. =AB nm, ij ,
(. i- j-), :
k

ij = ippj
p =1

.
nn,
nn.
, :
1. :
()=A(B)
(1)
=AB E=B =AE . ()ij=(AE)ij
:
n

( )ij = ik kj

ik = illk

l =1

k =1

( )ij = illk kj

(2)

k =1 l =1

(A E)ij = il elj

elj = lk kj

k =1

l =1

(A E)ij = illk kj = illk kj

l =1 k =1

k =1 l =1

(2) (3) (1).

2. :
-5-

(3)

0 0

1 0

0 1
3. detA0, -1 :
AA-1=A-1A=I

0
I=

2 : =
n

( )ij = ikkj
k =1

( )ij = ik kj ( )ij (B A)ij

k =1

4 : ,
.

XOY, R
22 :
cos sin
R =

sin cos
R R R
:
cos sin cos sin
R = R R =

=
sin cos sin cos

cos cos sin sin cos sin sin cos

=
=
sin cos + cos sin sin sin + cos cos
cos( + ) sin( + ) cos sin
=
=

sin( + ) cos( + ) sin cos

=+. R=RR
, :

(R

R ) R = R + R = R ( + ) +

R ( R R ) = R R + = R + ( + )

(R

R ) R = R R R (+)+=+(+)

, . :
cos 0 sin 0 1 0
=

R0 =

sin 0 cos 0 0 1
, , R
R =-. :
6

R R = R R = R = R 0
R R = R R

.
5 :
:
(f)={f:RR / f= }
f(x) aylor
:
f ( )
f ( ) 2 f ( ) 3
f (x + ) = f ( ) +
x+
x +
x + ...
1!
2!
3!
x :
f (x)
f (x) 2 f (x) 3
f (x + ) = f (x) +
+
+
+ ... =
1!
2!
3!

2
3
= f (x) + f (x) +
f (x) + f (x) + ... =
1!
2!
3!
d

d 2 d 2 3 d 3

dx
= 1 +
+
+
+ ... f (x) = e f (x)
2
3! dx 3
1! dx 2! dx

d
dx

f (x) = f (x + )

:
d

J = T / = e dx , R

J :
d

T Tb = e dx e

d
dx

=e

( + b)

d
dx

= T+ b

:
T ( b Tc ) = T (Tb + c ) = T+ ( b + c) = T( + b) + c = T+ b Tc = (T Tb ) Tc
1.
2.

To

0 = e

d
dx

= 1 :

T0 T = T0 + = + 0 = 0 =
3.

4.

-, :
T - =-=0=1 T- =-+=0=1
T - =T- =0=1
b = T+ b = Tb + = b

= e

d
dx

, (displacement operator).

-7-

. .
3 : .
,
.

1 .
6: G :
x
1
1
x 1
, f4(x)=
, f5(x)=
, f6(x)=
f1(x)=x , f2(x)=1-x , f3(x)=
x 1
x
1 x
x
R \ {0,1} ,
, ..
1
x 1
x
=
=1 x =f2(x)
(f5f3)(x)=f5(f3(x))= f5
=
x
x 1
1
1
x 1
.
G
.. f5 f3 f5f3

1
x 1
x
=
= 1 x = f2(x) f5f3 = f2.
(f5f3)(x) = f5(f3(x)) = f5
=
1
x 1 1 x
x 1
:
f1

f2

f3

f4

f5

f6

f1

f1

f2

f3

f4

f5

f6

f2

f2

f1

f5

f6

f3

f4

f3

f3

f6

f1

f5

f4

f2

f4

f4

f3

f6

f1

f2

f3

f5

f5

f4

f2

f3

f6

f1

f6

f6

f3

f4

f2

f1

f5

f , f : N A, f : n f(n)A.
f(n) n n.

fifj fi
fj .
:
) .
G.
) f1 . (

).
) fi . (
).

.
(i,j,k ) i=1,...,6, j=1,...,6 k=1,...,6
fi f j fk = fi f j fk .

1.5

) (

19
.
, ,
, .
1: f : S S
S S.
1: S M(S).
I : Sx xS S, . (S).
M(S)
.
, .



.
, .

.

.

-9-

2: S={1, 2, , n}, nN*,

n Sn.
n .
1: ) sSn :
s : {1, 2, , n} {1, 2, , n}

s(1)=1, s(2)=2,, s(n)=n
1, 2, , n
) sSn
n
1 2 3
s=

n
1 2 3

1 2 3 4
. . s =
s: {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4}
2 4 1 3
s(1)=2, s(2)=4, s(3)=1, s(4)=3.
) (1)
, k=s(k) k, k.
1 2 3 4 2 3 1 4 4 1 3 2
s =
=
=
=
2 4 1 3 4 1 2 3 3 2 1 4
) s t t, sSn st
t, s.
) st ts
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
s=
t=

3 2 5 1 4
2 3 4 5 1
:
t
s
1
2
2

st
1
2

t
s
2
3
5

st
2
5

t
s
5
1
3

st
5
3

s
t
1
3
4

ts
1
4

s
t
2
2
3

ts
2
3

s
t
5
4
5

ts
5
5

1 2 3 4 5
t
s
st
3
4
1 3
1 st =

2 5 1 4 3
t
s
st
4
4
5
4
4

1 2 3 4 5
s
t
ts
3
5
1 3
1 ts =

4 3 1 2 5
s
t
ts
4
4
1
2
2

) t s S5 tsst.
Sn .
) st :
10

(1)

s t st t
, ( ), s. :
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 1 1 2 3 4 5
st=

=
3 2 5 1 4 2 3 4 5 1 2 5 1 4 3 2 3 4 5 1

1 2 3 4 5
=

2 5 1 4 3
) s-1 sSn s
.
n
n
1 2 3
1 2 3
s=
s 1 =

n
n
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5
-1 2 5 1 4 3 1 2 3 4 5
. . s=
s =
=

2 5 1 4 3
1 2 3 4 5 3 1 5 4 2
) Sn 123(n-1)n=n!
3: :
x k 1 x k
x1 x 2 x 3

x k x1
x 2 x3 x 4
k
(x1, x2, x3, , xk)

5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
2: ) (5 4 3 2 1)=
=

4 3 2 1 5 5 1 2 3 4
) , .
(x1, x2, x3, , xk)=(x2, x3, , xk, x1)=(x3, x4, , xk, x1, x2)=
) 1 Sn, .
(1)=(2)==(n)=1
4: 2 .
3: )
1 2 3 4 5 1 5

=
= (1 5 )
5 2 3 4 1 5 1
.
) s s-1=s,

(p q)

p q
q p
=
=
= (q p) = ( p q )
q p
p q

)
-11-

(x1 x2 x3 xk)=(x1 xk)(x1 xk-1)(x1 x2)

, :
k>1 k-1 .
) , . .
(123)=(13)(12)=(14)(13)(43)(12)
1: s1
1,
.
4:
,
. , ..
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
s=

5 3 4 1 2 8 7 6 10 9
:
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
1
5
2
3
4
1,
6
8
6, 7
7, 9
10
9
s=(1 5 2 3 4)(6 8)(7)(9 10)=(1 5 2 3 4)(6 8)(9 10)
5: , ( ), ,
( ), .
5: ) , 1=(pq)(pq)
.
) p>1 p-1 ,
p , ( ), p ,
( ).
6: s.
(s), +1 1 .
:
1, s

(s) =

1, s
6: 1, ( ),
(pq) , (1)=+1, (pq)=-1.
1: ) s=c1c2cp s p
, : (s)=(-1)p.
) (st)=(s)(t), (s-1)=(s) s, tSn.
12

1.6

1: (G, *) , (G1 ,*) G1 G

, (subgroup), (G, *), ,
G1 , :
(, G1 ) [ G1 ]
1 :

1 : , R
, .
1.7

1: (G,) .

, :

(, , G) [ ( ) = ( )]

(, , G) [ ( ) = ( ) ( )]

(, , G) [ ( ) = ( ) ( )]

(G,) , , (ring),
(G,, ) .
1: G ,
:
) G .
) G .
) .
1 : R
, :
) (R ,+) .
) (R ,) .
(,,)[ (+)=+ ]
3) :
(,,)[ (+)=+ ]
2: (G,,

: (, G) [ = ]

.
-13-

3: (G,,

) , ( -

), , :
( G) [ = = ]
.
2 : (R,+,) .

0 ,
( ), 1
, ( ).
4: 0 b0,
b =0. ,
, (divisors of zero). ,
, (integral domain).
3 : 22
.
:
1 1
1 1
A=
B =

0 0
1 1

0 0
: O =
. :
0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
AB=
=

=
0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
22 .
1.8

(R,+,.) :
R .
,
, :
( R )( R ) [ = = 1]
0,
. 0,
R-{0} .
.
14

1 : , (field), (G,,

, G-{e}
.
1 : R, Q C
, .

, .. R, (+), (.), (-), (:).

, , (),
, ( ),
. (G,, )
:
x= ,G ,

1)
2)
3)

x= ,G ,G 0

:
( G,) G group=

( R, , ) R ring=
( F, , ) F field=

,
.

-15-

1)

:
)
(G,) , G = ,
)
(G,) , G ={1,-1} ,
)
(G,) , G =Q-{0}
,
)
(G,) , G ={+i / ,}
.
(. ) , ) , ) , , ) )
2)
(G,) : 0=e, n=n-1, -n=(n)-1,
nN. -1 .
) (r+s)t =rt+st.
: ) rs=r+s ) (r)s=rs
3)
(G,) , : ()n=n n ,G
nZ.
4)

(G,) ()2=22 ,G.

(G,) .

5)
(G,),
) ) , -1.
6)
,

7)

(G,)
.
.

8)

(R,+,) :
) 0=0=0 ) (-)=(-)=- ) (-)(-)=

9)

(R,+,) :
) (-1)=-, ) (-1)(-1)=1.

10)
2= R. R . (
Bool)
: =(2)(2) ()=()2.
(2)(2)= ()2 ()()=()() = =
11)

(R,+,) . : ( R ,,
16

R =R, ++1, ++. ( R ,,

. .
12)

) -

F={+2 / ,Q } .

13)
D={+2 / ,Z }
.

-17-

2.1

(F, *, ), ( *
F ), V, (
v ), ,
+, ( ), (V,+)
.
():
: FVV
:
1.

( F )(v, w V ) ( v + w ) = v + w

2. ( , F )( v V ) ( ) v = v + v
3. ( , F )( v V ) ( ) v = ( v )
4.

(v V)[1 v = v]
(V, F ,+,)

F( 2 ,

(vector space over the field F). V

v, u, w, x, y, z ...,
v, u, w, x, y, z v, u, w, x, y, z, F, (), , a, , b,
....
4
+ F
, ( ). 4
:
1.

( F )( v, w V ) ( v + w ) = v + w

2. ( , F )( v V ) ( + ) v = v + v
3. ( , F )( v V ) ( ) v = ( v )
4.

(v V)[1 v = v]

+
+ v + w .
(2

(V, F,+,) V[F] V.

F R
C . F=R V
, (linear space), F=C, V
, (complex space)
, , (superposition principle).


, .

,
.
.
, .
1: V F :
1. ( F ) 0 = 0

2. (v V) e v = 0
3.

( F )( v V ) v = 0

=e v =0

4. ( F )( v V ) [( ) v = ( v) = v ]
0 V e F .
: 1.
V 0 + 0 = 0 .
F:

0 + 0 = 0 0 + 0 = 0

( 0) 0
V, :

( 0 + 0) + ( 0) = 0 + ( 0) 0 + ( 0 + (0) ) = 0 0 + 0 = 0 0 = 0

2.
e F
, :
e e = e (e e) v = e v e v + e v = e v
ev , ( e v V),
, :

( e v + e v ) + ( e v ) = e v + ( e v ) e v + ( e v e v ) = 0
e v + 0 = 0 e v = 0

- 20 -

3.

v = 0 e. -1 1 = 1
v = 1 v = ( 1 ) v = 1 ( v ) = 1 0 = 0 v = 0

=e v = e v = 0 .
4.
:

0 = v + ( v) 0 = 0 = ( v + ( v ) ) = v + ( v )

v
( v) + 0 = ( ( v) + v ) + ( v) v = ( v)
:
e = ( ) 0 = e v = ( ( ) ) v = v + ( ) v
( v)

( v) + 0 = ( ( v) + v ) + ( ) v v = 0 + ( ) v v = ( ) v
( ) v = ( v) = v

1: R3
,

, R.
2: R n = R ...R R n

, : (x1,x2,,xn)
(y1,y2,,yn) (x1+y1,x2+y2,,xn+yn)
R (x1,x2,,xn) Rn, (x1,x2,,xn),
Rn R.
(0,0,,0)
(-x1,-x2,,-xn) (x1,x2,,xn).
Cn C.
3: V 0+1x++nxn, n
i, i=0,1,,n F
F
F.
4: V = {f / f : ( , ) R} -

, ( ), (,).

. V
R.
- 21 -

5: L = {f / f : ( , ) R

f (x)

dx <

Lebesque .
,
L R,
L2(,).

, (function spaces).
6: F , V=Fn
F :
v + u = (v 1 , v 2 ,... , v n ) + (u 1 , u 2 ,... , u n ) = (v 1 + u 1 , v 2 + u 2 ,... , v n + u n )

vi,uiF i=1,,n

.. v, u, ...
2.2

W V F
V, ( ), (vector subspace),
W .
W
:
)
(v,uW)[v+uW]
)
(F) (vW)[vW]
) ) :
(, F) (v,uW)[v+uW]
(1)
: W (1).
: (1), WV
:
)
W
) W W.
:
)

==1 v+uW

=0 u=0 vW
)

=1, =-1 v=u v+u=v-v=0W

=-1 u=0 -vW

- 22 -

1: V R3 W
, ( W
XOY), . W={ (x,y,0) / x, y R }. W
V.
2: V nn
R, W =(ij) ij=ji, ( ),
V.
3: V n.
W k<n V.
4: m n
x1,,xn F=R C:
11x1+ 12x2++ 1nxn=0
12x1+ 22x2++ 2nxn=0
............................................
m1x1+ m2x2++ mnxn=0
W
V=Fn.
: W 0=(0,0,,0)W
. u=(u1,,un) v=(v1,,vn) W,
.
i1u1+ i2u2++ inun=0
i1v1+ i2v2++ invn=0
i=1,2,m
,F u+vW.
u+v=(u1+v1, u2+v2,, un+vn) i=1,2,,m :

i1(u1+v1)+ i2(u2+v2)++ in(un+vn)=

(i1u1+ i2u2++ inun)+(i1v1+ i2v2++ invn)=0+0=0
u+v , . W W
Fn.
2.3

(V,F,+,)
, .:
:VV V
:
- 23 -

1. (v , u, w V)[ v (u + w) = v u + v w ]

'

2. (v , u, w V)[(u + w) v = u v + w v ]

3. ( u, v V )( F ) [ ( v u) = ( v ) u = v ( u)]
V F, (algebra over the
field F). ,
, ..
)
(v u) w = v (u w )
)
)

v u=u v

(1 V)(v V)[ 1 v = v 1 = v]

.
1: nn ,

.
, ,
, .

2.4

V F v1,v2,,vmV.
V :
w=1v1+2v2++mvm iF
, (linear combination), v1,v2,,vm.
1: SV S V F,
:

L(S)= i v i / i F, v i S
i =1

S, V.
W V, S, L(S)W, . L(S)
V, S. L(S)
S S , (generators).
S L(S).
: viS, 1vi=viL(S), S L(S).
L(S) V,
u, wL(S)
L(S).
u=1v1++nvnL(S) w=1v1++nvnL(S)
- 24 -

u+w=(1+1)v1++(n+n)vnL(S)
' u+w vi .
L(S) V.
W V
S, . SW. v1,v2,,vm S,
W, , . ,
, . c1v1++cmvm
L(S)W.
1: V=R3 S={v1,v2}, v1, v2
XOY, L(S)=R2,
XOY.

2.5

U W . V F.
1: U+W={ v=u+w / uU, wW } , (sum),
U W(3.
1: U+W V.
: 0U 0W 0=0+0U+W.
v=u+wU+W v=u+wU+W u, uU w, wW,
v+v=(u+w)+(u+w)=(u+u)+(w+w)U+W
2: V , (direct sum), U
W V=UW vV
v=u+w, uU wW. U
W W U .
2: . V U W
:
)
V=U+W
)
UW={0} , 0=
: V=UW vV
: v=u+w, uU wW. V=U+W.
vUW, :
i) vU v=v+0 vU 0W

ii) vW v=0+v 0U vW
v v=0.
UW={0}.
(3

U+W UW.

- 25 -

, V=U+W UW={0}. vV. V=U+W,

uU wW v=u+w.
.
v=u+w uU, wW. :
u+w=u+w u-u=w-w
u-uU w-wW UW={0} :
u-u=0, w-w=0 u=u, w=w
v V=UW.
1: V=R3, U XOY W YOZ:
U = {( , ,0 ) / , R } W = {( 0, , ) / , R }

R3=U+W R3
U W. R3
U W , .. (3,5,7)=(3,1,0)+(0,4,7)
(3,5,7)=(3,-4,0)+(0,9,7). ( UW= { OY}{0}.
(,,)=(,1+2,)=(,1,0)+(0,2,) (,1,0)U
(0,2,)W.
2: , U XOY W o
, .
U = {( , ,0 ) / , R } W = {( 0,0, ) / R }

(,,)R3 U
W :
(,,)=(,,0)+(0,0,)
R3 U W: R3=UW , (UW={0})

2.6

V . F.
v1,v2,,vmV , (linear depentend),
i i=1,2,.m F, , ( i
0), :
1v1+ 2v2++ mvm=0
, (linear indepentend), . :
1v1+ 2v2++ mvm=0 : 1=0, 2=0,,m=0
1: v1,v2,,vm ,
v1=0,

- 26 -

1v1+0v2++0vm=10+0++0=0
v1 0. v
:
v=0 v0 =0
1: v1,v2,,vm
, vi
vi=1v1++i-1vi-1.
: vi=1v1++i-1vi-1, 1v1++i-1vi-1-vi+0vi+1++0vm=0
vi . vi i=1,,m
.
: vi, i=1,,m .
1,2,m :
1v1++mvm=0
k , k0. :
1v1 ++kvk+0vk+1++0vm=0 1v1++kvk=0
k=1, 1v1=0 10 v1=0 vi0, i=1,,m. k>1 vk=k-11v1--k-1k-1vk-1vk-1
vk
.
1:
V=R2 R. v1
y
v2 , . 1,
.
v2
1v1+2v2=0
1=2=0
2v2 1v1=-2v2 .
v1
1v1 2v2

. O
x
1v1 v1
. 1
2v2 v2.
R2 v1, v2, v3 ,
1, 2, 3 :

- 27 -

1v1+ 2v2+ 3v3 =0

(1)
1, 2, 3 :
-v3
1 2
v1 v2,
.2. :
v
v
-v3=1+2= 1 1 2 2
v1
v2

1
v1

v1

2
v2

y
v1
-v3

1
v2

2
v3

v2 + v3 = 0

(1) :

1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , 3=1.
v1
v2

. 2

k,
1, 2, 3 . R2
.
2: v1=(1,-1,0), v2=(1,3,-1) v3=(5,3,-2)
.
: 1v1+ 2v2+ 3v3 =0 (1,-1,0)+(2,32,-2)+(53,33,-23)=(0,0,0)
1 + 2 + 53=0
(1)
-1 +32+ 33=0
01 - 2 - 23=0
(1) :
1 1 5
3 3
1 3
1 3
1 3 3 = 1
1
+5
= ( 6 + 3) (2) + 5(1) = 3 2 + 5 = 0 1 2
0 2
0 1
0 1 2

1=3, 2=2,
3=-1
( v1, v2, v3
).
3: v1=(6,2,3,4) , v2=(0,5,-3,1) v3=(0,0,7,-2)
.
: 1v1+ 2v2+ 3v3 =0 (61,21,31,41)+(0,52,-32,2)+(0,0,73,23,= (0,0,0,0)
61=0, 21+52=0, 31-32+73=0, 41+2-23=0 1=2=3=0
v1, v2, v3 .

- 28 -

2.7

1: V F v1,
v2,,vkV. v1, v2, ,vk
, V, (span the space),
uV vi, i=1,,k, :
u=1v1+ 2v2+ . . . + kvk
1: {v1, v2, . . ., vm}
V. :
1)
wV, {w, v1, v2, . . ., vm}
V.
2)
vi ,
{v1, . . ., vi-1 , vi+1, . . ., vm} V.
:
1) wV, w vi {vi}
V, . w=1v1+2v2++nvn 1v1+2v2++nvn-w=0 i
. {w, v1, v2, , vm} .
w vi V vi V.
{w, v1, v2, , vm} V.
2) vi=k1v1++ki-1vi-1 uV. {vi} V, u
vi: u=1v1++ivi++mvm vi
:
u=1v1++ i-1vi-1+i(k1v1++ki-1vi-1)+ i+1vi+1++ mvm=
=(1+ik1)v1++(i-1+iki-1)vi-1+1+1vi+1++mvm
{v1, , vi-1, vi+1, , vm} V, vi .
2.8

1: v1, v2, . . ., vn, V , (base),

V
.

.
. , u
{v1, v2, . . .,vn}, .:
u=1v1++ nvn u=1v1++ nvn
:
0=(1-1)v1++(n-n) vn 1=1,, n=n

- 29 -

v1, v2, . . .,vn .

1 : V F { v1, . . ., vm}
,
vm+1, . . ., vm+p {v1, . . ., vm, vm+1, . . ., vm+p}
, ( {v1, . . ., vm} ).
.
: {e1, . . ., en} V.
S :
S={v1, . . ., vm, e1, . . ., en}
1, . 2.7 ,
e1, . . ., en , .
S , (
1, . 2.6). v1, . . ., vm v1, . . .,
vm e1, . . ., en ei,
1in. S
S={ v1, . . ., vm, e1, . . ., ei-1, ei+1, . . ., en}
1, . 2.7 .
S , .

, v1, . . ., vm
.
2:
V .
: U={v1,v2, . . ., vn} W={ w1, w2, . . ., wm}
. V
, . U
W
. :
S={ wm, v1, v2, . . ., vn}
{v1,v2, . . ., vn} . V, 1,
. 2.7, S vi S

:
S={ wm,v1, . . ., vi-1, vi+1, . . ., vn}
:
S1={ wm-1,wm,v1, . . ., vi-1, vi+1, . . ., vn}
wi
vi.
:

- 30 -

)
wi Sk .
vi :
Sk m=n
1)
2 )
vi m<n
)
wi Sk
vi Sk m>n .
() wi
Sk, ( wi ),
Sk
W. W
, .
(), . mn . U W,
. U W
,
mn .
U W
mn nm, . n=m.
: U={v1,v2, . . ., vn} W={w1, w2, . . .
}. {vi} V, W={w1, w2, . . . }
n ,
. W={w1, w2, . . . }
n , U={v1,v2, . . ., vn} .
W={w1, w2, . . . } n .
2: , (dimension), . V
, . ,
. .
dimV=n. . V ,
(finite dimensions), n<. dimV=, .
, (infinite dimensions).
1: . V={0} 0.

.
n
.
3: n+1 . V n
. n V
V
.

- 31 -

:
1.
,
.
2.
n .
n+1
3.
. n .
2.9

.
. .
1: W . V n, dimV=n,
dimWn. dimW=n, W=V.
: ' dimV=n n+1
. W
n+1 . dimWn.
{w1, w2, , wn} W, '
n V. W=V
dimW=n.
2: U W
dim(U+W)=dimU+dimW-dim(UW).

. V dimV=n,

1: V U W, . V=UW,
dimV=dimU+dimW.

2.10

, (
),
. , ( ),
. , .
,
. R2

,
.,
.
- 32 -

v=(v1, v2) u=(u1, u2) R2,

v u
v u :

(v 1 u 1 )2 + (v 2 u 2 )2
v 0=(0,0) :

v 21 + v 22

v = v 21 + v 22
|v|
.
v u : v u .
, , .
; ,
, (, , ...). ,
,
, ,
.
. v ,
u .
- , ( ), :
cos(-)=coscos+sinsin (1)

v1=OA=cos=||v||cos
u1=OB=Ocos=||u||cos
v2==sin=||v||sin
u2=B=sin=||u||sin
(1) :
v u +v u
cos( ) = 1 1 2 2
v u

v2

(2)
(3)

u2

v1

u1

v1u1+v2u2
,
v u v1u1+v2u2
. v=u
v1u1+v2u2 :
v21 + v22 = v

v . (3)
v1u1+v2u2 ||v|| ||u|| . v1u1+v2u2
:
(v,u)= v1u1+v2u2
- 33 -

:
1)

0 v ( v) = v =

2)

v u = ||v-u||

3)

v u =

(v, v )

( v , u)
v u

(v,u)=v1u1+v2u2
v u :
1.
v u
2.
,
3.
(v,v) v=0 .
R, ( ), v=(v1)
u=(u1) (v,u)=v1u1 (v,u)
, (
). v u :
( v, u )
vu
cos =
= 1 1 = 1 -1
v u
v u
0 .
C2 R2.
v=(v1,v2) u=(u1,u2), ( v1, v2, u1, u2
),
(4)
(v , u) = v1u 1 + v2u 2
v = (v, v) v u
.
2

i v = (i v,i v ) = i(v,i v) = i 2 (v, v) = v

(*) (3

v , . v
, iv , ||iv||=

= i v . (4)

v=u . :
(v , u) = v*1u 1 + v2*u 2
*
1

(5)

*
2

v , v v1 v2 . (v,u)
.
2

(v , v ) = v*1v1 + v*2v2 = v1 + v2

, (5).

( v , u)

v u

, (v,u)
, .
(3

(v,u) (v,u)=(v,u)

- 34 -

C. v,uC v=v1 +iv2 u=u1 +iu2

(v,u)=v*u=(v1-iv2) (u1+iu2)=(v1u1+v2u2)+i(v2u1-v1u2)
(v , u) v1u 1 + v2u 2
v u v2u 1
=
+i 1 2
v u
v u
v u

v1u 1 + v2u 2
=cos
v u

.
1: V F. , (inner product), V VVF
(, ) (4 :
1.
(v,uV)[ (v,u)=(u,v)* ]
2.
(,F)(v,u,wV)[ (v+u,w)=*(v,w)+*(u,w) ]
3.
(vV)[ (v,v)0 (v,v)=0 v=0 ]
F=R, V
, (real inner product vector space).
F=C, V
Unitary . (complex inner product vector space).
(1) (2),
. , (v,u)
, , (symmetric bilinear and positive define form). Unitary :
, , (hermitean conjugate bilinear and positive define form)
(3) norm , u
||u||

u = (u, u)

(1)

2.11
, .
1: u,vV CauchySchwarz:
(u, v ) u v

: v=0 00 . v0 (v,v)0
(v , u) (4
: w = u
v
(v , v )
(4

, , <u|v>.

- 35 -

u
w
v

( v, u)
( v, u )
( v, u )
( v, u)*
( v, u)* ( v, u)
0 (w, w ) = u
(u, v )
( v, u ) +
( v, v ) =
v , u
v = (u, u)
( v, v )
( v, v )
( v, v )
( v, v )
( v, v ) 2

= u

( v, u)
v

( v, u) u v

1: Cauchy-Schwarz :

v
u ,
u ( u, v 0 ) u
v

(u,v0) u
v0 v u. .

2
( u, v )
Cauchy-Schwarz
u v
, cos=

( u, v )
u v

( u, v ) R
u v

(u, v)
1
u v

Unitary , , , (u, v)
( u, v )
cos = Re

u v
u v
,
,
.
, ,
Unitary .
1: R3
, :
(4

v v
(v, u)
(v, u)
( v, u)
v
, u
v=
= ( v0 , u) v0 2 v =
(v, v)
v v
( v, v )
v

u v.

- 36 -

(v,u)=v.u=|v||u|cos=v1u1+ v2u2+ v3u3

(1)
.
(1) .
norm v R3 :

v = ( v, v) = v12 + v22 + v32

(1) :
1 0 0 u1
u1

( v1 , v2 v3 ) 0 1 0 u 2 = ( v1 , v2 v3 ) u 2 = v1u1 + v2 u 2 + v3u 3 =
0 0 1 u
u

3
3
,
, 3.
2: Rn
(1), :
n

(v , u) = v1u 1 + v2u 2 + + vnu n = vku k

(2)

k =1

norm v: v =

2
k

k =1

n.
3: (2) Rn.
R2 :
(v,u)=v1u1-v1u2-v2u1+3v2u2

v=(v1, v2) , u=(u1, u2)

(3)
(3) . :
1.
(v,u)= v1u1-v1u2-v2u1+3v2u2= u1v1-u1v2-u2v1+3u2v2=(u,v)
2.
w=(w1,w2), :
(v+u,w)= ({v1 , v 2 } + {u1 , u 2 },{w1 , w 2 }) = ({v1 + u1 , v 2 + u 2 },{w1 , w 2 }) =

= [ v1 + u1 ] w1 [v1 + u1 ] w 2 [v 2 + u 2 ] w1 + 3[v 2 + u 2 ] w 2 =
= [ v1w1 v1w 2 v 2 w1 + 3v 2 w 2 ] + [ u1 w1 = u1 w 2 u 2 w1 + 3u 2 w 2 ] = ( v, w ) + ( u, w )
3.
(v,v)=v12-v1v2-v2v1+3v22=v12-2v1v2+v22+2v22=[v1-v2]2+2v22 0
(v,v)=0 [v1-v2]2+2v22=0 : v1=v2=0 v=0
22
: 22 :

:
- 37 -

u 1 + u 2
u1
u = ( v1 , v 2 ) u + u = v1 ( u1 + u 2 ) + v 2 ( u1 + u 2 )
2
1
2
=v1u1+v1u2+v2u1+v2u2
(v,u)=v1u1-v1u2-v2u1+3v2u2
: =1, =-1, =-1, =3 1 1
:

1 3

( u, v ) = ( v1 , v2 )

4: Rn
:
(v,u)=v1u1+2v2u2++nvnun
: (v,u)=p1v1u1+p2v2u2++pn vnun pi>0 i=1,2,n
2 3 V .. Rn
,
||v||=

( v,v)

.
3: Cn :
(v,u)=v1*u1+v2*u2+ +vn*un
4: V nn
R. (,)=tr(BtA) t tr , (
), tA, .
, V nn
C, (,)=tr(B+A) + ,
.
5: V
, (), x

(f ,g) = f (x)* g(x)dx

f,gV

f(x)* f(x) V. f
, (square integrable) :

(f ,f ) = | f (x) |2 dx .

6: V=R4 :

- 38 -

v1


v2
v=
v3


v4

u1


u2
u=
u
3

u4

0
: M=
0

0
0 1 0

0 0 1

0 0
1 0

: (v,u)=vtMu=v1u1+v2u2+v3u3-v4u4, (vt
v), (1) (2) , (3),
. vtMu ,
.
Lorenz, (Lorenz metric).

2.11

,
.

.
1: v, u , (orthogonal),
(v,u)=0.
900. n-
. (v,u)=0, (v,u)=(u,v)*=0
(u,v)=0. , .
.
2: {v1,v2,} , (orthonormal),
(vi,vj)=ij (5
i j.
, (normalized),
.
v
.
v
3: ,
, (complete), .

(5

1 i=j
ij Kronecker : ij=

0 i j

- 39 -

.
1: . (
n n
).
: {v1,v2,...vn} , j
:
n

v
=
0

v
,
i i i
j i vi = 0
i

j=0,j=1,,n
n

i ( v j , vi ) = iij = j = 0

2: ( Bessel). X={v1,v2,,vn}
v ,
n

v | i |2
2

i=(vi,v) . v = v i v i vj.
i

: :
n
n

2
0 v = ( v, v) = v i v i , v j v j =
i
j

= ( v, v) *i ( v i , v) j ( v, v j ) + *i j ( v i , v j ) =
i

|| v ||2 *i i j*j + *i jij = || v ||2 | i |2 | j |2 + | j |2 =

i

=|| v ||2 | i |2 || v ||2 | i |2

:
n
n
n

( v, v j ) = v i v i , v j = ( v, v j ) *i ( v i , v j ) = *j *i ij = *j *j = 0
i
i
i

.
.
3: ={vi} m
V,
.
1. .
- 40 -

2. (vi,v)=0 i=1,2,,m, v=0

3. V, (. V)
m

4. vV, v = (v i , v)v i
i =1

5. v,uV (u, v ) = (u, v i )(v i , v) ( Parseval)

i =1

6. vV, || v ||2 = ( v i , v ) = | i |2
2

i =1

i =1

= Bessel.
: :
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1).
(1) (2).
(1) (2), :
(2) (1).
v
(vi,v)=0, i v0,
,
v
, .
(2) (3) (3) (2).
V, vV
vi i
n

v = i v i .
i

i=(vi,v) :
n

v i v i
i

v = v i v i 0
i

2, v vi
(2)
(3)

(4).

v = jv j
j

( v i , v ) = j ( v i , v j ) = jij = i : v = (v i , v)v i
j

(4) (5). v = j v j u = j v j i=(vi,v) j=(vi,u) :

n
n
n
(u, v ) = j v j , i v ij = *j i ( v j , v i ) =
i
j
i, j=1
(5) (6). (5) : v=u,

i, j=1

*j i ij = *i i = (u, vi )( vi , v)

- 41 -

|| v ||2 = ( v, v i )( v i , v ) = ( v i , v )* ( v i, v ) = ( v i , v ) = | i |2
2

(6) (1), (1) (6).

.
vi, (vi,v0)=0, i :
in

(v , v )
i

=0

|| v|| (v i , v 0 )|2 v00, (6).

2

2.12 (GRAMSCHMIDT)

,
.
.
,
, Gram-Schmidt,
. 3, [(3)(1)],
.

n, Gram-Schmidt ,
R2.
Bv={v1,v2}
. Bv={v1,v2}
Bu={u1, u2} ||u1||=||u2||=1 (u1,u2)=0 .
v1, ( v2), v
, u 1 = 1 .
v1
v2
: v1
v1 .
, :
==v2-OB=v2-||OB||u1
(1)

|| OB ||=|| v 2 || cos

A
v2

u2

( v1 , v 2 ) v1
, v 2 = (u1 , v 2 ) (2 )
=
|| OB ||=
( v1 , v 2 ) =|| v1 |||| v 2 || cos
|| v1 || || v1 ||

- 42 -

u1

v1

(1) (2) : =v2-(u1,v2)u1. (u1,v2)u1

v2 v1. O ,
u2 :
v (u 1, v 2 )u 1
u2 = 2
v 2 (u 1, v 2 )u 1
u1 u2 ,
:

v (u 1, v 2 )u 1
1
=
(u 1, u 2 ) = u 1, 2
(u1, v 2 (u1v 2 )u1) =
v 2 (u 1, v 2 )u 1
v 2 (u 1, v 2 )u 1

1
1
(u1, v 2 ) (u 1, v 2 )(u1, u 1)] =
[(u1, v 2 ) (u1, v 2 )] = 0
[
v 2 (u1, v 2 )u1
v 2 (u1, v 2 )u1

n
Bv={v1, v2, ..., vn} Bu={u1, u2,
..., un} Gram-Schmidt :
v1,
:
v
(3)
u1 = 1
|| v 1||
v2, , u1 .
v2 (u1,v2)u1 v2 u1
v2 u1
||v2-(u1,v2)u1|| :
v (u1 , v 2 )u1
u2= 2
(4)
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
v3
u1, u2 v3 u1, u2
.
v (u1 , v 3 )u1 (u 2 , v 3 )u 2
u3= 3
(5)
v 3 (u1 , v 3 )u1 (u 2 , v 3 )u 2
um+1 u1,
u2, ,um vm+1
(u1, vm+1), (um, vm+1), , (um, vm+1)
u1, u2, ,um
:
v (u1 , v m +1 )u1 (u 2 , v m +1 )u 2 (u m , v m+1 )u m
um+1= m +1
(6)
v m +1 (u1 , v m +1 )u1 (u 2 , v m +1 )u 2 (u m , v m+1 )u m
- 43 -

n ,
.
. , ,
.
1: . V=R3
F=R :
Bv={v1=(1,1,1), v2=(0,1,1), v3=(0,0,1)}
Bu
(v,u)=v1u1+v2u2+v3u3.
: (3), (4) (5)
. : ||v1|| =3
u1 :
u1 =

v1
1
3
=
(1,1,1) = (1,1,1)
|| v1 ||
3
3

u2 :
v (u1 , v 2 )u1
u2= 2
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
: (u1,v2)=
||v2-(u1,v2)u1||=

1
2
2 1
1
(1 + 1) =
, v2-(u1,v2)u1=(0,1,1)(1,1,1) = ( 2,1,1)
3
3
3
3 3

u2=

v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
3 1
6
=
( 2,1,1) = ( 2,1,1)
6
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
63

u3
v (u1 , v 3 )u1 (u 2 , v 3 )u 2
u3= 3
v 3 (u1 , v 3 )u1 (u 2 , v 3 )u 2
: (u1,v3)=1/3, (u2,v3)=1/6,
v3-(u1,v3)u1-(u2,v3)u2 = ( 0, 0,1)

1 1
1 1
1 1
(1,1,1)
( 2,1,1) = 0, ,
2 2
3 3
6 6

||v3-(u1,v3)u1-(u2,v3)u2||=2/2
2
1 1
1 1

u3 =
0, , = 2 0, ,
2 2
2 2
2

:
3
6
1 1
Bu = (1,1,1) ,
( 2,1,1) , 2 0, ,
6
2 2
3

- 44 -

2: V=C3
F=C. W V
v1=(1,i,0), v2=(1,2,1-i). T
( u, v ) = u1 v1 + u 2 v2 + u 3 v3 .
: v1, v2
W Bv={v1, v2} .
Gram-Schmidt :

( v1 , v1 ) =

||v1|| =

1 1 + ( i ) i = 2

u1 : u1 =

v1
1
=
(1,i, 0 )
|| v1 ||
2

u2 :
v (u1 , v 2 )u1
u2= 2
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
:

1
1
2
*
(1,i, 0 ) (1, 2,1 i ) = (1 2i ) = (1 2i ) ,
2
2
2

(u1,v2)=

v2-(u1,v2)u1= (1, 2,1 i )

||v2-(u1,v2)u1||=
u2=

2
1
1 + 2i 2 i

,
,1 i
(1 2i ) (1,i, 0 ) =
2
2
2
2

(1 2i )(1 + 2i ) + ( 2 + i )( 2 i ) +
4

(1 + i )(1 i ) =

18
2

v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
2 1 + 2i 2 i
2

=
,
,1 i =
(1 + 2i, 2 i, 2 2i )

2
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
18 2
6

:
1
2
Bu =
(1,i, 0 ) , (1 + 2i, 2 i, 2 2i )
6
2

3: P2(x) .

1

( f ( x ) , g ( x ) ) = f (x)g(x)dx f(x),g(x) P2(x).

1

: :
v={v0 = 1, v1,= x, v2=x2}.
Gram-Schmidt
v
u0 = 0
|| v 0 ||

v0

= 11dx = x 1 = 2
1

u0=

u1 :
- 45 -

1
2

u1=

v1 (u 0 , v1 )u 0
v1 (u 0 , v1 )u 0

1 x2
1

( u 0 , v1 ) = x dx =
2 2
2
1

v1

x3
= x dx =
3
1

= 0

u1=

v1
v1
3
x
2

u1 =

u2 :
v (u 0 , v 2 )u 0 (u1 , v 2 )u1
u2= 2
v 2 (u 0 , v 2 )u 0 (u1 , v 2 )u1
1

3
1 x 2 dx = x
,
u
v
=
( 0 2)
2
3 2
1

2
,
=
3
1

3 x4
3 3
u
v
=
=
,
x
dx
( 1 2)
2 4
2
1

2 1
1
v 2 ( u0 , v 2 ) u0 = x 2
= x 2 v 2 ( u0 , v 2 ) u0
3 2
3

=0
1

1
1
= x 2 dx =
3
5

1
5

u 2 = 5 x 2 = 5x 2
3
3

P2(x) :
1
3
5

Bu = u 0 =
, u1 =
x, u 2 = 5x 2

2
3
2

1: n .
un :

1
un ( x ) = n
2

( 1) ( 2n 2k )! x n 2k

k = 0 k!( n k ) !( n 2k ) !

1/ 2 n 2

n +
2

Legendre. [n/2]
n/2.


..

( f ( x ) , g ( x ) ) w ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) dx

w(x)
. w(x)
, (weight function).
GramSchmidt un(x)=xn n=0,1,2,

- 46 -

Legendre

-1x1

Chebyshev I

-1x1

1
2
2
1[Pn (x)] dx = 2n +1
1

1 x

[ Tn (x)]
/ 2
dx =

1 x

n0
n=0

Chebyshev II

-1x1

[U

1 x 2

Laguere

0x

[L

exp(-x)

Associated
Laguere

0x

Hermite

-x

xkexp(-x)

[L

exp(-x2)

k
n

( x)] exp( x)dx =1

2

(x) x k exp( x)dx =

[H

( x)] 1 x 2dx =
2

( n + k )!
n!

(x)] exp( x 2 )dx =2n n!

2

2.13

: V F=R C.
, |||| VR+ (6
1.
||v||0 ||v||=0 v=0 vV
2.
||v||=||||v|| vV F
3.
||v+u||||v||+||u||
v, uV
V , (norm linear space), |||| norm .
1: Rn :
)

||v||= v 12 + + v n 2

||v||=max{|v1|, , |vn|} )

||v||= | v1|
i=1

R2
V=R2
v=xi+yj norm:

(6

||v||2= | x |2 + | y |2

||v||2=1

)
)

||v||1=|x|+|y|
||v||=max{|x|, |y|}

||v||1=1
||v||=1

R+ .

- 47 -

: )

||v||2= | x |2 + | y |2 =1 x2+y2=1

xy
y
v=xi+yj, ,

1.
)
||v||1=|x|+|y|=1
:
1 )
x, y0, x+y=1
y
.

2 )
x0, y 0, -x+y=1
.

3 )
x0, y0, x+y=-1
-1
.
4)
x0, y0, x-y=1

.
, ||v||1=|x|+|y|=1
.
)
||x||=max{|x|, |y|}=1
y

,

|
-1
2:
L(f(x), [,]) :
)

||f(x)||= f (x)2 dx

x2+y2=1
x

1 x

||f(x)||=sup{|f(x)| / x[,]}
: d: EER+
:
1.
d(x,y)=0 x=y
2.
d(x,y)=d(y,x)
3.
d(x,y)d(x,z)+d(z,y) ( )
, (metric space),
(,d), , (points), d , ( distance ).
3: L(f(x),[,]) :
1)
d1(f,g)=maxx[,]|f(x)-g(x)|
- 48 -

2)

d2(f,g)= f (x) g(x)dx

3)

f (x) g(x)
d 3 ( f ,g ) =
dx
1 + f ( x ) g ( x )

4: x2+y2=1 2
:
1)

) ( x x ) + (y y )

d1(P1,P2 ) = d1 (x1,y1 )(, x2 ,y2 ) =

2)
d2(P1,P2)=
P1, P2 .
,
:
1: ,
. .
2:
d(v,u)=||v-u||
:
1.
d(v,u)=0 ||v-u||=0 v-u=0 v=u
2.
d(v,u)= ||v-u||=||(-1)(v-u)||=||u-v||=d(u,v)
3.
d(v,u)= ||v-u||=||v-w+w-u||=||(v-w)+(w-v)|| ||v-w||+||w-u||=d(v,w)+d(w,u)
3: ,
norm :
||v||= (v , v)

d(v,u)=||v-u||= (v u, v u)

.. ,

.
3: R3
(v,u)=v1u1+v2u2+v3u3
norm:
||v||= (v , v ) = v 12 + v 2 2 + v 32
:
d(v,u)=||v-u||= (v2 u 1)2 + (v2 u 2 )2 + (v2 u 3 )2
- 49 -

4: norm , norm
:
||v||=d(v,0)
norm,
:
1
(v,u)= || v + u||2 || v u||2 i || v + iu||2 +i || v iu||2
4
: <v|u>=+i. :
||v+u||2=(v+u, v+u)=||v||2+||u||2+(v, u)+(u, v)=
||v||2+||u||2+(+i)+(-i)=||v||2+||u||2+2
(1)
2
2
2
||v-u|| =(v-u, v-u)=||v|| +||u|| -(v, u)-(u, v)=
||v||2+||u||2-(+i)-(-i)=||v||2+||u||2-2
(2)
(1) (2) :
4=||v+u||2-||v-u||2
(A)
:
||v+iu||2=(v+iu, v+iu)=(v, v)2-i2(u, u)+i(v, u)-i(u, v)=
||v||2+||u||2+i(+i)-i(-i)= ||v||2+||u||2-2
(3)
2
2 2
||v-iu|| =(v-iu, v-iu)=(v, v) -i (u, u)-i(v, u)+i(u, v)=
||v||2+||u||2-i(+i)+i(-i)= ||v||2+||u||2+2
(4)
(3) (4) :
4=||v-iu||2-||v+iu||2
(B)
() () :

4(v, u)=4+i4=[ ||v+u||2-||v-u||2 ] -i[ ||v+iu||2-||v-iu||2 ]

5: norm
:
||v+u||2+||v-u||2=2||v||2+2||u||2
.
: ||v+u||2+||v-u||2=(v+u, v+u)+(v-u, v-u)=
(v, v)+(u, u)+(v, u)+(u, v)+(v,v)+(u, u)-(v, u)-(u, v)=2||v||2+2||u||2

- 50 -

Y,

1)
u(t)
2
v(t)=2t +3t-4, w(t)=t2-2t-3, ) u(t)=3t2+8t-5, ) u(t)=4t2-6t-1.
2)

1 1
1 1
1 1
=
, =
, =

0 1
1 0
0 0

3 1
2 1
) =
, ) =

1 2
1 2

3)
v=2+3i, u=1-2i C
, C . R
.
4)
v=(1+i, 2i) w=(1, 1+i) . C2
C R.
5)
V . ,
f: R R. f(x), g(x), h(x)V : 1)
f(x)=e2x, g(x)=x2, h(x)=x, 2) f(x)=sinx, g(x)=cosx, h(x)=x.

6)
(1-x)3, (1-x)2, 1-x, 1
3.
7)
. R3, . ,
U={(,,0)} ( ) W
v1=(1,2,3) v2=(1,-1,1).
W={(,,)} R3
) =2, ) , ) =0, ) ==, ) =2, ) 1+2+3=0, iR
i=.
8)

U, V, W R3:
U={(,,) / ++=0},
V={(,,) / =},
W={(0,0,) / R}
3
3
3
1) R =U+V, 2) R =U+W, 3) R =V+W.
;

9)

- 51 -

U W R3 :
U={(,,) / ==} W={(0,,)}=
R3=UW
10)

11)
V . nn R. U
W , . U={M / Mt=M,
MV} W={M / Mt=-M, MV}. V=UW.
12)
V={f(x) / f: R R } .
,
U={f(x) / f: R R f(-x)=f(x) }, W={f(x) / f: R R f(-x)=-f(x) }
. V=UW.
13)

U W . V.
)
U, W U+W
)
U+W V U
W, . U+W=L(U,W).
14)
U W V
UW . UW WU.

1) W R4 :
v1=(1,-2,5,-3), v2(2,3,1,-4), v3=(3,8,-3,-5)
) W.
) R4.
2) W
v1(x)=x3-2x2+4x+1, v2(x)=x3+6x-5, v3(x)=2x3-3x2+9x-1, v4(x)=2x3-5x2+7x+5
W.
3) U W R4, :
U={(,,,) / ++=0}, W={(,,,) / +=0, =2}
i) U, ii) W, iii) UW
4) V . 22. dimV=3.
5)
V x n.
V.
- 52 -

(1) {1, x, x2,,xn} (2) {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n} dimV=n

1) V . :

(f (x), g(x)) = f (x)g(x)dx . f(x)=x+2, g(x)=x2-2x-3. ) (f(x),g(x)),

1

) ||f(x)||, ||g(x)||.

2)

C[-1,1]
[-1,1], f(x), g(x)C[-1,1] .
)

(f,g)= (1 x 2 )f ( x)g( x)dx

(f,g)= x 2f ( x)g( x)dx

1
1

- 53 -

,
. ,
, .

3.1

1: Nm={1,2,,m} , Nn={1,2,,n} F .

A: NmNn F
:
((i,j)) NmNn)[ A(i,j)=ij ]
(matrix) m n .
m n , :
1n
11 12

22
2n
21
A=

mn
m1 m2
: A=ij 1im , 1jn
m n mn.
m n-:
(11, 12, , 1n) , (21, 22, , 2n) , , (m1, m2, , mn)
n m-:
11 12
1n

21 , 22 , , 2n

m1 m2
mn
.
ij ij- ij- i
j .
1 3 4
1:
2x3.
0 5 2

- 55 -

1
(1,-3,4) (0,5,-2) ,
0

3 4
,
5 2

2: , =,
: ij=ij (i,j)NmNn.
mn , mn ,
.
x + y 2z + w 3 5
2:
=

x y z w 1 4

:
x+y=3
x-y=1
2z+w=5
z-w=4
3: 1n ,
m1 .
F 11.

3.2

mn.

11 12

22
A= 21

m1 m2

1n
2n

mn

11 12

22
B= 21

m1 m2

1n
2n

mn

1:
:
1n + 1n
11 + 11 12 + 12
+
22 + 22
2n + 2n
21
21

A+B=

mn + mn
m1 + m1 m2 + m2
2: k
k.
- 56 -

k1n
k11 k12
k
k22
k2n
kA= 21

kmn
km1 km2
+ kA mn.
.

mn F .
3.3

A=ij B=ij
,
mp pn.
1: , C mn,
cij i , j
. i- j- cij
i- j 4

. .. i- (2,-4,8) j- 7
2

: 24+(-4)(-7)+82=8+28+16=52.
:
A1B1 A1B2
A1Bn

1
2
A2Bn
A2B A2B
C=A=

Am Bn
Am B1 Am B2
Ai , i=1,2,,m i Bj, j=1,,n j
. :
1p 11
1j
1n
11 12
c1n

c11 c12

c21 c22
c2 n

=
ip
ij
C= i1 i2

cij

c
cm 2
c mn
1
m

mp p1
pj
pn
m1 m2
p

cij=i11j+ i22j++ ippj = ik kj

k =1

mp
, qn, pq .
- 57 -

1:

2 1

1 2 5
A= 1 0 , B=

3 4 0

3 4

21
13

1 0 10
2214
2510

5
+03
+04
+00 = 1 2
12
15
C=AB= 11

+43 32+ 44 35+40 9 10 15

31

32 23 ,

2 1
1.2 + 2.1 + 5.(3) 1.(1) + 2.0 + 5.4 11 19
1 2 5
D=BA=
1 0 =
=

3 4 0
3.2 + 4.1 + 0.(3) 3.(1) + 4.0 + 0.4 10 3
3 4

, . .
:
1.
, ,
. A=(1 ,2 , ,n)

= 2


n
, :

=(1 ,2 , ,n) 2 =11+22++nn

n
2.
,
. :
1 n
1
11 12

2
2 1 2 2
2 n

=
(1 ,2 , ,n)=

n n
n 1 n 2
n

1:
.
,
- 58 -

.
nn
.
nn.

3.4

1. (Transpose): , t,
,
: (ij)t=ji
t

m1
1n 11 21
11 12

m2
22
2n 12 22
t 21
=
A=

mn 1n 2n
mn
m1 m2
mn At nm.

1: , ()t=BtAt

1:

1.
2.
3.
4.

1 4
t

1 2 3

= 2 5
4 5 6

3 6

:
(A+B)t=At+Bt
(At)t=A
k, (kA)t=kAt
(AB)t=BtAt

2. (Conjugate) A*
, . ,
A*=A.

2:

3+ i6
1+ i2 3 i6
* 1 i 2
A=
, A =

8+ i 2
8 i 2
4
4

3. (adjoint) , A+
At ,
: A+=(At)* (ij)+=(ji)* .
- 59 -

3:

3.5

4
1+ i2 3 i6
+ 1 i 2
A=
, A =

8+ i 2
4
3+ i6 8 i 2

1. (identity):

. nn,
In, ,
1. . : ij=ij, ij Kronecker
:
i = j
1

ij =

i j
0

1:

1 0 0

I3= 0 1 0

0 0 1

33.

nn
nn IA=AI=A.

2. ,(triangular).
,
. nn :
1n
11 12

2n
0 22

0
0
0 nn

2. , (diagonal):
, . ij=0 , ij ij=iij. '
.

2: A= 0

2 0 0
0 0

2 0 B= 0 0 0 .

0 6
0 0 3
- 60 -

3. (null): .
0 0
3: O
22.
0 0

4. (symmetric): ij =ji (
,
.
1

5
4: 44 : A =
7
2

5 7
0 6
6 8
3 4

3
.
4

5. (antisymmetric): ij = -ji. .
0 2 5 7
2
0
9 12

5: : B =
.
5 9 0 8

7 12 8 0

, :
1
1
A= (A+ At )+ (A- At )
2
2
1
1
(A+ At ) (A - At ) .
2
2
3 4
6: A =

5 7

t
1
1 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 3 5
t
(A+ A ) =
+
=
+
=
2
2 5 7 5 7 2 5 7 4 7

1 6 1 3 1/ 2

2 1 14 1/ 2 7

t
1
1 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 3 5 1 0 9 0 9 / 2
t
(A - A ) =

=
=

2
0
2 5 7 5 7 2 5 7 4 7 2 9 0 9 / 2

- 61 -

3 4 3 1/ 2 0 9 / 2
: A =
=
+

0
5 7 1/ 2 7 9 / 2
3 1/ 2
0 9 / 2


.
0
1/ 2 7
9/ 2

6. (inverse) , ,
A-1 , : AA-1=A-1A=I . A-1 ( ' ), . -1 . , -1, AA-1=I -1(AA-1)=-1I (-1A)A-1=-1 A1
=-1 A-1=-1. (
).

7. (orthogonal): t=-1, . . : t=t=

.
,
.
, (trace), ,
n

trace A trA= ii .
i 1

.
tr(AB) = (AB) ii = ij ji = ji ij = (BA) jj = tr(BA).
i

. tr(AB)=tr(BA). .
: tr(A+B)=trA+trB.
3.6

. AB - BA 0. (commutator) , :
[,]=-
+ (anticommutator) :
- 62 -

[,]+=+
( ) ,
(commutate) (anticommutate).
:
1.
[A,A]=0
2.
[A,B]+[B,A]=0
3.
[A,B+C]=[A,B]+[A,C] [A+B,C]=[A,C]+[B,C]
4.
[A,BC]=[A,B]C+B[A,C] [AB,C]=[A,C]B+A[B,C]
5.
[A,[B,C]]+[B,[C,A]]+[C,[A,B]]=0 (

).
(5) Jacobi.
, .
3.7

, x1, x2:
11x1+12x2=1
21x1+22x2=2
(1)
, , :
212

x1 = 1 22
,
x 2 = 2 11 1 21
11 22 12 21
11 22 12 21
:
D=1122-12210.
:
12

= 11
(2)

21 22
(1).
1: (determinant), D,
:
11 12
detA=|A|=
21 22

22 :
detA=|A|= 1122-1221

- 63 -

11 12

= 21 22

31 32

13

23
33

33 :

23

21 23
21 22
det A = 11 det 22
12 det
+ 13 det
=
32 33
31 33
31 32
(3)
=11(2233-2332)-12(2133-2331)+13(2132-2231)
2: . , (minnor), Dij
ij ,
i- j-.
3: ij ij Dij (-1)i+j:
Aij=(-1)i+jDij

(3) :
detA=1111+1212+1313
(4)
.
(4) .
.
1: :
2 3 4
= 1 4 5
1 3 4

:
4 5
1 5
1 4
1+ 1
1+ 2
1+ 3
det A = 2 ( 1) det
+ ( 3)( 1) det
+ ( 4 )( 1) det
=
3 4
1 4
1 3
=2[4(-4)-5(-3)]+3[(-1)(-4)-5]-4[(-1)(-3)-4]=-1
:
1 5
2 4
2 4
1+ 2
2+ 2
3+ 2
det A = ( 3)( 1) det
+ 4 ( 1) det
+ ( 3)( 1) det
=
1 4
1 4
1 5

=3[(-1)(-4)-5]+4[2(-4)-(-4)]+3[(2)(5)-(-4)(-1)]=-1
nn :

- 64 -

det A = ijA ij

( i-)

j =1

det A = ijA ij

( j-)

i =1

1: . .
1-: =(ij) :

n = 1
11

| |=
(s)
ns(n ) n > 1
1s(1) 2s(2)
s
Sn
(s) s Sn, ( 1 . 1.5).

3.8

1)
: det(A)=det(At).
11 12
11 21
.. det
= 11 22 12 21 = det

21 22
12 22
2)
nn : det()=ndet(A)

12
11 12

= 1122 12 21 = 2 ( 11 22 12 21 ) = 2 det 11
.. det

21 22
21 22
1: nn t=-A
n n=2k+1, detA=0. :
detA=det(At)=det[(-1)A]=(-1)2k+1detA=-detA 2detA=0 detA=0
3)
det=0.
12

det 11
..
= 11 (12 ) 12 (11 ) = ( 1112 1211 ) = 0
11 12
4)
, ( ), ,
1.
21 22
11 12
. det
= 2112 2211 = ( 11 22 12 21 ) = det

11 12
21 22
7

,
22 .

- 65 -

5)
, ( ), ,
.
11 12
11 12
.. det
= 11 22 12 21 = det

21 22
21 22
6)
,
(), , (). ..
12 + 11
12

det 11
= 11 (22 + 21 ) (12 + 11 )21 = 1122 12 21 = det 11

21 22 + 21
21 22

11 0
: detA=1122nn. .. det
= 11 22 .
0 22
, . 11 12
, ( ), : det
= 11 22
0 22
8)
nn : det(AB)=det(A)det(B). ..

12 11 12
1111 + 1221 1112 + 1222
det 11

= det
=
2111 + 2221 2112 + 2222
21 22 21 22
=(1111+1221)(2112+2222)-(1112+1222)(2111+2221)=
11 12 11 12
=1122(1122-1221)-1221(1122-1221)= det
det

21 22 21 22
: det(A+B)detA+detB.
7)

3.9

: det A = ijA ij , , j =1

.
, n!
nn. , , 3,6 1010 77
2020, ( 10!=3.628.800 20!2.41018).
, n-1 , ,
nn,

- 66 -

. Gauss,
. . ,
2020 3
.
Gauss .
:
2 3 4

A = 1 4 5
1 3 4

, 1, , . detA=detA1 . 1 21 . . (2,-3,-4)
. :
(2,-3,-4)+(-1,4,5)=(1,-3/2,-2)+(-1,4,5)=(0,5/2,3)
:
2 3 4
2 3 4

r2 1/ 2r1 + r2
A1 = 0 5/ 2 3
A = 1 4 5

1 3 4
1 3 4

r2 r1+r2 r2
r1+r2. 1 2
31=1 2 .
(2,-3,-4) 1/2 , r3
-1/2r1+r3=(-1,3/2,2)+(1,-3,-4)=(0,-3/2,-2) 2

2 3 4
A 2 = 0 5/ 2 3
A1

0 3/ 2 2

3/2.
(3/2)/(5/2)=3/5
: r3 3/5r2+r3=(0,3/2,9/5)+(0,-3/2,-2)=(0,0,-1/5) 3

r3 1/ 2r1 + r3

4
2 3

A 2
3
A 3 = 0 5/ 2
0 0 1/ 5

r3 3/ 5r2 + r3

3 :
detA=detA3=2(5/2)(-1/5)=-1
- 67 -

3.10

nn:
1n
22
2n

n2
nn
-1 . -1=-1=n , n
nn :
(1)
det(AA-1)=det(A)det(A-1)=detIn=1
detA0.
, (singular). (1) :
1
det ( A 1 ) =
det A
, . . -1 : , ,
(adjoint), adjA:
A n1
A11 A 21

A12 A 22
An 2

adjA=

A nn
A1n A 2n
:
11

21

nn

11

= 21

n1

12

12

1n
2n

nn

22
n 2

A11
A
12

A n1

A n1 det A
0

An 2 0
det A
=


A nn 0
0

A 21
A 22
A 2n

0
(2)

det A

: , ( ), , ( ),
.
n

A
j=1

ij

kj

=0

ki

A
i =1

(2) :

- 68 -

ij

ik

=0

kj

adjA
= In
det A
,
:
adjA
A = In
det A
adjA
: -1=
det A
D=detA :

(adjA)=In detA A

i+ j

(-1) Dij
(3)
D
Dij " ", (minnor determinant)
ij, (n-1) (n-1) D i j ( ij ).

( ij ) =
1

2 5
1: =

1 3

A-1 . (3).
' D=23-15=6-5=10
A-1 . :
D11=3
D12=1
D21=5
D22=2
(-1)1+1D11
=

= (-1) 2.3 = 3
1
2+1
(-1) D12
1
21
=
= -1
1
:
3 5
A-1 =

1 2
1
11

(-1)1+2 D 21
=
= -5
1
(-1) 2+2 D 22
1
22
=
=2
1
1
12

(3)
. n2
(n-1)(n-1).
Gauss. , , .
:
2x1-3x2-4x3=1
(3-1)
-x1+4x2+5x3=-2
(3-1)
- 69 -

x1-3x2-4x3=3
: x=b
x1
1
2 3 4

A = 1 4 5 , x = x 2 , b = 2

x
1 3 4
3
3

(3-1)

2 3 4 x1 1

.
1 4 5 x 2 = 2
1 3 4 x 3

3
x1 (3-1) (3-1) 21/11=(-1)/(2)= 1/2. x1 (3-1)
(3-1) 31/11=(1)/(2)=1/2. , :
2x1-3x2-4x3=1
(3-2)
5/2x2+3x2=-3/2
(3-2)
-3/2x2-2x3=5/2
(3-2)
:
2 3 4

B = 0 5/ 2 3
0 3/ 2 2

x2 (3-2)
(3-2)
32/22=(-3/2)/(5/2)=3/5. :
2x1-3x2-4x3=1
(3-3)
5/2x2+3x3=-3/2
(3-3)
-1/5x3=8/5
(3-3)
:
4
2 3

= 0 5/ 2
3
0 0 1/ 5

. (3-3)
x3:
x3=-8
H (3-3)
5x2-48=-3 x2=9
(3-3) :
2x1+5=1 x1=-2
(3-3)
, ,
. Gauss

- 70 -

. 34 ,
, .
,
. :
1
2 3 4 1 r = r , r = r r2 (1) r = r 1 r 2 3 4
1
1
2
2
1 2
1
1 4 5 2

r1 (1)
2
3 3/ 2
0 5/ 2
r (1)
1

r3 = r3 3 r1 = r3 r1
r1 (1)
2
1 3 4 3
0 3/ 2 2 5/ 2

4
1
2 3

r1 = r1 , r2 = r2

0 5 / 2
3/ 2
3
r3 (2) ( 3 / 2)

r3 = r3
r2 = r3
r2
0 0 1/ 5 8 / 5
5/ 2
r2 (2)

r1, r2, r3 r1, r2, r3 r1, r2, r3 . r1(1) , r2(2)

...

:
1, 2, , n . = :
i=Si i=1,2,,n
(4)
Si i- .
i- i (4) Gauss i .
2: :

2 3 4

A = 1 4 5
1 3 4

:
1
1
2 3 4 1
2 3 4
1 4 5 0 0 5/ 2 3 1/ 2

1 3 4 0
1 3/ 2 2 1/ 2

1/ 5x 3 = 1/ 5 x 3 = 1

5 / 2x 2 + 3 = 1/ 2
x 2 = 1
2x 1 = 1
x1 = 1
1

1
4
2 3
0 5/ 2
3
1/ 2

0 0 1/ 5 1/ 5

1

X1 = 1
1

- 71 -

4
0
2 3 4 0
2 3 4 0
2 3

3
1
1 4 5 1 0 5/ 2 3 1 0 5 / 2
1 3 4 0
1 3/ 2 2 0
0 0 1/ 5 3/ 5

1/ 5x 3 = 3/ 5 x 3 = 3
0

5 / 2x 2 9 = 1
x2 = 4
X2 = 4

3
2x1 = 0 x1 = 0

3
4 0
2 3 4 0
2 3 4 0
2 3

3
0
1 4 5 0 0 5/ 2 3 0 0 5 / 2
1 3 4 1
1 3/ 2 2 1
0 0 1/ 5 1

x 3 = 5
1/ 5x 3 = 1

5 / 2x 2 15 = 0
x2 = 6

2x + 2 = 0
x1 = 1
1

-1 :

1

X3 = 6
5

1 0 1
A 1 = [ X1 X 2 X 3 ] = 1 4 6

1 3 5

, '
, :
[n|A], In . [|n].
=-1.
-1

1 2 3
3: = 0 1 2
0 0 1

1 0 0 1 2 3
r1 r1 + 3r3
: [3|]= 0 1 0 0 1 2

0 0 1 0 0 1

- 72 -

1 0 3 1 2 0

0 1 0 0 1 2
0 0 1 0 1 1

0
0
1
-1
= 0

0
r2 r2 2r3

0
1
0

2
1
0

3 1 2 0
r1 r1 2r2

2 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
7
2

1 2 7 1 0 0

0 1 2 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1

2 2 3

4: = 1 1 0
1 2 1

1 0 0 2 2 3
1 2 0 0 4 3

r1 r1 2r2
: [3|]= 0 1 0 1 1 0
r3 r3 + r2
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 2 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 5 3 0 1

0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 4 3 1 0

r1 r2

1 5 3 0 1
r2 r1
1 6 4 0 0
r1 r1 3r3

0
1 5 3 0 1 0
r2 r2 + r1

1 4 3 1 0 0
0
r3 r3 r1
1 6 4 0 0 1
1
0
1 4 3

-1
0 = 1 5 3
1 6 4
1

1: , : ()-1=(-1)(-1)

1)

x, y,z w
6 4
x y x
3
=
+
z w 1 2w z + w

x + y

- 73 -

(. x=2, y=4, z=1, w=3)

2)

1 3
2 0 4
B =
A=

.
2 1
3 2 6
11 6 14
(. =
)
1 2 14

x y


z w
1 1
x y

. (.
=

0 1
z w 0

3)

1 2
n
n 1 2n
=
. (. =

0 1
0 1

4)

5)

:
1 2 3
3 2
2 3

A=
, B =
, = 2 1 0 ,
7 5
1 3
4 2 5

2 1 1

= 0 2 1
5 2 3

(.

5 2
A =
,
7 3
1

6)

1/ 3 1/ 3
B =
,
1/ 9 2 / 9
1

5 4 3
= 10 7 6 ,

8 6 5
1

8 1 3
= 5 1 2

10 1 4
1

4 1 0

. = 0 4 1
0 0 4

: = 0

0 0

7)

8)

7 4
=
n :
9 5
4n
1 + 6n
n =

9n 1 6n

nn ,
)
tA ,
- 74 -

) +t -t
.
9)

= + , (+)-1(-) .

10)

, +SA , S ,
L=(I-SA)(I+SA)-1 LtAL=A. , LtAL=A,
+L, A ,
S=(I+L)-1(I-L)A-1 .

11)

22 XtAX=B,
1 0
0 1
A=
B=
,

0 1
1 0

1 2
1 2
:

1 2
1 2
XtX=2I.

1 0

12) A = 0 1
0 0
1

) 3=32-3+3, ) .
13)

3 4
=

5 7

14)

cos sin
: =
R
sin cos

15)

3 4 5

= 2 3 1

3 5 1

16)

1 2 2

= 2 1 2 . 2 -1.
2 2 1

- 75 -

17)

:
1 0 x 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 y 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

, , 0, .
18)
)
, ) .
19)

nn , , :
(-1+-1)-1=(+)-1=(+)-1

1 0

12) A = 0 1
0 0
1

) 3=32-3+3, ) .

1 0 1 0 1 2 2

: ) 2= 0 1 0 1 = 0
2
1
0 0
0
1
1 0 0
1 0

1 2 2

3=2= 0
2
1
0
0
1

1 0 1 3 32

3
0 1 = 0 1
0 0
1 0
0
1

1 2 2 1 0 1 0

32-3+3=3 0
2 3 0 1 + 0 1
1
0
1 0 0
0
1 0 0

3=32-3+3 3-32+3=3 (2-3+33)=3

0 1 3 32

0 = 0 1
3 =3
1 0
0
1

1 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 2

-1=2-3+33= 0
2 -3 0 1 +3 0 1 0 = 0 1
1
0
0
1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1

- 76 -

3 4
=

5 7

13)
:

5
r2 r2 r1
0 3 4 r1 r31
1 0 3 4
1
1/ 3 0 1 4 / 3
3

[2|]=

r2 3r2
0 1 5 7
5/ 3 1 0 1/ 3
5 3 0 1
4
r1 r1 r2
7 4
3

I2

5
3

7 4
-1=

5 3

cos sin
: =
R
sin cos
: ||=cos2+sin2A=1 11=cos, 12=-sin, A21=-(-sin)=sin, A22=cos
:
A11 A 21 cos sin
-1=
=

A
A
cos
22 sin
12

14)

3 4 5

= 2 3 1

3 5 1

15)
:

1 0 0 3 4 5
1 0 0 3 4 5

r2 r2 r1
[3|]= 0 1 0 2 3 1
1 1 0 1 1 4
r3 r3 r1
0 0 1 3 5 1
1 0 1 0 1 6
2 3 0 0 1 7
2 3 0 0 1 7

r3 r3 r1
1 1 0 1 1 4
1 1 0 1 1 4
1 0 1 0 1 6
1 3 1 0 0 1
r1 r1 + 3r2

2 3 0 0 1 7

r1 r1 + 7r3

1 1 0 1 1 4

r2 r2 + 4 r3
1 3 1 0 0 1
r3 r3 r1

5 18 7 0 1 0

r1 r2

8 29 11 1 0 0

r2 r1
1 3 1 0 0 1
r2 r2 + r1

- 77 -

5 18 7 0 1 0

3 11 4 1 1 0
1 3 1 0 0 1

8 29 11 1 0 0

5 18 7 0 1 0
1 3 1 0 0 1

8 29 11 1 0 0

5 18 7 0 1 0
1 3 1 0 0 1
r1 r1
r2 r2

8 29 11

= 5 18 7
1 3 1

-1

1 2

16)
= 2 1
2 2

2
-1.
1 2 2 1 2

2
: == 2 1 2 2 1
2 2 1 2 2

2
1
2 1 0 0

2 =9 0 1 0
1 0 0 1

1
2=93 A A = I3
9

1 2 2 1/ 9 2 / 9 2 / 9
1
1

= A = 2 1 2 = 2 / 9 1/ 9 2 / 9
9
9

2 2 1 2 / 9 2 / 9 1/ 9
-1

17)

:
1 0 x 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 y 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

, , 0, .
1 0 x
1 0 0
0 0

: = 0 1 y , = 0 0 , = 0 0 1 .
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 0

()-1=-1-1-1.
1 0 x

-1
= 0 1 y ,
0 0 1

:
1 0
-1
-1 -1 -1
() = = 0 0
0 1

0
1 0 0
1/ 0

-1
= 0 1/ 0 , = 0 0 1
0 1 0
0
0 1/

-1

0 1/ 0
0 1 0 x 1/ 0 x /

1 0 1/ 0 0 1 y = 0
0
1/
0 0
0 1/ 0 0 1 0 1/ y /

- 78 -

18)
)
, )
.
: ) .
-1=n (A-1A)t=Int At(A-1)t=In A(A-1)t=In (A-1)t=A-1
. -1 .
) .
-1=n (A-1A)t=Int At(A-1)t=In -A(A-1)t=In (A-1)t=-A-1
. -1 .
nn , , :
(-1+-1)-1=(+)-1=(+)-1
: =-1+-1 :
=(-1+-1)=-1+-1=n+AB-1

=(n+AB-1)=InB+(AB-1)B=B+A(B-1B)=B+A=A+B

AXB=A+B X=A-1(A+B)B-1 X-1=[A-1(A+B)B-1]-1=

=(B-1)-1(A+B)-1(A-1)-1=B(A+B)-1A
=-1+-1 =(-1+-1)=+=+ =-1(+)-1
-1=(+)-1.
19)

- 79 -

IV

.
. ..
R3.
. . .

, . : (Hermitian) ,
.
Hermitian ,
. , (Unitary),
, Unitary
Heisenberg Schrndinger, .
4.1

V U F. :
T: V U
, (linear transfomation), :
1.
T(v+u)=T(v)+T(u) vV
F vV
2.
T(v) =T(v)
, "" , .
(2) =0 (0)=0, , V U.
.
- 81 -

 IV

:
T(v+u)=T(v)+T(u)
.

1: V=Rn U=Rm
, mn.
:
T: Rn Rm
:
T: v Tv=Av
.
:
T: V U
T(v+u)=A(v+u)=Av+Au=T(v)+T(u)

T(v)=A(v)=A(v)=T(v)

,
, .
2: : R3R3 O .
.
v=(x,y,z) u=(x,y,z). :
(v+u)=T(x+x,y+y,z+z)=(x+x,y+y,0)=(x,y,0)+(x,y,0)=T(v)+T(u)

(R) : T(v)=T(x,y,z)=(x,y,0)=(x,y,0)=T(v)
3: T: R2 R2
T(x,y)=(x+1,y+2).
T(0)=T(0,0)=(1,2)(0,0). . .
4: T: V U V
U. v,uV F, (F= V U), :
T(v+u)=0=0+0=T(v)+T(u)

T(v)=0=0=(v)
.
5: I: V V
vV . :
- 82 -

I(v+u)=v+u=I(v)+I(u)
.

6: V (
) x R. :
D: V V I: V R
:
1

dv
: v (v) = v(t)dt
D : v D(v) =
dt
0
:
1.

d(v + u) dv du
=
+
= D(v) + D(u)
dt
dt dt
d(v)
dv
D(v) =
=
= D(v)
dt
dt
D(v + u) =

2.

I(v + u) = (v(t) + u(t))dt = v(t)dt + u(t)dt = I(v) + I(u)

0

I(v) = v(t)dt = v(t)dt = I(v)

D I .

1: V U F.
{v1, v2, , vn} V u1, u2, , un U.
T: VU T(v1)=u1, T(v2)=u2, , T(vn)=un.
: 3 : 1)
T: VU T(vi)=ui , i=1,n. 2) 3) .
1: vV. ' {v1, v2, , vn} V 1, 2, , n F v=1v1+2v2++nvn . :
T(v)1u1+2u2++ nun
' i v. i=1,,n :
vi=0v1+0v2+1vi++0vn
T(vi)=0u1+0u2+1ui++0un=ui
2: v=1v1+2v2++nvn w=1v1+2v2++nvn .
v+w=(1+1)v1+(2+2)v2++(n+n)vn
:
T[v+w]=T[(1+1)v1+(2+2)v2++(n+n)vn]=
=(1+1)u1+(2+2)u2++(n+n)un=
- 83 -

 IV

=(1u1+2u2++nun)+(1u1+2u2++nun)=
=(v)+T(w).
.
3: S: VU :
S(vi)=ui, i=1,2,,n . v=1v1+2v2++nvn
S(v)=S(1v1+2v2++nvn)=1S(v1)+2S(v2)++ nS(vn)=1u1+2u2++ nun=T(v)
' S(v)=T(v) vV =S, . .

4.2

1: T: V U . (image)
Im(T), U, :
Im(T)={uU / T(v)=u vV}
O (kernel) Ker(T),
V, U:
Ker(T)={vV / T(v)=0}
1: T: R3 R3 OXY. T(x,y,z)=(x,y,0). :
Im(T)={(x,y,0) / x,yR}
.
Ker(T)={(0,0,z) / zR}
' , 0=(0,0,0).
1: T: V U .
U V.
: ) ' T(0)=0, 0ImT. u, uImT , F.
v, vV T(v)=u, T(v)=u
T(v+v)=T(v)+T(v)=u+uImT
ImT . .
) ' T(0)=0, 0KerT. v, wKerT , F.
T(v)=0, T(w)=0
T(v+w)=T(v)+T(w)=0 v+wKerT
KerT . .
2: v1, v2, , vn V
T: V U
.
- 84 -

T(v1), (v2),,(vn)U,
Im(T).
, um(T) vV
:
T(v)=u. vi , i=1,,n vV
1,2,,n v=1v1+2v2++nvn.
u=T(v)=T(1v1++nvn)=1T(v1)++nT(vn)
T(v1),,(vn) Im(T).

3: V T: V U
. :
dimV=dim(Ker(T))+dim(ImT))
: dimV=n. Ker(T) V,
dimKer(T)=rn. Im(T)=n-r.
{w1, w2, , wr} Ker(T). {wi}
V:
{w1, , wr, v1, , vn-r}. ={T(v1), , T(vn-r) }.
To Im(T).
A) Im(T).
uIm(T), vV T(v)=u. v {w1, , wr, v1, , vn-r}:
v=1w1+ ,+rwr+1v1+ ,+n-rvn-r

u=T(v)=1T(w1)+ ,+rT(wr)+1T(v1)+ ,+n-rT(vn-r)= 1T(v1)+ ,+n-rT(vn-r)

T(wi)=0, ( wi Ker(T)).
={T(v1), , T(vn-r)} Im(T).
B) .
1T(v1)+ +n-rT(vn-r)=0,
T(1v1+ +n-rvn-r)=0
1v1+ +n-rvn-r Ker(T).
{wi} :
(1)
1v1+ +n-rvn-r= 1w1+ +rwr 1v1+ +n-rvn-r- 1w1- -rwr =0
{v1, ,vn-r,w1, ,rwr} V,
. (1) . 1=0,
2=0,, n-r=0.
T(vi) .
Im(T) dimIm(T)=n-r .
, OXY , . (
OXY ) ( ) 2 1 ,
R3 3.

- 85 -

 IV

2: ,
rank(T)
nullity(T).
4.3

1: T: V U , (singular),
v V U , :
(1)
T= (vV)[T(v)=0 v0]
(1), kerT={0}, V U, , (non singular)..
1: T: V U () .
: ) , V U, . KerT={0} .
) , T(v)=(u), T(v-u )=T(v)-T(u)=0
v-u=0 v=u. T(v)=(u) v=u, .
2: T: V U . V
ImT .
: 3 . 4.2 :
dimV=dim(Ker(T))+dim(ImT))
dimV=dim(ImT)) dim(Ker(T))=0 Ker(T)={0} .
.
1: dim V>dimU
T: V U. V
U. 1 . 4.2 R3 R2, (x,y,z) (x,y,0), , R3
R2, .
4.4

T: V U , (isomorphism) () .
V U , (isomorphism).

1: V F, n {e1,,en}
V.
- 86 -

T: v (1,,n)
vV {e1,,en}
V Fn.
v, uV v=1e1+ +nen n- (1,2,...n)
u=1e1++nen n- (1,2,...n) v+u=(1+1)e1+...+(n+n)en,

(1+1,,n+n)=(1,,n)+(1,,n)
kF :
kv=(k1)e1 ++(kn)en

k(1,,n)

(v+u)= (1+1,,n+n)=(1++n)+(1++n)=T(v)+T(u)

T(kv)=(k1,k2,,kn)=k(1,2,,n)=kT(v)
. .

1: T: V U
.
:
. V
. U. .
Ker{T}={0}, 1
, .
.
, {v1,,vn} , {T(v1),T(vn)} .
c1T(v1)++cnT(vn)=0 (c1v1++cnvn)=0
c1v1++cnvn=0. v1,,vn c1==cn=0
T(v1),T(vn) .
: . vV , {v} , ( ). {T(v)}
T(v)0. .

- 87 -

 IV

, ()
, n ( ' F).

2: V U F
n, .
: A={ e1,,en} V B={f1,fn} U. T: V U :
T(ek)=fk k=1,,n vV v=1e1+...+ nen
n
n
n

T(v) T k ek = k T( e k )= k f k
k=1
k=1
k=1
, , .
V U .

:

3: V U , .
: V U , T: V U. ,
:
kerT={0} dimKerT=0 ImT=U
:
dimV=dim(ImT)+dim(KerT) dimV=dim(ImT)=dimU
1: 2 3
.
2: 2 Rn n , "" n , Rn.
n , Cn. Rn ( Cn )
() ( )
n . vV n- Rn ( Cn) n

{e1,,en} V v = ke k
k =1

v (1,,n)

- 88 -

4.5

. .
S V
U F.
1. T+S :
T+S: V U
(T+S)(v)=T(v)+S(v) vV
2. kF kT :
(kT)(v)=kT(v) vV
kT: VV
T+S kT .
v,uV ,F :
(+S)(v+u)=T(v+u)+S(v+u)=T(v)+T(u)+ S(v)+S(u)=
=[T(v)+S(v)]+[T(u)+S(u)]=(T+S)(v)+(T+S)(u)

(kT)(v+u)=kT(v+u)=k[T(v)+T(u)]=kT(v)+kT(u)=(kT)(v)+(kT)(u)
V U
, Hom(V,U). ( Hom
homomorfism
).
V, U ,
.

1: dimV=m dimU=n, dimHom(V,U)=mn.

4.6

: V F.
T: V V V .
, (linear operators), , V.
V, A(V)
Hom(V,V) A(V) '
, .
, A(V)
F, n2, dim V=n.
T, SA(V) S T
V V , S TA(V). A(V) ,
( ST S T).
- 89 -

 IV

1.
S(T+R)=ST+SR
S,T,XA(V)
2.
(T+R)S=TS+RS
3.
k(ST)=(kS)T=S(kT)
A(V) F.

1: V
f(x) Dx X
:
df(x)
Xf(x)=xf(x)
D xf(x) =
dx
6 4.1 Dx
Dx: V V . X .
Dx X ,
DxX-XDx0
:
df(x)
d
(xf(x)) = f(x) + x
(Dx X)f(x) = Dx (Xf(x)) =
dx
dx
df (x)

(XDx)f(x)=x
dx

(DxX)f(x)-(XDx)f(x)=(DxX-XDx)f(x)=f(x) DxX-XDx=I0
, x Dx = i Dx X
.
DxX-XDx , (commutator) Dx X.

4.7

, (invertible),
T-1 :
TT-1=T-1T=I ( = )
T-1 , (inverse), .
,
1.
.
2.
.
,
.
- 90 -

1: , (AB)-1=B-1 A-1.
0,
1
1
( A) 1 = A 1 A1 = A

( )

1)
:
2
) : R R2 , T(x,y)=(x+y,x) ) T: R3 R , T(x,y,z)=2x-3y+4z
2)
:
2
) : R R , T(x,y)=xy ) T: R2 R3 , T(x,y)=(x+1,2y,x+y)
) T: R3 R2 , T(x,y,z)=(|x|,0)
3)
V nn
F. V, : VV
()=+ AV .
4)
: R2 R (1,1)=3
(0,1)=-2. T(x,y).
T: R3R3
T(x,y,z)=(x+2y-z, y+z, x+y-2z)
) U=ImT ) W=kerT

5)

6)
S T :
S: R2R2 , S(x,y)=(y,x) , T: R2R2 , S(x,y)=(0,x)
S+T, 2S-3T, TS, S2, T2.
7) R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)
) , ) -1 .

- 91 -

5.1

{e1,e2,,en} V F v
V :
v=v1e1+v2e2++vnen
v
(1) v.
v1

v
[v]e= 2


vn
, {ei}, V
Fn.
, {ei}, A(V) V nn F TA(V)
F.

T :V U .
5.2

V F {e1,,en}
V. T(e1),T(e2),,T(en)
Te1,Te2,,Ten .
V :
Te1=t11e1+ t12e2++ t1nen
Te2=t21e1+ t22e2++ t2nen
..
(1)
Tej=tj1e1+ tj2e2++tjiei+ tjnen

Ten=tn1e1+ tn2e2++ tnnen

- 93 -

1: (1), [T]e ), , (representation), [ei]

t11

t
[T]e = 21
...
t
n1

t12
t 22
...
tn2

... t1n t11

... t 2n t12
=
... ... ...

... t nn t1n

t 21
t 22
...
t 2n

... t n1

... t n 2
... ...

... t nn

{ei} (ei,ej)=ij
[T]e :
tji ' j (1)
ei
(ei ,Tej)=tj1(ei ,e1)+ tj2(ei ,e2)++tji(ei, ei)++tjn(ei, en)=tji
tji=(ei, Tej)
tji , j i o (1).
tji. i j , :
tij=(ei,Tej)
(2)

1: V P(x) x, 3 D : V V
d
D(P(x)) =
P(x)
:
dx
D {1, x, x2, x3}. :
d
D1= 1=0=0+0x+0x2+0x3
dx
d d
Dx=
x=1=1+0x+0x2+0x3
dt dx
d
Dx2= x2=2x=0+2x+0x2+0x3
dx
d
Dx3= x3=3x2=0+0x+3x2+0x3
dx

- 94 -

1
[D]x=
0

0 0 0
0 1

0 0 0
0 0
=
0 0
2 0 0

0 3 0
0 0

0 0

2 0

0 3

0 0

2: T : R2 R2 :
T(x,y)=(4x-2y,2x+y)

{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)}.
:
Te1=T(1,0)=(4,2)=4(1,0)+2(0,1)=4e1+2e2
Te2=T(0,1)=(-2,1)=-2(1,0)+1(0,1)=-2e1+1e2
:
t

4 2 4 2
[T]e =
=

2 1 2 1
:
{f1=(1,1) , f2=(-1,0)}
:
Tf1=T(1,1)=(2,3)=3(1,1)+(-1,0)=3f1+f2
Tf2=T(-1,0)=(-4,-2)=-2(1,1)+2(-1,0)=-2f1+2f2
:
t

3 1 3 2
[T ]f =

=
2 2 1 2

1: (1,1) = (2,3) (-1,0)=(-4,-2),

{f1, f2} :
T(1,1)=(2,3)=(1,1)+(-1,0)=(,)+(-,0)=(-,)
= 2 = 1

=3 =3
(-1,0)=(-4,-2)=(1,1)+(-1,0)=(,)+(-,0)=(-,)
= 4 = 2

= 2 = 2

1: {e1,e2,,en} V . vV :
[T]e[v]e=[T(v)]e
, v,
(v).
- 95 -

: i=1,2,,n :
n

Tei=ti1e1+ti2e2++tinen= t ije j
j=1

[]e nn j (1)
:
(t1j, t2j,,tnj)
n

v=v1e1+ v2e2++ vnen= v1e1

i =1

v :
v1

t v2
[v]e=(v1,v2,,vn) =


vn
, :
n
n
n n
n
n

T v i ei = vi Tei = vi t ije j = t ij vi e j
i =1
i =1
i =1

j=1
j=1 i =1
n

= (t1j v1 + t 2 j v 2 +

(2)

+ t nj v n )e j

j=1

[(v)] j :
(3)
t1jv1+ t2jv2++ tnjvn
j []e[v]e j []e
[v]e (1) (2).
(1) (2) (3). []e[v]e [(v)]e ,
:
[T]e[v]e=[T(v)]e

3: 1, D : V V
:

0
[D]x=
0

1 0 0

0 2 0
0 0 3

0 0 0

p(x)=+bx+cx2+dx3 D(p(x))=b+2cx+3dx2. {1, x,

x2, x3} :
a
b


2c
b
[p(x)]x=
D ( p(x) ) x =
c
3d


d
0
:
- 96 -

0
[D]x[p(t)]x=
0

1 0 0

0 2 0
0 0 3

0 0 0

a b

b 2c
c = 3d = D ( p(x) ) x

d 0

1.
[]e T 1, '
. , :
1. , 2. , 3. , .

2: {e1,,en} a V F nn F. T [T]e A(V) A.

. S,TA(V) kF :
[T+S]e=[T]e+[S]e , [kT]e=k[T]e , [ST]e=[S]e[T]e
5.3

, V,
n nn
, V.
A=[T]e, :
ij=(ei,Tej)
(1)
( (2), 5.2), {ei} . ( o-
Gram-Schmidt).

=ij

: VV

1. (Identical)
(A)ij=ij=ij
2. (Diagonal)
(A)ij=ij=diij
3. (Transpose)
(A)ij=ij (At)ij=ji
ij=jit ijt=ji
4. (Conjugate)

(ei,Tej)=ij

(ei,Tej)=diij

(ei,Tej)=(ej,Ttei)=(Tteiej)*
(ei,Ttej)=(ej,Tei)

- 97 -

 V
(A)ij=ij (A*)ij=(ij)*
ij*=(ij)*
5. (adjoint)
(A)ij=ij (A+)ij=ji*
6. A (self-adjoint)
(A)ij=ij (A+)ij=ji*
A=A+ij=ji*
6.
A ijRij=ji
A=

6. , (Hermitean)
ijCij-ji*
A=

7. , (Antisymmetric)
ij=-ji
8. ,8 (Unitary)
A-1=A+ A+A=AA+=I

(ei,T*ej)=(ei,Tej)*=(Tej,ei)

(ei,T+ej)=(ej,Tei)*=(Tei,ej)

(ei,Tej)=(ei,T+ej)=(ej,Tei)*=(Tei,ej)

(ei,Tej)=(Tei,ej)
V , .
,
,
.

(ei,Tej)=(Tei,ej)
V Unitary, .
, ,
, (Hermitean).
, (Antisymmetric)
(ei,Tej)=-(ej,Tei)

A-1=A+

(
n

ik+ kj = ij
k =1

ei ,T + ek ) ( ek ,Tei ) = ij

k =1

9.
-1
=t AtA=AAt=I
n

k =1

t
ik

A-1=At

(
n

kj = ij

ei , T t ek ) ( ek , Tei ) = ij

k =1

ij, . .. ij ,
. (1).
, .
,
.

- 98 -

5.3

n-
( ) , . :
() ,
;
' .

1: {e1,e2,,en} {f1,f2,,fn} V. {f1,f2,,fn} {e1,e2,,en}.

f1=11e1+12e2++1nen
f2=21e1+22e2++2nen
(1)

fn=n1e1+n2e2++nnen
, (1),
11 21 ... n1

22 ... n 2
12

P=
...
... ... ...

1n 2n ... nn
( ) {ei} {fi}
:
(2)
Pei=fi , i=1,,n
:
{ei} (ei,ej)=ij. ' i (1)
fi=i1e1++ijej++ inen
ej
(ei,fi)=i1(ej,e1)++ ij(ej,ej)++ in(ej,en)
(3)
ij=(ej,fi)
{fi} (fi,fj)= ij, ij :
n

ik* jk = ij

(4)

k=1

{fi} (4) :
(fi,fj)=(i1e1++ inen , j1e1++ jnen)=

- 99 -

e ,
ik k

k=1

=1

jee =

(e , e ) =
*
ik

k=1

je

=1

=
*
ik

k=1

*
ik

=1

jk

= ij

k=1

1: f1,f2,,fn ,
{fi} {ei}, P-1fI=ei.
1: R2,
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)} {f1=(1,1), f2(-1,0)}

f1=(1,1)=(1,0)+(0,1)=e1+e2
f2=(-1,0)=-(1,0)+0(0,1)=-e1+0e2
{ei} {fi} :
t

1 1
1 1

P=
=

1 0
1 0

e1=(1,0)=0(1,1)-(-1,0)=0f1-f2
e2=(0,1)=(1,1)+(-1,0)=f1+f2
Q {fi} {ei}

0 1 0 1
=

Q=

1 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 0
=

PQ=

1 0 1 0 0 1

()
.
5.4

1: {ei} {fi} '

V
vV :
P[v]f = [v]e [v]f = P-1[v]e
: {fi} {ei} :
n

fi=i1e1++ i2e2++inen= ije j i=1,,n

j=1

- 100 -

nn j :
(1j, 2j, , nj)
v {fi}

(1)

v=k1f1+k2f2++ knfn= k i f i

(2)

i =1

k1

k2
[v]f=

kn

(3)

(2) fi :
n
n
n n

v = k if i = k i ije j = ijk i e j = (1jk j + 2jk 2 + ... + njk n )e j

i=1
i-1
j=1

j=1
j=1 i=1
n

(4)

(3) v :
11k1 + 21k 2 + + n1k n
k + k ++ k
22 2
n2 n
12 1

............................

1n k1 + 2n k 2 + + nn k n
j :
1j k 1 + 2j k 2 +...+ nj kn

(5)

j P[v]f j [v]f (1) (3). (1) (3) (5).

P[v]f [v]e ei
P[v]f=[v]e P-1 :
P-1[v]e=P-1P[v]f=[v]f
(6)
, v (v1, v2,,vn) {ei}
(k1,,kn) {fi} (4) :
n

v j = 1jk1 + 2jk 2 +... + njk n = ijk i

(7)

i=1

vj ki .
{fi} , ij
-1
ij P-1 :
(8)
ij-1 = ji*
, ei = i 11 f 1 +...+ ij-1 f j +...+ in-1 f n !

. ' fj:
(f j , ei) = i1-1 (f j , f 1)+...+ ij-1 (f j , f j )+...+ in-1 (f j , f n ) = ij-1

(fj,ei)=(ei,fj)*=ji*
ij-1 = ji*
- 101 -

ki vj (6): [v]f=P-1[v]e i :
n

l=1

l=1

([v ]f )i = k i = 1i-1v1 + ... + -1ni v n = el-1v l = *il v l

1: :
( ) {ei}
{fi}, : Pei=fi,
{fi}
{ei}: P[v]f=[v]e
, .

2: {ei} {fi}
V. , V :
[T]f=P-1[T]eP
: vV :
P-1[T]eP[v]f=P-1[T]e[v]e=P-1[T(v)]e=[T(v)]f

[T]f[v]f= [T(v)]f

P-1 [T]e P [v]f = [T]f [v] f

v [v]f V Fn
XFn.
P-1[T]ePX=[T]fX
:
P-1[T]eP=[T]f
1: R2, :

1
0
1
1
e1 = , e2 =
f1 = , f2 =
0
1
0

1
:
x 4x 2y

T =

y 2x + y

{ei} {fi} :
t

f1 = 1e1 + 1e 2
1 1 1 1
P=
=

f2 = 1e1 + 0e 2
1 0 1 0
:
0 1
1

P =

1 1
[T]e {ei} :
- 102 -

t
4 2
4 2

[ T ]e =
2 1
2 1
1 0
0 2

T( e2 ) = T = = 2 +1 = 2e1 +1e2
0 1
1 1

[T]f {fi} :
1 4 1 0
T( e1 ) = T = =4 +2 =4 e1 +2e2
0 2 0 1

1 2
T(f1 ) = T = = 3f1 + 1f 2

t
3 1 3 2
1 3

[T]f =
=

2
2
1 4

1 2

T(f 2 ) = T = == 2f1 + 2f 2

0 2

-1
: P [T ]e P = [T ]f
:
0 1 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 2
-1

=
= [T]
P [T]eP=
f

1 1 2 1 1 0 2 3 1 0 1 2
2:

1
0
v=(5,7)=5e1+7e2 e1= , e2= R2, :
0
1
[T]f[v]f=[Tv]f f1=(1,1), f2=(-1,0)
: v f:

7
v=5e1+7e2==7f1+2f2 [v]f=
2
17
T(v)=(6,17)=17(1,1)+11(-1,0)=17f1+11f2 [Tv]f=
11
3 2
[T]f=

1 2
3 2 7 17
[T]f[v]f=
= =[Tv]f
1 2 2 11
2: P=(ij) nn
F . {e1,e2,,en}
V F, n :
fi=1ie1+2ie2++nien , i=1,2,,n
V.
{ei} {fi}. ,
V, , (.. {e}), B=P-1AP - 103 -

, (..
{f}).

3 : V , e={ei}, f={ef}
T

V V, . , ( ), .

. :
VBe

T
[ T]B

VBe

[T]Be

P-1
VBf

[ T] B f

VBf

= P 1[T]B P
f

5.5

1: , :
B=P-1AP

, (similar matrix), , (similarity transformation).
2 3 5.4,

1: ,
.
2: , detA=detB
: detA=det(P-1BP)=detP-1 detB detP = detB
1
det P-1 =

detP
3: , trA=trB.
- 104 -

:
n

trA= ii= (P -1BP )ii = (P -1 )ij (B)jk (P )ki =

i=1

i=1

i=1 j=1 k=1

= (P)ki(P ) ij (B) jk = (PP-1 )kj(B) jk =

1

i=1 j=1 k=1

n

j=1 k=1

kj

(B)jk

= (B)

kk

= trB

k=1

j=1 k=1

.
" ( ' ), ".

2: , (diagonalizable),
.
4: []
, -1[] .
5.6

.
V W F, n m , dimV=n dimW=m. 1={e1, e2,, en} V B2={f1, f2,, fm} W. mn
F V
W.
: V W , '
1 ,
j=1,2,,n.
T : ej Tej ,
Tej W 2 W
m

T e j = ji f i

j=1,2,,n ij F.

(1)

i =1

ji =(ij) mn
1 2
A = B1 [ T]B2
- 105 -

1: T: R3 R2
T(x,y,z) = ( x+y-z, 2x+z) 1 = {e1,e2,e3} = { (1,0,-1), (1,1,1), (1,0,0)}
2 = {f1,f2} = {(0,1), (1,0)} R3 R2 .

Te1 = T(1.0,-1) = (2,1) = f1+2f2
Te2 = T(1,1,1) = (1,3) = 3f1+f2
Te3 = T (1,0,0) = (1,2) = 2f1+f2

1 3 2
= B1 [ T]B2 =
.
2 1 1
, =(ij) : V W

: ej TAej =

i =1

f , j = 1,2,,n

ji i

(2)

(2) V.
2: 1 = {e1,e2,e3} 2={f1,f2,} -

1 1 1
2 0 1 .

.
: (2) :

R3 R2

Ae1 =

i =1

f = 11 f1 + 12 f2 = f1 + 2f2

1i i

Ae2 =

i =1

f = 21 f1 + 22f2 = f1

2i i

(3)

Ae3 =

i =1

f = 31 f1 + 32 f2 = -f1 + f2.

3i i

u R3 , B1,
u=x1e1+x2e2+x3e3.

u = TA(x1 e1+x2 e2+x3 e3)= x1TA e1+x2 TA e2+x3 TA e3 .

(3)
u = x1(f1+2f2)+ x2f1+x3(-f1+f2)=(x1+x2-x3)f1+(2x1+x3)f2 .
3: : R3 R3
T(x,y,z) = ( x-y, x+2y-z, 2x+y+z)
1 = {e1,e2,e3} = {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)) 2 = {f1,f2,f3} = {(1,0,1), (-2,1,1), (1,-1,1)).

Te1 = T(1,0,0) = (1,1,2) = 11 (1,0,1) + 12 (-2,1,1) + 13 (1,-1,1)

- 106 -

Te2 = T(0,1,0) = (-1,2,1) = 21 (1,0,1) + 22 (-2,1,1) + 23 (1,-1,1)

Te3 = T(0,0,1) = ( 0,-1,1) = 31 (1,0,1) + 32 (-2,1,1) + 33 (1,-1,1)

11 212 + 13 =1

21 2 22 + 23 = 1

12 13 =1

22 23 = 2

11 + 12 + 13 =2

21 +

22

+ 23 = 1

31 2 32 + 33 =0
32 33 = 1
31 +

32

+ 33 =1

11 = 7/3
21 = 5/3
31 =-2/3
12 = 1/3
22 = 2/3
32 = 1/3
13 =-2/3
23 =-4/3
33 = 4/3
7 5 2
1

1
2 1 .
B1 [ T ] B2 =

3
2 4 4

. .
V W, n m ,
F
T : V W.
B1 = {e1,e2,,en} B2= {f1,f2,,fm} V W
A = B1 [ T]B2 = ( ij)t mn,

m

T e j = ij f i

j=1,2,,n

(4)

i =1

B1={e1,e2,,en} B2={f1,f2,, fm} V W

B= B1 [ T ]B = (ij)t
2

mn
m

T e =
ij f i
j

j=1,2,,n .

(5)

i =1

D mm C nn,
B = DAC-1
(6)
:

- 107 -

VB1

T
A = B1 [ T ] B2

WB2

VB1

B = B1 [T ]B2

VB2

V 1 1
1 1
n

e j = c ij ei , j = 1,2,,n

(7)

i =1

cij C=(cij)t nn.

(7)

n
n
T e j = T c ij ei = c ijT e i
i =1
i=1

(8)

(8) (5)
n
m

m n
m
T e j = c ij ki f k = kic ij f k = (BC) kj f k

k =1
k =1 i=1
i =1
k =1

(9)

2
2
m

f j = d ij f i , j = 1,2,,m .

(10)

i =1

D=(dij)t mm.
(4) (10)
m

m
m m
T e j = ij f i = ij d ki f k = d ki ij f k = (DA) kj f k

k =1
k =1 i=1
i =1
i =1
k =1
m

(11)

(9) (11) DC=DA C

(12)
B=DAC-1
C :
e1,e2,,en ,
n

f
j=1

j j

=0

j = 0 , j = 1,2,...,n .

(13)

ej (13) (7)

n
n n
j c ij f i = c ij j f i = 0

i =1
i =1 j=1

j=1
n

- 108 -

(14)

e1,e2,,en , (14)
n

c
ij

= 0 , i = 1,2,...,n .

(15)

j= 1

(15) n- n- 1,..,n.
C=(cij) .

- 109 -

1)
R2
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)}
) T(x,y)=(2x, 3x-y) ) T(x,y)=(3x-4y, x+5y)
2)
{f1=(1,3), f2=(2,5)}
. R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z)

{e1=(1,0,0), e2=(0,1,0), e3=(0,0,1)} :
a1 a2 a3

[T]e= 1 2 3

3
2
1

3)

4)

. R3 {ei}, i=1,2,3
) T(x,y,z)=(2x-3y+4z, 5x-y+2z, 4x+7y) ) T(x,y,z)=(2y+z, x-4y, 3x)
5)

V . 22 R

1 2
: M=
. : VV
3 4
T : AVT(A)MA.
V :

1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
E1=
, E2=
, E3=
, E4=

0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1

6)

T : R3R2 , (x,y,z)=(3x+2y-4z, x-5y+3z)

) :
{f1=(1,1,1), f2=(1,1,0), f3=(1,0,0)} R3 {g1=(1,3), g2=(2,5)} R2
) [ T] f [v]f=[T(v)]g
g

- 111 -

VI

6.1.

' v v
v. x
v v v,
Tv=v.
(1)
, , (eigenvector),
, , (eigenvalue). v
. (1), , .
, (1) '
, , (.. , ...) .

, ,
x, y z.

, . ..
2

d2
+V(x)
Hamiltonian H=
2m dx2
:
2

d2
(2)
Hu=Eu

2 + V ( x) u( x) = Eu( x)
2m dx

u . (2) Schrdinger .

6.2

, nn. (1) v=v

(3)
Av=Iv

nn.
(4)
(3)
v-Iv=0 (A-)v=0
:
12
1n v1 0
11

22
2n v 2 0
21

(5)
=

n 2
nn v n 0
n1
(5) v0, (-) , :
11
12
1n
21
22
2n
det(A-)=
=0
(6)
n1

n 2

nn

det(A-I)0, (-)-1 (4) :

(-)-1(-)v=0 v=0
.
(6) n n ( ). (3),
, (spectrum),
.
()=det(A-I)
. 1 (5)
=1 :
(11 - 1) v1 + 12 v2 +...+ 1n vn = 0

21 v1 + (22 - 1) v2 +...+ 2n vn = 0
.......................................................
n1 v1 + n2 v2 +...+(nn - 1) vn = 0

(8)

n n : v1, v2, ,vn v 1. (8) v=(v1,v2,,vn)

. v1 1 ,
v1 ( ) . ( v1=1v1 (v1)=v1= =1v1=1(v1)). '
. ' ,
.
v1 (
).
- 113 -

 VI

1 n1, ' .
1 .
.
1, n1 1. n1
1. n>n

1 :
.
v1 v2 , :
Av1=v1 Av2=v2

(v1+v2)=v1+v2=v1+ v2=(v1+ v2)

kv v .
A(kv)=kAv=kv=(kv)

.

1 :
1 2
A=

3 2
:
1
2
|A-|=
=0 (1-)(2-)-6 2-3-4=0 1=-1 2=4
3
2
-1 4.

x
1=-1 (A-I)v=0, v= :
y
1+1 2 x 0

=
3 2 +1 y 0

2x +2y =0
2 2 x 0
x+y=0

=
3x +3y =0
3 2 y 0

1
x=1 y=-1 v2= 1
= -1.
2=4 (A-I)v=0, :
3x +2y =0
14 2 x 0
3 2 x 0
3x-2y=0

=
=
3x 2y =0
3 24 y 0
3 2 y 0

- 114 -

2
x=2 y=3 v2=
3
2=4.

2 : ( ).
:
1 3 3

A= 3 5 3

6 6 4

:
3
1
3
|A-|= 3
5
3 =0 (+2)2(-4)=0
6
4
6
1=2= -2 3=4 2.
.
x

1,2=-2 (-)v=0 v= y :

z

3x 3y + 3z = 0
3
3 x 0
1 + 2

3x 3y +3z = 0 x-y+z=0
5 + 2
3 y = 0
3
6
6x 6y +6z = 0
6
4 + 2 z 0

.. x=1, y=1 z=0 x=1, y=0 z=-1.

1
1


v1= 1 v2= 0


0
1

2=-2.
1 v1 v2
1,2=-2. 1,2=-2
1,2=-2. v1 v2 .
3=4 (-)v=0 :
3x 3y +3z =0
14
x + y z =0
3
3 x 0

3 54 3 y + 0 3x 9y +3z =0 x 3y + z =0

6x 6y =0
x y =0
6 4 4 z 0
6
( x-y=0 )
- 115 -

 VI

x + y z =0
x + y z =0

x y =0
x 3y + z =0
x=1 y=1 z=2.
1
v3= 1 =4.
2

v3
.

3 :
3 1 1

B= 7 5 1

6 6 3

,
:
|B-|=(+2)2(-4)=0 1,2=-2 3=4
1,2 =-2 :
(-)v=0

x

v= y :

z

3 + 2 1
1 1 1 x 0
1 x 0

1 y = 0 7 7 1 y = 0
7 5 +2

6 3+2 z 0
6
6 6 1 z 0
x + y z =0
x y + z =0
7x + 7y + z =0
x y =0
6x +6y z =0

, .. x=1 y=1 z=0. :

1

v1,2= 1

0

1,2=-2
. 3=4 (-)v=0, :
7x-y+z=0
x=0
, .. y=1 x=0, y=1 z=1 :
- 116 -

0

v3= 1

1

3=-4 -
.

2 : 1
1.
2 -2 2
4 1.
3 -2 2, 1,
4 1.
1: v1,v2,,vn,
, ( ), 1,2,,n. v1,v2,,vn
.
: . n=1 v1 v10. n-1 v1,v2,..,vn-1
1v1+ 2v2++ n-1vn-1=0
: 1=2==n-1=0.
v1,v2,,vn :
(1)
1v1+ 2v2++ nvn=0
(1), :
1v1+ 2 v2++ n vn=0=0
(2)
11v1+ 2 2v2++ n nvn=0
(1) n :
(3)
1nv1+ 2 nv2++ n nvn=0
(3) (2) :
1(1-n)v1+n-1(n-1-n)vn-1=0
i , i-n0 in v1,vn-1 , :
1=2==n-1=0
(1) :
nvn=0 n=0
v1,,vn .
2 : nn
. ( ).
- 117 -

 VI

: , v
ABv=v. w=Bv , :
w=Bv=v
(1)
(1) ' :
BAw=BABv=Bv=w
(2)
(2) w .
.
.

3 : , , -1
-1.
: v
Av=v. ' -1 :
A-1Av=v=-1v A-1v=-1v
6.3

Tv=v
(1)
(T-)v=0 v0
(1)
. v :
(T-I)mv=0

(-)m-1v0
m
.

1 : k>m, :
(T-)kv=(T-)k-m(T-)mv=0
j<m w=(T-I)jv ,
m-j
(T-)m-jw=(T-)m-j(T-)jv=(T-)mv=0

(T-)m-j-1w=(T-)m-1v0

, ..
1: -
, .
2 : v m
(T-)m-1v
(T-)m-2v

- 118 -

(T-)v
.

2 : , (Hermitian),
.
: H+=H
(-)mv=0 (-)m-1v0
:

(( H I )

m 1

v , ( H I )

m 1

v 0

Hermitian "" ,
(-)v=0

v(H-))m-1v0
8, 6.4 (
Hermitian) R. :

{( H ) } = ( H ) = ( )
(( H I ) v , ( H I ) v ) = v ,{( H I ) } ( H I )
= ( v , ( H I )
( H I ) v ) = ( v, ( H I ) v ) 0
m 1 +

m 1

m 1

m 1

m 1

m 1

m 1

m 1 +

m 1

v =

2m 2

(-)2m-2v0
1, 2m-2<m m<2 m=1.

6.4(HERMITIAN)

4, Hermitian
Unitary .
, -
.

1 : , + :
(Av,u)=(v,A+u) v,u
, (djoint) , ( ).

(v,Au)=(Au,v)*=(u,A+v)*=(A+v,u)
+ :
(v,Au)=(A+v,u) v,u
1 : + .
- 119 -

 VI

,
.

1 : ' , v,u : (v,Au)=0.

: =0 (v,Au)=(v,0)=0.
, (v,Au)=0 v, u v=Au
(Au,Au)=0 Au=0
u ( ). =0.
2 : :
1.
(A+B)+ = A+ + B+
2.
(AB)+ = B+A+
3.
()+ = *A+

+ +
4.
( ) = A
:
1. v,u :

(v,[A + B] u) = ([A + B]v,u) = (Av+ Bv,u) = (Av,u) + (Bv,u) =

+

=(v,A+u)+(v,B+u)=(v,[A++B+]u)

( v,{[A + B]

})

[ A + + B+ ] u =0 ( 1)

[+]+-[+++]=0 [+]+=+++
2.

( v,[A,B] u) = (ABv,u) = (Bv,A u) = (v,B A u) ( v,{[AB]

+

})

B+ A + u =0

1, :
[]+-++=0 []+=++
3.
(v,[A]+u)=(v,u)=(Av,*u)=(v,A[*u])=(v,*Au)
[]+=*+ ( 1)
4.
(v[A+]+u)=([A+]v,u)=(A+v,u)=(v,Au) ( 1) [+]+=

3 : (A)ij = ij {ei}, + (A+)ij = *ji

[+]=[t]*
: ij=(ei,Aej) . :
ij=(ei,Aej)=(A+ei,ej)= (ej, A+ei)*=[A+]ji* [A+]ij=ji*
, .
2 : + , ., =+
, (self-adjoint). (Hermitian) .
- 120 -

2 Hermitian Hermitian.
Hermitian Hermitian R.

4 : ,
, [A,B]=AB-BA=0.
: = :
(AB)+=B+A+=BA=AB AB=Hermitian
()+ = , :
AB=(AB)+=B+A+=BA [A,B]=0
1 Hermitian .

5 : . =0
(v,Av)=0 v.
: ) =0 (v,Av)=0.
) (v,Av)=0 v =0.

(v+u,A[v+u])=(v,Av)+(u,Au)+ (v,Au)+ (u,Av)
:
(v,Au)+ (u,Av)=(v+u,A[v+u])-(v,Av)-(u,Au)
v,u.
(v,Av)
(v,Au)+(u,Av)=0.

(u,Av)=(Atu,v)=(Au,v)=(v,Au).
At=A .
(v,Au)=0 v u 1, =0.
(Unitary)
.

6 : ' Unitary , =0
(v,Av)=0 v.
: ) A=0 (v,Av)=0 v
) ,
(v,Au)+ (u,Av)=0
(1)
.
u iu :
(v,Aiu)+ (iu,Av)=I[(v,Au)- (u,Av)]=0
- 121 -

 VI

(v,Au)- (u,Av)=0
v,u
(2)
(1) (2) (v,Au)=0 v,u 1
=0.
5 6 .

1 : '
( Unitary) =0 (v,Av)=0 v.
7 : Unitary Hermitian (v,Av)R
v.
: ) =+ :
(v,Av)= (A+v,v)= (Av,v)= (v,Av)* (v,Av)R
) , (v,Av)R v , :
(v,Av)=(v,Av)*= (Av,v)=(v,A+v) (v,[A-A+]v)=0 ( 5)
-+=0 =+

2 : 7 , (v,Av)R,
. (v,Av)
' , ' Unitary Hermitian.
(v,Av) . v ,
.
||v||=1, (v,Av)
( ) -
v. . ' Hermitian.
Hermitian ,
Hermitian .
.

8 : Hermitian .
:
( v,Av)
Av=v (v,Av)= (v,v)=||v||2 =
R
2
v
6.6, 1.
- 122 -

1 : , Hamiltonian
H=

p2 1
+ m2 x 2
2m 2

.
Hu=Eu , ||u||=1. :
p2 1

u + u, m 2 x2 u =
= (u,Hu) = u,

2m 2
=

1
1 +
p u,pu + m 2 x+ u,xu =
2
2m
1
1
(pu,pu)+ m 2 (xu,xu)
=
2m
2

p x, Hermitian . :
1
1
=
|| pu | |2 + m2 || xu | |2 0 m,>0
2m
2
6.5UNITARY

: U ' Unitary , :
U+U=I
. UU+=I
U Unitary .
, ' , : A+A=I, .
1 : Unitary ,
.
2: , U+, (U+U=I), U+
(UU+=I)
1 .
U , U Unitary.

- 123 -

 VI

3: Unitary Unitary (
) .
, .

1 : Unitary Unitary
.
1.
U+U=I
2.
(Uu,Uw)=(u,w)
u,w
3.
||Uu||=||u||
u
+
: U U=I, :
(U u,U w)=( u,U + U w)=( u,w) u,w
w=u, :
2

(U u,U u) = ( u,u) ||U u|| =||u|| ||U u||=||u||

(1) (2) (3).
(3) (1) .
||Uu||2=(Uu,Uu)= (U+Uu,u)= (u,u) ({U+U-I}u,u)=0
U+U-I
[U+U-I]+=(U+U)+-I+=U+(U+)+-I=U+U-I
1 , :
U+U-I=0 U+U=I
.
3 .
u,w.
(u, w )
(1)
cos =
|| u |||| w ||
, ( 2) ( 3).
.
.

2 : {ei} , {Uei}
U.
:
(Uei,Uej)= (ei,ej)=ij
{Uei} .
- 124 -

{Uei} {Uei} Parseval ( 5, 3, 2). :

(u,Ue )(Ue ,v) = (U u, e )(e ,U

i

v) = (U + u,U+ v)

' {ei} .

(U+u,U+v)= (u,UU+v)= (u,v)

Parseval {Uei} .
, .

ij , , :

ik

jk = ki kj = ij
k

U.
, [U]ij = uij : [U+]ij = u*ji
:

UU+ =U+ U=I [UU+ ]ij= uik ujk* =[U+ U]ij=

k

*
ki

ukj= ij

: uij=uij* .
1.
.

3 : , detA=1
: : AtA=I. :
det(AtA)=detAtdetA=(detA)2=1 detA=1
+1 -1 , , ' .
U Unitary , :
|detU|=1 detU=ei R

6.6

'
. Hermitian .

1 : .
: Av=v v0. :
- 125 -

 VI

(1)
(v,Av)=(v,v)=(v,v)
:
(v,Av)=(Av,v)= (v,v)=*(v,v)
(2)
(2) (1) : (v,v)(-*)=0
v0 (v,v) 0 =* R.
8 4.

2 : 1.
: U Uu=u, (u0), :
||v||=||Uv||=||u||=||||u|| ||=1
3 : ,
.
: Av1=1v1 Av2=2v2 12
1. , :
(1)
(v1,Av2)=(v1,2v2)= 2(v1,v2)

(v1,Av2)= (v1,v2)= (1v1,v2)= 1*(v1,v2)= 1(v1,v2)

(2)
+
= .
(2) (1), :
(v1,v2)(2-1)=0 (v1,v2)=0 12
2. , :
(1)
(v1,v2)= (Av1,Av2)= (1v1,2v2)=1*2(v1,v2)
2
|| =*=1 ,

(1) (v1,v2)= 2 (v1,v2) 1(v1,v2)=2(v1,v2) (1-2)(v1,v2)=0 (v1,v2)=0

1
' 12.

1 :
, n .
,
. k (kn) ( ),
6.8, 1, k ( ' ) . k (n-k) . Gram-Schmidt
k k .
. , ( ), , (
' ).
- 126 -

,
.
.

1 : Lorentz.
.
cos sin
R=

sin cos

. Lorentz Lorentz, - v, x3x3.
Lorentz :
x1=x1
x2=x2
(1)
x3=(x3-vt)
vx
t= t 23

1
1 2

, v/c c .

(1) , x4=ict
:
4

x
i =1

2
i

=x12+ x22+ x32-c2t2

(2)

(2)
' .
(x1,x2,x3,x4=ict), Minko-wski.
Lorentz :
0
0
1 0
0 1
0
0
L=
(3)
0 0
i

0 0 i
:

- 127 -

 VI

x1

x1
x1

x2

x2
2
= x v ct =

=
3

x 3 x 3 + i (ict)
c

x 4 = ict ix 3 + x 4 i v x + ict

3
c

x1

x1

x2

x 2
=x
= ( x 3 vt ) =

x 3
v

ic t c 2 x 3

x 4 = ict

1
0
Lx=
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
i

0 i

Lorentz :
1

cosh
1 2

sinh= cosh 2 1 =

1 2

L :
0
0
1 0
0 1
0
0

L=L()=
0 0 cosh isinh

0 0 isinh cosh
R L. RtR=I L tL=I, . R R
-. R. L
v -v, ( -) L. R L .
Unitary R
L R L Unitarity, R+R=I
L+L=I. ' R Rt=R+ R+R=I R
Unitary. L LtL+ L L+L I. L Unitary.
Unitary R
( ). :
1=ei , 2=e-i
- 128 -

:
x1=(1,i) , x2=(1,-i)
:
|1,2|=|ei|=1

( 2)

1
1
(x1,x2)=(1,i) =(1,i) =11+ii=1-1=0 ( 3).
i
i

L Unitary , L Unitary. L+=L L (Hermitian) L

.
L .
L :
1=1 , 2=1 , l3=cosh+sinh , 4=cosh-sinh
,
x1=(1,0,0,0) , x2=(0,1,0,0) , x1=(0,0,1,i) , x1=(0,0,1,-i) ( 3)
. L Hermitian
L.
L ,
detL=1
, .

1 : , +=+.
2 : , (Hermitian ),
(Unitary ) . ( =-+ anti-hermitian (A=-A+)) .
4 : ' -
.
: :
Av=v A+v=*v
:
||Av||2=(Av,Av)= (A+Av,v)= (AA+v,v)= (A+v,A+v)=||A+v||2
(1)
t
+
, (-) (-) = -* (-) (1), :
||Av-v||2=||A+v-*v||2 Av=v A+v=*v
Av1=1v1 Av2=2v2
(v1,Av2)=2(v1,v2)
(v1,Av2)= (A+v1,v2)= (1*v1,v2)= 1(v1,v2)
- 129 -

 VI

(1+2) (v1,v2)=0 v1,v2)=0 12

3 :
, :
1
1
A (A + A+ ) + (A - A+ )
2
2
1
1
(A + A+ ) ( A + A+ ) .
2
2

1
1
A [ (A + A+ )]+ i[ (A - A+ )]
2i
2
1
1
B (A + A+ ) C i(A- A+ ) Hermitian.
2
2
,
.
6.7

T : VV V n.
:
0
1 0
0
0
2

n
0 0
{v1,,vn} V :
Tv1=1v1
Tv2=2v2

Tvn=nvn
v1, v2,,vn
1, 2,,n. :

1 : T : V V
D V .
D .
2 : ( = P-1AP), .
: Avi=ivi B=P-1AP.
- 130 -

P-1Avi=iP-1vi P-1AIvi=iP-1vi
P-1APP-1vi=iP-1vi (P-1AP)(P-1vi)=i(P-1vi)
Bui=iui B=P-1AP ui=P-1vi
i .
i ui=P-1vi, k vi Avi= vi, (
k ), k ui
Bui=ui.
ui :
k
k
k

-1
-1
=
=
i vi

P
P
u
v
i
i
i
i

i= 1

i= 1
i= 1
k

u = 0
i

i=1

k
k

-1
P i v i = 0 i v i = 0
i=1
i=1

vi , i=0

u = 0
i

i = 0

i=1

k ui .
, :
(B-I)=P-1AP-I=P-1AP-P-1IP=P-1(A-)
det(B-I)=det(P-1)det(A-)detP=det(A-)
,
.
,
.
( ) detA, :
detA=detB
n-1 trA trA=trB.
:
0
0
d 11 0

0
0 d 22 0
0 d 33
0
=D= 0

0
0
d nn
0
Av=v ,
n

det(D - I)= (d ii - )= 0
i= 1

- 131 -

 VI

i=dii, i=1,2,,n
.

, ( , )
.
n

det(D - I)= (d ii - )
i= 1

, (detA=detB), . (A=D)
.
,

detB= det A= det(D)=det(D- I) =0= (d ii- ) =0= d ii = i

i

, detB=ii i .
:
p1i
3 : vi= i=1,2,,n
p
ni
Avi=ivi. vi , P=(pij) ( vi), .
0
1 0
0
0
2
P-1AP=
=D=(iij)=(dij)

n
0 0

.
: vi ( ) , detP0 P-1 .

Avj=jvj

ik

pkj = j Ipij = pik kj j = pik dkj i=1,2,...n , j=1,2,...n

k

-1

AP=PD D=P AP
.

1 : "

, .

- 132 -

ng
i

= n =dimV

2 : ,
. , :
1
A=

0 1
AP=PD P-1AP=D.
( ) (
v) , n v,
AP=PD.
AP=P D=I .

3 : 3 ,

.
, . .
1 : , Pauli.
0 1
x=

1 0
( x spin : sx =

x )

x :
1
=(-)2-1=0 =1
det(x-)=
1
( spin Sx

)
2
' , xv=v , =1 =-1.
=1 :
0 1 v1 v1

= v1=v2=
1 0 v2 v2
=1 :
- 133 -

 VI

0

=-1 :

0


=
detP=-20

-1 :
1
P-1=
2
1 0 1 1 0 1 0

P-1xP=
=
=

2 1 0 0 1 0 2
' ,
Pauli . :
v=Iv=x2v=xxv=xv=xv=2v
(2-1)v=0 2=1 =1
Pauli,
, 1 .

6.8HERMITIANUNITARY

, ,
, . .
() , , ,
' .
n nn ( Hermitian Unitary ) ( n
) .
3 6.7
i i . :
(P-1AP)ij=iij
Unitary .
,

- 134 -

p11 p12

p21 p22
P=

p n1 p n 2

pin

p 2n

pnn

p1i

p2i
i vi= i
pni

( , ). -
:
n

( vi, vj)=

*
ki

P kj= ij

k= 1

:
P+P=I P=Unitary
Unitary . , .
Hermitian :
Hermitian , () , Hermitian
Hermitian + .
.. ( ) . , Unitary
+ Hermitian. ( ) . 0 k
k Unitary .
0 0.

1 : Hermitian ( ) Unitary , Unitary U, U-1 AU .

- 135 -

 VI

, 2x2, (n-1)(n-1) nn.

.
1, :

2: ()
.
3 6.6
Hermitian A=B+iC.
Hermitian Unitary .
. Hermitian
) ; ,
( )
' C.
C.
C , '
.

C.
3 : Hermitian C
, .
: ) {vi}
C.
Bvi=bivi Cvi=civi Bcvi=B(civi)=ciBvi=cibivi

Cbvi=cibivi
(BC-CB)vi=0 vi , (BC-CB)vi=0 vi . BC=CB.
) . BC=CB bi, vi .
:
Cbvi=biCvi B(Cvi)=bi(Cvi)
Cvi bi. . :
1) , bi 1.
i Cvi vi : Cvi=civi vi
C ci.
2) , m>1.
m (Cvi(1), Cvi(2) ,,Cvi(m)) bi
m
vi(1), vi(2) ,, vi(m) bi.
- 136 -

Xi(k) :
m

(1)
i

Cv =

j1 v(j)
i

j=1
m

C v(2)
i =

j2

v(j)
i

j=1

........................................................
m

C v(m)
i =

jm

v(j)
i

j=1

ij Hermitian.
vi(k) bi
C.
m

(k)

vi

k=1

C, ( ), :
m

C( k v(k)
i )
k=1

jk v(j)
i

j,k = 1

:
m

C( j x(j)
i
j= 1

k :
m

jk

k = c j

k=1

mm Hermitian jk.
m . m C, ,
m () m
m

u(i ) =

(k ) v(k)
i

k=1

C.
( ) ( Hamiltonian), L2 (
) Lz ( z- ),
,
.
Hermitian ( 1)
.

- 137 -

 VI

4 : Unitary -
, .
: Hermitian ( 3, 6.6).
1
1
A = B + iC =
(A + A+ ) + i (A - A+ )
2
2i
Unitary
Hermitian C
C , + . .
Unitary ( ), Unitary .
.
Hermitian
, :
1=23=4=567n
v1,v2,,vn.
6,7,,n :
ij=(vi,vj)=(vi,jvj)=j(vi,vj)=iij , j=6,7,,
:
11=(v1,Av1)=(v1,1v1)=1(v1,v1)
22=(v2,Av2)=(v2,2v2)=2(v2,v2)
:
12=(v1,Av2)=(v1,2v2)=2(v1,v2)=1(v1,v2) 1=2
21=(v2,Av1)=(v2,1v1)=1(v2,v1)=1(v1,v2)*
(v1,v2)0 Hermitian .
12 21 . 34, 35,
43, 45, 53, 54 .
:

- 138 -

0
0
1 12 0

0
0
0
21 1
0
0
3 34 35

0 43 3 45
0

A= 0
0 53 54 3
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0
0

n
0
0
0

2x2
1=2 3x3 3=4=5.

, .
Gram-Schmidt
v1,v2,,vn e1,e2,,en .

- 139 -

VII

HILBERT

7.1

, , ,
.
.
.
. .

vk .

k=1

. ;
; ( ) ;
, , Hilbert
, . vk ,
. , , .. , Legendre,
Hermite Laguerre Hilbert.
, Hilbert . , ' Hilbert () ' Hilbert.

, . , ' .
7.2 HILBERT

Pn n. , .
. - 141 -

 VII

x [,b] .
L2, .
f1 f2 :
(f1+f2)(x)f1(x)+f2(x)
:
(f)(x)f(x)

. ,

,
;
:
2

|f 1+ f 2 | = |f 1 | +|f 2 | + f 1* f 2+ f 1 f 2*=
2

=|f 1 | +|f 2 | +2Re(f 1* f 2)|f 1 | +|f 2|f 2 | +2|f 1* f 2*|

2

(1)

|f 1 | +|f 2 | +2|f 1||f 2|

2

0(|f1|-|f2|) =|f1| +|f2|2-2|f1||f2| |f1|2+|f2|22|f1||f2|

(1), (2) |f1+f2|22|f1|2+2|f2|2
(3) :

1.

( f (x) + f

(2)
(3)

(x) ( dx 2 | f1 (x) |2 dx + 2 | f 2 (x) |2 dx +

f1(x)+f2(x) =
2.

(cf (x) |2 dx = | c |2 | f (x) |2 dx =| c |2

| f (x) |2 dx +

, , :
b

(f 1 ,f 2) f 1* (x) f 2 (x)dx

1 2
2
|f 1* f 2|= |f 1||f 2| (|f1 | + |f 2 | )
2
1 b 2
i b 2
b
|f 1* f 2|dx |f 1| dx+ |f 2 | dx< +
2
2
b

f 1* f 2dx < +
2

f1=f2=f (f,f) ||f|| = |f(x)| dx < +

||f|| norm f.
(4) ,
,
.
:
2 b

(f,f) ||f|| |f(x) | dx 0

- 142 -

 HILBERT

(f,f)=0 f(x)=0 , x[,b] ;

f(x)
, . , ' [,b].

.
Riemann . .. f(x) 1 [0,1],
0 . " " , , . Riemann [0,1] xi :

f (x)dx= ximax[f(x)]= 1 , xi x xi+ xi

i

f(x)dx= ximin [f(x)]= 0 , xi x xi xi

i

Riemann .
Lebesgue ,
f(x) f(x)=0,
f(x)=0 .
Lebesgue Riemann .. .
Riemann , Lebesgue.
, f ' (f,f)=0, f(x) x, , ' . (f,f)=0 f(x)=0 . ,
, .
'
(4) .

(4) Unitary .
,
. Cauchy9 , .

vn, n N, Cauchy :
(>0)(n0)[ n,mn0 ||vn-vm||< ]
- 143 -

 VII

.
n
1
Sn =
k=0 k!
e . . Riesz-Fischer
.

1 : ,
1.
2.
3. ( norm )
4. 10
Hilbert.
1 : Hilbert . Hilbert
. Hilbert 1 4.
2 : .
3 : .
Hilbert ,
l 2()
1 : l 2()

1
= 2

Cauchy
.
10

V ,

( V) : A =V.
:
(vV)(>0)(nN)[ ||v-vn||< ]
- 144 -

 HILBERT

|2<+

(1)

k=1

Hilbert :
1 + b1
+b= 2 + b2

1
= 2

:
( ,b) =

(2)

(3)

(4)

b
*
k

k=1

' (2) (3) :

1. n
1/2

1/2

| k + b k |2
+ |b k |2 1/2
| k |2
k = 1

k = 1

k = 1

v ,bl 2()

2.

| =| |

k=1

|2 <+ ' (1)

k=1

(4) SchwarzCauchy v , :
1/2

*
| k bk |= | k ||bk | | 2k |
k=1
k=1
k = 1

*
k

b k |< +

k= 1

3. :

1(n)
(n)
(1), (2),... Cauchy (n)= 2

k=1,2,... :
(n)
(m)
(n)
|(m)
k - k | || - ||
- 145 -

1/ 2

|b k |2
k = 1

 VII

k k(1) , k(2) , k(3) Cauchy bk.

b1

b= b2

l 2() (1), (2),... b.

n , :
1/ 2

|b k - k(n) |2
k = 1

1/2

|b k - k(m) |2
k = 1

1/2

+ | k(m) - k(n) |2
k = 1

(5)

m=1,2,...
(1), (2),... Cauchy :

( > 0)( n o ( ) N )( v N )m,n > n o ( ) | k(m) - k(n) |2 || (m) - (n) ||2 <
4

k =1

' limmk(m)=bk, :

(k N)( N)( >0)( n v ( ) N)m > n v ( ) |b k - k(m) | <

k + 1

2
2

(5) n>no() N :

1
1
+
|b k - k(n) |2

+ =
(6)
k +1
2 k =02k 2
k = 1

k =12 2

(6) n n>no()
(6) : ( n)
1/ 2

|b k - k(n) |2
k = 1

n>n0()

(7)

n :
1/2

1/ 2

1/2

2
2
(n)
|b k |
+ | k(n) |2
|b k k |
k = 1

k = 1

k = 1

2
n bl () (7) (1), (2),...
b.

- 146 -

 HILBERT

4. l 2(), D
l 2() , ,
(8)
n+1=n+2==0
k. D . D
l 2(), c l 2() ck k . c l 2(), :

2
( 0) (u N) | c k |2
2
k = n +1
. , D (8)
:

|ck - k | <
k=1,2,n
2n
:

||c - ||= |c k - k |2 + |c k |2
k = 1

k = n+ 1
l 2() .

1/2

<

7.3,

' V F, v1,v2,v3,.,vn :
1v1+ 2v2++ nvn=0 iF I=1,2,,n
: 1=2==n=0.
( )
,

1 : S ( ) V ,
S .
2 : ( , ) S V u V
- 147 -

 VII

u=1v1+ 2v2++ nvn v1, v2, , vnS

S,
n

u = lim un

un + k vn
k=1

3 : ( ) S, V
, V.
4 : V (
) k
k .
' V n, 4, V n , V + V .

7.4

1 : S (Hilbert)
(S) , :
(,F)(f,g)[f+gS]
F=R C .
S ( 3, 7.2)
' .
2 : S , f,
fnS, S, S
[S].
1 : [S] Hilbert Hilbert.
2 : (S) Hilbert
, ( S )
(S) [S] : ( S )=[S].

3 : (S) S Hilbert S

- 148 -

 HILBERT

11 S. [S] SH S.
, (S)=[S]
.
7.5 HILBERT

Hilbert (2.11 2),

().

1 : ( ) S
,
, (vi,vj)=0, ij.
vi
|| vi ||=

(v i , v i ) = 1

S . vi
, :
(vi , vj) = ij
.

2 : {v1,v2,..} ,
uH i=(vi,vi) Fourier u
{v1,v2,...}.
1 : S
.
n

vk = 0 , n

k=1

vkS k=0, k=1,...,n

n

vk = 0 :

k=1

0 =|| k vk ||2 = ( 1v1+...+ n vn , 1v1+...+ n vn ) =

k=1

11

| k |2

1 = 2 =...= n = 0

k=1

ST,
(S)T.
- 149 -

 VII

1 : ,
, ' , .
2 : S
(S) S, - (S), (T)=(S).
, S .
: S :
S={u1, u2, }
S ' .
S ,
Gram-Schmidt
T={v1 ,v2 , }
u n (vn -1,u n ) vn -1 (v1,u n ) v1

(1)
vn =
u n (vn -1,u n ) vn -1 (v1,u n ) v1
(1) vn
un . (T)=(S).
S ,
S So : n=1,2,.. un So u1,...,un-1. So
Gram-Schmidt .

3 : V={v1,v2,..,vn}
n

uH ,

b v
i

bi -

i=1

v
i

i=1

i=(u,vi) Fourier u V
n

i=1

i=1]

||u- i vi || ||u- bi vi ||

: o bi :
n

||u - bi vi ||
i=1

. :
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

2
||u - bi vi || = u - bi vi , u - bj vj = ( u,u ) b i* ( v i ,u ) - b j u,v j + b *i b j v i ,v j =
i=1

i
j
i =1 j =1
i=1
j=1
- 150 -

( )

 HILBERT

( u,u ) b ( v i ,u ) - bi (u,v j ) + b b
n

*
i

i =1

*
i i

( )

=||u|| b ( v i ,u ) - b i v j ,u + b *i b i =
2

*
i

i =1

= ||u|| - |(vi ,u)| + |(vi ,u) - bi |

2

i=1

i=1

||u- bi vi ||= min bi=(vi,u)

i=1

:
n

||u- (vi ,u)vi || =||u|| - |(vi ,u)|

2

i=1

i=1

,
n

|(v ,u)| ||u||

2

i=1

Bessel.

4 : {v1,v2,}
. u :

|(v ,u) |

||u||

i=1

:
n

Sn =

Bessel

|(v ,u) |

, ||u||2

i=1

, n
||u||2.

|(v ,u) |

i=1

||u||2, :

|(v ,u) |

||u||

i=1

, Bessel.
,
.

5 : {v1,v2,} , i

u = i vi (i=1

- 151 -

 VII

i=1

Sn = n vn ).
i-1

| =||u||

k=1

6 : V . S V .
: v vS ,
(v , v)=0 ||v||=||v||=1
:
1/2

||v - v ||= (v - v , v - v ) =

(1)

V , D={y1, , yk, }
D =V. v v Yn Ym
D :

2
2
d(v ,ym) =||v - ym ||<

3
3
:
||v - v || ||v -yn ||+||yn ym ||+||ym - v ||
d(v ,yn)=||v -yn ||<

(2)
(3)

(1) (2)

||yn - ym ||>

2
3

3
,
2
D D vS ,
vS , d(v ,yn) <

d(v ,ym)<

3
, D D D D ,
2

D D= ( yD d(v ,y)<

3
3
, d(v ,y)> .
2
2

yD
S (D)
D

D D
S .
- 152 -

 HILBERT

7 : V ,
.
:
.
V , D={...,yk,...}
D =V.
D
.
D . x1 D, y1 . x2 yk(k>1),
x1=1.
x3 yeD,(l>k>1)
x1=1 x2=yk.
S={..., xk,...} (
) .
:
n

L= k x k / n = 1,2,... x k S k
k =1

S. S L L L.
S Gram-Schmidt B={l1,l2,...,lk,...} L. L
V. L '
D. , ye S, xk ye.
D=V DLV. L =V {l1,...,lk,...}
V.
, '
V , u

u= k lk
k=1

{l1,..,lk,...} .

2 : 7 ' ,
.
, . ,
- 153 -

 VII

k=(lk,u) ,
.
,
, .
( ),
' V,
' . 12 .

3 : S={..., v,...} ,
) (v , v) = 0
) ||||=1
) vV VU{v} , S .
.

8 : ' V ,
S ( V) S
.
: S={...,v,...} . v0 V
( v, v)=0 vS. v
V, V S. v
( vV), .
3 : 8, 7 '
.
4 : 8 . , . ,
,
.
7,
.

12

() .

- 154 -

 HILBERT

9 : V
S, .
: S= { l1,...lk,...} . D lk 13. D . , uV , D
= r k lk ( rk ), :
k

d(u,w)=||u-w||=||( k r k )lk|| ||(k r k )lk||= |k r k|||lk||= |k -r k|< >0.

k

, |k-rk|
rk.
V V .
7 9 , :
" , ".

13

.
- 155 -

1)

1)
u(t)
2
v(t)=2t +3t-4, w(t)=t2-2t-3, ) u(t)=3t2+8t-5, ) u(t)=4t2-6t-1.
2)

1 1
1 1
1 1
=
, =
, =

0 1
1 0
0 0

3 1
2 1
) =
, ) =

1 2
1 2
3)
v=2+3i, u=1-2i C
, C . R .
4)
v=(1+i , 2i) w=(1 , 1+i) . C2
C R.
5)
V . ,
f: R R. f(x), g(x), h(x)V : 1)
f(x)=e2x, g(x)=x2, h(x)=x, 2) f(x)=sinx, g(x)=cosx, h(x)=x.

6)
(1-x)3, (1-x)2, 1-x, 1 3.
7)
. R3, . ,
U={(,,0)} ( ) W v1=(1,2,3) v2=(1,-1,1).
W={(,,)} R3
) =2, ) , ) =0, ) ==, ) =2, ) 1+2+3=0 , iR
i=.
8)

9)

U, V, W R3 :
U={(,,) / ++=0},
V={(,,) / =},

W={(0,0,) / R}

1) R3=U+V, 2) R3=U+W, 3) R3=V+W.

;
U W R3 :
U={(,,) / ==} W={(0,,)}=
R3=UW
10)

11)
V . nn R. U
W , . U={M / Mt=M,
MV} W={M / Mt=-M, MV}. V=UW.
12)
V={f(x) / f : R R } . ,
U={f(x) / f : R R f(-x)=f(x) } , W={f(x) / f : R R f(-x)=-f(x) }
. V=UW.
13)

U W . V.
)
U, W U+W
)
U+W V U
W, . U+W=L(U,W).
14)
U W V
UW . UW WU.

2) W R4 :
v1=(1,-2,5,-3), v2(2,3,1,-4), v3=(3,8,-3,-5)
) W.
) R4.
3) W
v1(x)=x3-2x2+4x+1, v2(x)=x3+6x-5, v3(x)=2x3-3x2+9x-1, v4(x)=2x3-5x2+7x+5
W.
4) U W R4 , :
U={(,,,) / ++=0}, W={(,,,) / +=0, =2}
i) U, ii) W, iii) UW
5) V . 22. dimV=3.

- 157 -

6)
V x n.
V.
(1) {1, x, x2,,xn} (2) {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n} dimV=n

1) V . :

(f (x), g(x)) = f (x)g(x)dx

1

. f(x)=x+2, g(x)=x2-2x-3. ) (f(x),g(x)),

) ||f(x)||, ||g(x)||.

2)

C[-1,1] [-1,1], f(x), g(x)C[-1,1] .
)

(f,g)= (1 x 2 )f ( x)g( x)dx

(f,g)= x 2f ( x)g( x)dx

1)
:
) : R2 R2 , T(x,y)=(x+y,x) ) T : R3 R , T(x,y,z)=2x-3y+4z
2)
:
) : R2 R , T(x,y)=xy ) T : R2 R3 , T(x,y)=(x+1,2y,x+y)
) T : R3 R2 , T(x,y,z)=(|x|,0)
3)
V nn
F. V, : VV ()=+ AV .
4)
: R2 R (1,1)=3
(0,1)=-2. T(x,y).
T : R3R3
T(x,y,z)=(x+2y-z, y+z, x+y-2z)
) U=ImT ) W=kerT
5)

1)

S T :
- 158 -

S : R2R2 , S(x,y)=(y,x) , T : R2R2 , S(x,y)=(0,x)

S+T, 2S-3T, TS, S2, T2.
2) R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)
) , ) -1 .

1)
R2
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)}
) T(x,y)=(2x, 3x-y) ) T(x,y)=(3x-4y, x+5y)
2)
{f1=(1,3), f2=(2,5)}
. R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z)

{e1=(1,0,0), e2=(0,1,0), e3=(0,0,1)} :

3)

1 2

[T]e= 1 2

1 2

4)

. R3 {ei}, i=1,2,3
) T(x,y,z)=(2x-3y+4z, 5x-y+2z, 4x+7y) ) T(x,y,z)=(2y+z, x-4y, 3x)
5)

V . 22 R

1 2
: M=
. : VV
3 4
T : AVT(A)MA.
V :

1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
E1=
, E2=
, E3=
, E4=

0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1

6)

T : R3R2 , (x,y,z)=(3x+2y-4z, x-5y+3z)

) :
{f1=(1,1,1), f2=(1,1,0), f3=(1,0,0)} R3 {g1=(1,3), g2=(2,5)} R2
- 159 -

) [ T] f [v]f=[T(v)]g
g

1)
u(t)
2
v(t)=2t +3t-4, w(t)=t2-2t-3, ) u(t)=3t2+8t-5, ) u(t)=4t2-6t-1.
u(t)=v(t)+w(t) 3t2+8t-5=(2t2+3t-4)+(t2-2t-3)
: )
3t2+8t-5=(2+)t2+(3-2)t+(-4-3)
2+=3 , 3-2=8 , -4-3=-5 =2, =-1
) .
2)

1 1
1 1
1 1
3 1
2 1
=
, =
, =
) =
, ) =

0 1
1 0
0 0
1 2
1 2
: ) =++
3 1 + + +

1 2 = 0 + 0 + 0 0 =

++=3, +-=-1, -=1, -=-2 =2, =-1, =2
) .

3)
v=2+3i, u=1-2i C
, C . R .
: z=x+yi.
, z=v+u. ,
z=v+u x+yi=(2+3i)+(1-2i) x=2+ , y=3-2
2x + y
3x +2y
, =
=
7
7
4)
v=(1+i , 2i) w=(1 , 1+i) . C2
C R.
: ) v, w : c1v+c2w=0 c1=x1+iy1,
c2=x2+iy2 , :
(x1+iy1)[1+i , 2i]+(x2+iy2)[1 , 1+i]=0
[x1+x2-y1+i(x1+y1+y2), -2y1+x2-y2+i(2x1+x2+y2)]=(0+i0, 0+i0)
x1+x2-y1=0 , x1+y1+y2=0, -2y1+x2-y2=0, 2x1+x2+y2=0
d=0.
, x1, y1, x2, y2 - 160 -

c1, c2 . v, w C.
)
, : c1v+c2w=0
c1[1+i , 2i]+c2[1 , 1+i]=0 [c1(1+i)+c2 , 2ic1+c2(1+i) ]= (0+i0, 0+i0)
c1=0, c2=0
v, w R.
5)
V . ,
f: R R. f(x), g(x), h(x)V : 1)
f(x)=e2x, g(x)=x2, h(x)=x, 2) f(x)=sinx, g(x)=cosx, h(x)=x.
: 1) c1e2x+c2x2+c3x=0 x. x1, x2,
x3 x , :
c1e 2x1 + c 2 x12 + c 3 x1 =0
e 2x1 x12 x1

c1e 2x2 + c 2 x 2 2 + c 3 x 2 =0 e 2x2 x 2 2 x 2 0

e 2x3 x 3 2 x 3
c1e 2x3 + c 2 x 3 2 + c 3 x 3 =0
c1=c2=c3=0 e2x,
x2, x
2)
6)
(1-x)3, (1-x)2, 1-x, 1 3.
: 3(x)=3x3+2x2+1x+0 c3, c2, c1, c0 3(x)=c3(1-x)3+c2(1-x)2+c1(1-x)+c0 ,
3x3+2x2+1x+0=c3(1-3x+3x2-x3)+c2(1-2x+x2)+c1(1-x)+c0
(3+c3)x3+(2+3c3+c2)x2+(1-3c3-2c2-c1)x+(0+c3+c2+c1+c0)=0
3+c3=0 , 2+3c3+c2=0 , 1-3c3-2c2-c1=0, 0+c3+c2+c1+c0=0
c3, c2, c1, c0
3, 2, 1, 0 :
c3=-3 , c2=33-2 , c1=-33+22+1 , c0=3-2-1-0 .
7)
. R3, . ,
U={(,,0)} ( ) W v1=(1,2,3) v2=(1,-1,1).
: wW :
w=v1+v2=(1,2,3)+(1,-1,1)=(+,2-,3+)
w . U , . 3+=0 =-3.
w=(-2,5,0)=(-2,5,0) =1 w=(-2,5,0)
- 161 -

W={(,,)} R3
) =2, ) , ) =0, ) ==, ) 2=0, ) 1+2+3=0 , iR
i=.
: ) W={(2,,)} . W :
,R w1,w2W w1+w2R
w1=(21,1,1) w2=(22,2,2)
w1+w2=(21,1,1)+(22,2,2)=(2(1+2), 1+2, 1+2)
.
W . .
111 , 222
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2)
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
1+2 1+2 1+2 , .
W . .
11=0 , 22=0
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2)
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
(1+2)(1+2)=0
(1+2)(1+2)=211+222+(12+21)=(12+21)
.. 1=0, 2=0 20, 10
11=0 22=0
W . .
1=1=1 , 2=2=2
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2)
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
1+2= 1+2= 1+2
W . .
112=0 , 222=0
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2)
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
(1+2)(1+2)2=0
(1+2)(1+2)2=3112+2122+22112+2212+3222+22212=
=2122+22112+2212+22212
112=0 , 222=0 :
1=0, 10, 20, 2=0 112=0 , 222=0
(1+2)(1+2)20 2212 .
W . .
w2=(2,2,2)

11+21+31=0

w1=(1,1,1),
12+22+32=0
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
8)

- 162 -

: (11+21+31)+(12+22+32)=0
w1+w2 W
W . .
U, V, W R3 :
U={(,,) / ++=0},
V={(,,) / =},
W={(0,0,) / R}
3
3
3
1) R =U+V, 2) R =U+W, 3) R =V+W.
;
: 1) (x,y,z)R3 .
u=(1, 1, 1)U 1+1+1=0 (1)
(2)

v=(2, 2, 2)V 2=2

:
(x,y,z)=u+v=(1, 1, 1)+(2, 2, 2)=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
x=1+2 (3) y=1+2 (4) z=1+2 (5)
(1), (2), (3), (4), (5) 5 :
1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , 2. , R3=U+V.
U+V .
UV .
U, V (,,) ++=0 =, . +2=0. : (,-2,).
9)

2) (x,y,z)R3 .
u=(1, 1, 1)U 1+1+1=0 (1)

w=(0, 0, 2)W
:
(x,y,z)=u+w=(1, 1, 1)+(0, 0, 2)=(1, 1, 1+2)
x=1 (2) y=1 (3) z=1+2 (4)
(1), (2), (3), (4) 4 4 : 1, 1 ,
1 , 2.
1=x , 1=y , 1=-x-y , 2=x+y+z
3
R =U+V.
U+V : R3=UV.
3) (x,y,z)R3 .
u=(1, 1, 1)V 1=1 (1)

w=(0, 0, 2)W
:
(x,y,z)=v+w=(1, 1, 1)+(0, 0, 2)=(1, 1, 1+2)
x=1 (2) y=1 (3) z=1+2 (4)
(1), (2), (3), (4) 4 4 : 1, 1 ,
1 , 2.
- 163 -

1=x , 1=y , 1=-x , 2=z-x

R =U+V.
U+V : R3=UV.
3

U W R3 :
U={(,,) / ==} W={(0,,)}=
R3=UW
: R3=UW :
) UW={0} ) R3=U+W.
UW={0} v=(,,)UW == =0 ===0
v=0.
v=(x,y,z)R3 : (x,y,z)=(,,)+(0,,)=(, +, +)
x=, y=+, z=+ =x, =y-x, =z-x .
(x,y,z)=(x,x,x)+(0,y-x,z-x)
3
R =U+W.
10)

V . nn R. U
11)
W , .
U={M / Mt=M, MV} W={M / Mt=-M, MV}.
V=UW.
: ) UW={0}.
UW 1) U M=Mt 2) MW M=-Mt =- =0
1
1
) V, = {A + At } + {A At }
2
2
1
{A + At } U
2
1
1
1
t
t
A + At } = At + ( At ) = {At + A}
{
2
2
2
1
{A + At } .
2
1
{A At } W
2
1
1
1
1
t
t
A At } = At (At ) = {At A} = {A At }
{
2
2
2
2
1
{A At } .
2
V V=U+W
UW={0} V=UW.

- 164 -

12)
V={f(x) / f : R R } . ,
U={f(x) / f : R R f(-x)=f(x) } , W={f(x) / f : R R f(-x)=-f(x) }
. V=UW.
: ) UW={0} ) V=U+W.
) f(x)=f(-x) f(-x)=-f(x) f(x)=-f(x) 2f(x)=0 f(x)=0
) Vf(x)={f(x)+f(-x)}+{f(x)-f(-x)}=f(x)+f(x), f(x)= , f(x)=
13)

U W . V.
)
U, W U+W
)
U+W V U
W, . U+W=L(U,W).
: ) uU. W V
0W. u=u+0U+W. U U+W. W U+W.
) , U+W V U W, L(U,W), .
L(U,W)U+W
, vU+W v=u+w=1u+1w, uU wW, v
UW L(U,W).
U+WL(U,W)

U+W=L(U,W)
14)
U W V
UW . UW WU.

1) W R4 :
v1=(1,-2,5,-3), v2(2,3,1,-4), v3=(3,8,-3,-5)
) W.
) R4.
: ) v1, v2, v3 .
c1v1+c2v2+c3v3=c1(1,-2,5,-3)+c2(2,3,1,-4)+c3(3,8,-3,-5)=0 (1)
c1+2c2+3c3=0 , -2c1+3c2+8c3=0 , 5c1+c2-3c3=0 , -3c1-4c2-5c3=0
c1 c2 c3 :
c1=c3 , c2=-2c3
. (1). v1, v2, v3 . .. v3
- 165 -

v1, v2 c3=1, c1=1, c2=-2

. v3=-1v1+2v2 . {v1, v2, v3}
v3 {v1, v2} , v1 =v2 .
{v1, v2} W
dimW=2.
) {v1, v2} {u3, u4}, {v1, v2} .. . u1=(0,0,1,0) u2=(0,0,0,1)
{v1, v2, u3, u4} . {v1, v2, u3,
u4} 4 , R4.
{v1, v2, u3, u4}
. :

1 2 5 3
||=

1 4

=7

2) W
v1(x)=x3-2x2+4x+1, v2(x)=x3+6x-5, v3(x)=2x3-3x2+9x-1, v4(x)=2x3-5x2+7x+5
W.
: {x3,
x2, x, 1} : v1=(1,-2,4,1), v2=(1,0,6,-5), v3=(2,-3,9,-1), v4=(2,-5,7,5)

1 2 4 1
||=

2 3 9
1

1
=0
6 5

2 5 7

{v1, v2, v3, v4} ,

c1, c2, c3, c4 :
c1v1+c2v2+c3v3+c4v4 =0 c1(1,-2,4,1)+c2(1,0,6,-5)+c3(2,-3,9,-1)+c4(2,-5,7,5)=0
c1+c2+2c3+2c4=0
-2c1+0c2-3c3-5c4=0
4c1+6c2+9c3+7c4=0
c1-5c2-1c3+5c4=0
:
c1=3c2-4c4 , c3=c4-2c2 c2, c4
c2=c4=1 c1=-1, c3=-1 : -1v1+v2-v3+v4 =0
- 166 -

v4=v1-v2+v3 v4.
{v1, v2, v3} .
: c1v1+c2v2+c3v3=0 :
c1+c2+2c3=0
-2c1+0c2-3c3=0
4c1+6c2+9c3=0
:
1

2 0 3 =0
4 6 9

, :
c1=3c2, c3=-2c2 c2
c2=1 c1=3, c3=-2 : 3v1+v2-2v3 =0
v2=-3v1+2v3 v2
v1=(1,-2,4,1), v3=(2,-3,9,-1) W.
3) U W R4 , :
U={(,,,) / ++=0}, W={(,,,) / +=0, =2}
i) U, ii) W, iii) UW
:
i) ++=0 0+++=0 , , .
1) =1, =0, =0 , 2) =0, =1, =0 , 3) =0, =0, =1
:
v1=(1,0,0,0), v2=(0,-1,1,0), v3=(0,-1,0,1)
{v1, v2, v3} U dimU=3
: =, =--
U : (,--,,). ,, , ..
ii) +=0, =2
.
1) =1, =0 , 2) =0, =1
:
v1=(-1,1,0,0), v2=(0,0,2,1)
{v1, v2} W dimW=2.
: =-, =2
W : (,-,2,).
, , ..
- 167 -

iii) UW :
++=0, +=0, =2
. =1
v=(3,-3,2,1). {v} UW dimUW=1.
, ,
: =3, =-3, =2 =1 v=(3,3,2,1).
4) V . 22. dimV=3.

: =
, (.

).
i) =1, =0, =1 ii) =0, =1, =0 iii) =0, =0, =1
:

1 0
0 1
0 0
1=
, 2=
, 3=

0 0
1 0
0 1
V . :
(1) V :

0 1 0 0
1 0
=
= 0 0 + 1 0 + 0 1 =1+2+3

{1, 2, 3} V.
(2) c1E1+c2E2+c3E3=0
1 0
0 1
0 0 0 0
c1
+ c1
+c3
=
c1=0 , c2=0 , c3=0
0 0
1 0
0 1 0 0
{1, 2, 3} .
{1, 2, 3} . V dimV=3.
V x n.
5)
V.
(1) {1, x, x2,,xn} (2) {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n} dimV=n
: (1) V 1, x, x2,,xn .
. {1, x,
x2,,xn} V dim=n.
(2) {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n}

.
- 168 -

n+1 {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n} V.

1) V . :

(f (x), g(x)) = f (x)g(x)dx

1

. f(x)=x+2, g(x)=x2-2x-3. ) (f(x),g(x)),

) ||f(x)||, ||g(x)||.
1

: ) (f (x), g(x)) = f (x)g(x)dx = ( x +2)( x 2 2x 3)dx =

1

( x3 7x 6)dx =

37
7
1

= x 4 x 2 6x =
4
2
4
0
) ||f(x)||=

||f(x)||=

(f (x), f (x)) =

(g(x), g(x)) =

f (x) dx = ( x +2) dx =
2

( x +2) 3

2
g(x) dx =

( x2 2x 3)

dx =

=
0

19
3

203
15

2)

C[-1,1] [-1,1], f(x), g(x)C[-1,1] .
)

(f,g)= (1 x 2 )f ( x)g( x)dx

(f,g)= x 2f ( x)g( x)dx

GramSchmidt un(x)=xn n=0,1,2,,n,

1
Legendre
1
2
-1x1
2
1[Pn (x)] dx = 2n +1
1
2
Chebyshev I
1
-1x1
[Tn (x)]
/2 n 0
2
dx
=

1 x
2
=0

1 1 x

Chebyshev II

-1x1

1 x 2

[U (x)]
1

Laguere

0x

exp(-x)

[L

- 169 -

( x)] exp( x)dx =1

2

1 x 2dx =

Associated
Laguere

0x

Hermite

-x

xkexp(-x)

[L

exp(-x2)

k
n

[H

( x) x k exp( x)dx =

( n + k )!
n!

( x)] exp( x 2 )dx =2n n!

2

1)
:
) : R2 R2 , T(x,y)=(x+y,x) ) T : R3 R , T(x,y,z)=2x-3y+4z
: ) v=(v1, v2) w=(w1,w2)
T(v+w)=T(v1+w1, v2+w2)=(v1+w1+v2+w2, v1+w1)=(v1+v2, v1)+(w1+w2, w1)=T(v)+T(w)
T(kv)=T(kv1,kv2)=(kv1+kv2, kv1)=k(v1+v2, v1)=kT(v)
.
) v=(v1, v2, v3) w=(w1, w2, w3)
T(v+w)=T(v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3)=2(v1+w1)-3(v2+w2)+4(v3+w3)=
=(2v1-3v2+4v3)+ (2v1-3v2+4v3)=T(v)+T(w)
T(kv)=T(kv1,kv2,kv3)=2kv1-3kv2+4kv3=k(2v1-3v2+4v3)=kT(v)
.
2)
:
) : R2 R , T(x,y)=xy ) T : R2 R3 , T(x,y)=(x+1,2y,x+y)
) T : R3 R2 , T(x,y,z)=(|x|,0)
:
)
T(v+w)=T(v1+w1, v2+w2)=(v1+w1)(v2+w2)=v1v2+w1w2+(v1w2+v2w1)=
=T(v)+T(w)+ (v1w2+v2w1) T(v+w) T(v)+T(w)

) ' (0,0)=(1,0,0)(0,0,0)
) (v+w)=(|v1+w1|,0) , T(v)=(|v1|,0) , T(w)=(|w1|,0) (|v1+w1|,0) (|v1|,0)+(|w1|,0) .
T(v+w) T(v)+T(w)

3)
V nn
F. V, : VV ()=+ AV .
: T(A+B)=(A+B)M+M(A+B)=(AM+MA)+(BM+MB)=T(A)+T(B)
T(kA)=(kA)M+M(kA)=k(AM+MA)=kT(A)

- 170 -

4)
: R2 R (1,1)=3
(0,1)=-2. T(x,y).
: v=(x,y). (x,y) e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1). fl=(1,1), f2=(0,1)
R2 v
:
v=(x,y)=c1f1+c2f2=c1(1,1)+c2(0,1)=(c1, c1+c2) c1=x , c1+c2=y c1=x , c2=y-x
v=(x,y)=xf1+[y-x]f2=x(1,1)+[y-x](0,1)
:
T(x,y)= T(c1f1+c2f2)=T(x(1,1)+[y-x](0,1))=xT(1,1)+[y-x]T(0,1)=3x+[y-x](-2)=5x-2y
(x,y)
x y, . T(x,y)=x+y
(x,y)=(1,1) T(1,1)=+=3 (x,y)=(0,1) T(0,1)==-2
+=3, =-2 =5, =-2
T(x,y)=5x-2y
T : R3R3
T(x,y,z)=(x+2y-z, y+z, x+y-2z)
) U=ImT ) W=kerT
: ) R3 U
T. R3 (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)
T(1,0,0)=(1,0,1) , T(0,1,0)=(2,1,1) , T(0,0,1)=(-1,1,-2)
, :

5)

1 2

D= 0 1 1 =0
1 1 2
(1,0,1) , (2,1,1) , (-1,1,-2) .
(1,0,1) , (2,1,1)
Im(T) T, 2
) (x,y,z) :
T(x,y,z)=(x+2y-z, y+z, x+y-2z)=(0,0,0)
:
x+2y-z=0 , y+z=0 , x+y-2z=0
. :
x+2y-z=0 , x+y-2z=0
dimW=1 x, y
: x=3z y=-z
W :
- 171 -

(x,y,z)=(3z,-z,z)=z(3,-1,1)
W {(3,-1,1)}

1)

S T :
S : R2R2 , S(x,y)=(y,x) , T : R2R2 , S(x,y)=(0,x)
S+T, 2S-3T, ST, TS, S2, T2.
: (S+T)(x,y)=S(x,y)+T(x,y)=(y,x)+(0,x)=(y,2x)
(2S-3T)(x,y)=2S(x,y)-3T(x,y)=2(y,x)-3(0,x)=(2y,-x)
(ST)(x,y)=S(T(x,y))=S(0,x)=(x,0)
(TS)(x,y)=T(y,x)=(0,y)
S2(x,y)=S(S(x,y))=S(y,x)=(x,y) S2=
T2(x,y)=T(T(x,y))=T(0,x)=(0,0) T2=
2) R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)
) , ) -1 .
: ) W=KerT :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)=(0,0,0)
2x=0, 4x-y=0, 2x+3y-z=0 x=0, y=0, z=0 W={0}
.
) (r,s,t) (x,y,z), T(x,y,z)=(r,s,t) (x,y,z)=T-1r,s,t)
x,y,z r,s,t. :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)=(r,s,t)
2x=r, 4x-y=s, 2x+3y-z=t x=r/2, y=2r-s, z=7r-3s-t
-1
T (r,s,t)=(r/2, 2r-s, 7r-3s-t)

1)

= + ,
(+)-1(-) .
: : At=A, Bt=-B, AB=BA. =(+)-1(-).
t=-1 t=I
t=(-)t[(+)-1]t=(A+B)[(At+Bt)-1]= (A+B)[(A-B)-1]
t=(+)-1(-) (A+B)[(A-B)-1]= (+)-1(2-AB+BA-B2)[(A-B)-1]=
=(A+B)-1(A+B)(A-B)(A-B)-1=I

- 172 -

1)
R2
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)}
) T(x,y)=(2x, 3x-y) ) T(x,y)=(3x-4y, x+5y)
: )
)

0 2
T(1,0)=(0,3)=0e1+3e2 T(0,1)=(2,-1)=2e1-e2 [T]e=

3 1
3 4
T(1,0)=(3,1)=3e1+1e2 T(0,1)=(-4,5)=-4e1+5e2 [T]e=

1 5

2)
{f1=(1,3), f2=(2,5)}
: (,)R2
{fi}.
(,)=(1,3)+(2,5)=(+2, 3+5) =+2 , =3+5 =2-5 , =3-
(,)=(2-5)f1+(3-)f2
)
T(x,y)=(2x, 3x-y)
4 18
T(f1)=T(1,3)=(2,0)=-4f1+6f2 , T(f2)=T(2,5)=(4,1)=-18f1+11f2 [T]f=

6 11
)

T(x,y)= (3x-4y, x+5y)

77 124
T(f1)=T(1,3)=(-9,16)=77f1-43f2 , T(f2)=T(2,5)=(-14,27)=124f1-69f2 [T]f=

43 69
. R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z)

{e1=(1,0,0), e2=(0,1,0), e3=(0,0,1)} :
1 2 3

[T]e= 1 2 3

3
2
1

3)

T(e1)=T(1,0,0)=(1, 1, 1)=1e1+1e2+1e3
T(e2)=T(0,1,0)=(2, 2, 2)=2e1+2e2+2e3
T(e3)=T(0,0,1)=(3, 3, 3)=3e1+3e2+3e3
1 2 3

[T]e= 1 2 3

3
2
1

: . V=Fn
.
- 173 -

4)

. R3 {ei}, i=1,2,3
) T(x,y,z)=(2x-3y+4z, 5x-y+2z, 4x+7y) ) T(x,y,z)=(2y+z, x-4y, 3x)
: :
2 3 4
0 2 1

)
[T]e= 1 4 0
)
[T]e= 5 1 2

4 7 0
3 0 0

5)

V . 22 R

1 2
: M=
. : VV
3 4
T : AVT(A)MA.
V :

1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
E1=
, E2=
, E3=
, E4=

0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1

:

1 2 1 0 1 0
T(E1)=ME1=

=
=1E1+0E2+3E3+0E4
3 4 0 0 3 0
1 2 0 1 0 1
T(E2)=ME2=

=
=0E1+1E2+0E3+3E4
3 4 0 0 0 3
1 2 0 0 2 0
T(E3)=ME3=

=
=2E1+0E2+4E3+0E4
3 4 1 0 4 0
1 2 0 0 0 2
T(E4)=ME4=

=
=0E1+2E2+0E3+4E4
3 4 0 1 0 4

0
[T]E=
3

0 2 0

1 0 2
tr(T)=1+1+4+4=10
0 4 0

3 0 4

12

= 11
21 22

=111+ 122+ 213+ 224

- 174 -

11

12
[]=

21

22

T : R3R2 , (x,y,z)=(3x+2y-4z, x-5y+3z)

) :
{f1=(1,1,1), f2=(1,1,0), f3=(1,0,0)} R3 {g1=(1,3), g2=(2,5)} R2

6)

) [ T] f [v]f=[T(v)]g
g

: ) 2 : (,)=(2-5)g1+(3-)g2
T(f1)=T(1,1,1)=(1,-1)=-7g1+4g2
T(f2)=T(1,1,0)=(5,-4)=-33g1+19g2

7 33 13

8
4 19

[ T] gf =

T(f3)=T(1,0,0)=(3,1)=-13g1+8g2
)
v=(x,y,z), {f1,f2,f3}
v=zf1+(y-z)f2+(x-y)f3 . :
(x,y,z)=(3x+2y-4z, x-5y+3z)=
=[2(x-5y+3z)g1 5(3x+2y-4z)]g1+[3(x-5y+3z)g1 (3x+2y-4z)]g1=
=(-13x-20y+26z)g1+(8x+11y-15z)g2
z
13x 20y +26z

[v]f= y z [T(v)]g=

8x +11y 15z

x y
z
7 33 13
13x 20y +26z
[ T] [v]f=
y z =
=[(v)
8
4 19
8x +11y 15z
x y
g
f

- 175 -

,115
,61
,150
,65
,4
,12
,65
,24
,4
,14
,4
,VI
,8
,50
,12
,20

B
Bessel,41,154

C
ChebyshevI,49
ChebyshevII,49

G
Gauss,69
GramSchmidt,44

Hermite,49
Hilbert,146

,2
,30

Laguere,49
Legendre,48
Lorentz,129
Lorenz,40

,119
,115
,59
,59
,57
,27
,41
,27
,V
,151
,83
,25
,VI

N
norm,36,49,145

S
Schrdinger,113

Unitary,125
Unitary,36

,VII,14
,14
,8
,75
,58
,95
.,58
,150
,32
,22

,4
,58
,26
,14
,24
.,24
,VII,3

- 177 -

,VI,19
,32
,32
,146

,93
,107
,85
,85
,9
,88
,14
,57
,20
,36
,3

,86
,115
,115
,67
,65
,113
,1
,1
,1
,2,33,36
,1
,26
,36

,VII,3
,88
,41
,151
,41
,66
,3

,3
,96
,VI
,8
,57
,64
,64
,63
,101
,71
,63
,71
,65
,71
,62
,63
,62
,62
,63
mn,57
,41
,4
,20
,36
,24
,3
,4
,86

,88
,113
,113
,115
,58
,125
,125
,89
,65

,41
,151
,V
,11
k,11
,62

,12
n,10
,65

- 178 -

,93
,,122
,92
,122
,131
,8
,125
,125
,122
,40
,61
,74

,13
,49,145
,36
,49
,57
,62
,121
n,10
,,36
,3
,26
,67
,VI,22
,121
,8
,152
,25,29
,VII
,15

,13
,VI,151

,114

,8
,93

,114

- 179 -


1.

"Linear Algebra and Geometry"

Dieundonne, Hermann, Paris, 1969

2.

"Linear Algebra"
VNR, New York,1971

3.

"Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces"

VNR, Princetan, New Jersey, 1958

4.

"Linear Algebra"
L.Lang. Addison Wisley, 1970

5.

"Linear Algebra"
P. Knopp, Hamilton Publishing Co., Santa Barbara, California 1974

6.

"Linear Algebra"
G. Shilov, Dover, New York, 1977

7.

Applied Algebra and Functional Analysis

A. Mixhel, C. Herget , Dover Publications, INC New York 1993

8.

Algebra
S. MacLane, G. Birkhoff, Chelsea Publishing Company, New York, 1967

9.

. Morris, . 1980

10.

Finite dimensional vector spaces

Princeton 1958