Petre Andrei University of Iai

Faculty of Law

ENGLISH FOR LAW

Second Year
First Semester

Professor: Roxana Patra, lecturer,

BA and MA of Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai

Target groups:

the students in the 2nd year at the Faculty of Law of Petre Andrei University
of Iasi.
Aims:

to actualize, learn and work with English syntax notions;

to integrate and recognize syntactic structures in law phrases and contexts;
to form and use orally complex language structures;
to discuss and debate over civilization issues such as British/American legal
system vs. Romanian legal system, British/American Laws vs. Romanian laws;

to comprehend and translate legal texts from and into English.
Term Evaluation:

the students will submit a term paper (written in English) on a specific legal
topic (30%);

the students will also get through a term examination which will consist of a
fifty-grid test (40%);

the students will also get marks for the seminar attendance during the semester
(30%).
Course Plan:
A. Grammar Notions

The Types of Sentences and of Clauses;

Constructions and Grammatical Functions;

The Subject-Predicate Accord;

Nouns Phrases vs. Verb Phrases;

Question Tags;

Collocation;

Reported Speech;
B. Civilization Notions

European/British/ American vs. Romanian Legal System;

European/British/American vs. Romanian Civil Codes (Laws on Labour, Family,
Propriety, Commerce etc.).
C. Appendices

Law Terminology;

Exercises and Further Practice;

English/European vs. Romanian Law Documents.

Bibliography:

Michael Brookes, David Holden & Wesley Hutchinson, Engleza pentru juriti,
traducere de Cristina Anghel, Bucureti, Teora, 2007;
Professional English in Use. Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
www.cambridge.org;
Amy Krois-Lindner & TransLegal, International Legal English. A course for
classroom and self-study use, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
www.cambridge.org;
Tom Hutchinson and Allan Waters, English for Specific Purposes. A learningcentered approach, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, www.cambridge.org;
Dan Dumitrescu, Dicionar juridic. Englez- Romn / Romn Englez, Bucureti,
Akademos Art, 2009;
Leon Levichi, Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureti, Teora, 2010;
Lazlo Budai, Gramatica englez. Teorie i exerciii, Bucureti, Teora, 2008;
Constantin Paidos, English Grammar. Theory and Practice, ed. a III-a, Iai,
Polirom, 2001.
Rawdon Wyatt, Check your English Vocabulary for Law, Third Edition, London,
A.&C Black, 2006.
Andrew Radford, English Syntax: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 2004.
Jong-Bok Kim and Peter Sells, English Syntax: An Introduction, 2007.
http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/cl_subj.htm
http://englishgrammarsecrets.com

I.

GRAMMAR NOTIONS

A. Introduction
The mechanism of the English syntax links words (lexical categories) into syntactic
constructions such as phrases, clauses and sentences.

A phrase is a sequence of two or more words arranged in a grammatical
construction and acting as a unit in a sentence. Any phrase has a head that is the
ELEMENT WHICH DETERMINES THE PROPERTIES OF THE WHOLE
PHRASE. All elements in a phrase other than the head are dependent on the head,
in that they either give additional information about the head, or are included in the
phrase because the head requires that they be there
There are several types of phrases in English language (noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective
phrase, adverb phrase, prepositional phrase) among whom the most productive are NP and
VP.
EX:
NOUN PHRASES
The limited liability (the maximum
amount a person participating in a
business can lose or be charged in case of
claims against the company or its
bankruptcy)
The identification card (buletin de
identitate)
The advisory body (comisie consultativa)

VERB PHRASES
to repeal a law (a abroga o lege)

to move a motion to (a propune o

motiune)
to put down an amendment (a depune un
amendament)

The articles of incorporation (the basic

charter of a corporation which spells out
the name, basic purpose, incorporators,
amount and types of stock which may be
issued, and any special characteristics
such as being non-profit)

A clause is a syntactic structure containing a subject and a predicate and
forming a part of a sentence (subordinate clauses) or constituting a whole
simple sentence (main clauses).
When included in sentences (subordinate to a main clause), clauses may be
complement clauses, relative clauses, and adverbial clauses.
a. The relative clauses can be identified by the introductory relative pronouns:
1. who, which and that are the basic relative pronouns, and can (to a certain extent) be
used in the same positions.
2. who can be used only with an antecedent referring to a person; which, referring to a
thing; that, referring to either person or thing. ("The man who ..."; "The thing which
..."; "The man/thing that ...".)
3. that can be used only in restrictive relative clauses, while who and which can be
used in both restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. ("The man that/who ..."; "The
thing that/which ..."; "My friend, who ..."; "My car, which ...".)

4. whom is a variant of who normally used only in formal English, and only when the
antecedent's role in the relative clause is as an object not a subject. ("The man
who saw me"; "The man who/whom I saw".)
5. However, when a preposition in the relative clause is fronted which normally
occurs only in formal English only whom and which can be used. ("The man
who/whom/that I spoke to"; formal "The man to whom I spoke" not *to who or
*to that; "The knife which/that I killed him with"; formal "The knife with which I
killed him" not *with that.)
6. The relative pronoun can also be omitted in many circumstances: Specifically, only
in a restrictive relative clause ("The man (who) I saw" vs. "My friend, who I saw");
not when the antecedent serves the subject role in the relative clause
(approximately, when directly followed by a verb, hence "The man (who) I saw"
vs. "The man who saw me"); not with a fronted preposition in formal English ("The
man (who) I spoke to" vs. "The man to whom I spoke").
7. whose is different from all the rest in that it indicates that the antecedent has a
possessive role in the relative clause. ("The man whose daughter I married".)
Informal English tends to avoid whose. (E.g. in place of "I found a car whose
battery is dead", people may say "I found this car, and its battery is dead".)
8. Finally, who, which, whom, whose (and what) also have uses as interrogative
pronouns, which are often different from their uses as relative pronouns. ("Who is
it?"; "Which man just arrived?"; "What is your name?".) In addition, who and what
(along with whoever, whatever, etc.) also have uses as compound relative pronouns.
("I know who/what I like" = "I know the people/things that I like"; "What I said is
that I'm tired" = "The thing that I said is that I'm tired".) Similarly, in other contexts
that is also a demonstrative pronoun ("That is correct"), a demonstrative adjective
("That man is my friend") and a complementizer ("I said that my name is John").
b. Unlike a relative clause, which is only part of an argument, a complement clause
is itself an argument, i.e. a subject (S/A) or an object (O/E). There are several
criteria to distinguish between relative and complement clauses, for example
passivization, topicalization, coordination and interrogation. An example of a
complement clause is "that she is beautiful" in the following sentence, that acting as
a complementizer:
EX:

I know that she is beautiful.

c. The adverbial clause modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
There are several kinds of adverbial clauses, according to the meaning of the introductory
subordinating conjunction: time clauses, conditional clauses, purpose clauses, reason
clauses, result clauses, concessive clauses, place clauses, clauses of manner, clauses of
exclamation

EX:

MAIN/INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
The marriage
irretrievably.

has

broken

down

SUBORDINATE/DEPENDENT
CLAUSES
COMPLEMENT CLAUSES
 A statement has been made by

The court and any person shall have

regard to the following general
principles.

Subsection (4) ceases to apply.

one (or both) of the parties that

the maker of the statement (or
each of them) believes that the
marriage has broken down.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
 This subsection applies if there is
a child of the family who is
under the age of sixteen.
 The specified period stops
running on the day on which the
notice is received by the Court.
 An order that would cause the
transferee financial hardship
which is greater than any
financial
hardship that would be caused
to the transferor.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
 Reason:
The court shall have regard to all the
circumstances including whether there is
reason to believe that the respondent is
aware of the proceedings but is
deliberately evading service
 Time
In any other case the relevant time is the
time when the action is commenced.
 Concession
Cohabitants are a man and a woman
who, although not married to each
other, are living together as husband
wife.
 Manner
Any statutory instrument made under this
Act may contain such incidental,
supplemental,
consequential
and
transitional provision as the Lord
Chancellor considers appropriate.
 Condition
Where the court has power under this
paragraph to remand a person in custody
it may, if the remand is for a period not
exceeding 3 clear days, commit him to
the custody of a constable.

A sentence is a grammatical unit of one or more words, bearing minimal

syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it, often preceded and
followed in speech by pauses, having one of a small number of

characteristic intonation patterns, and typically expressing an

independent statement, question, request, command, etc. in a nutshell, the
sentence is the maximal grammatical unit built up from smaller units with a
degree of semantic independence which enables it to stand on its own,
independent of context.
EX:
An Act to make provision with respect to: divorce and separation; egal
aid in connection with mediation in disputes relating to family matters; proceedings
in cases where marriages have broken down; rights of occupation of certain domestic
premises; prevention of molestation; the inclusion in certain orders under the
Children Act 1989 of provisions about the occupation of a dwelling-house; the
transfer of tenancies between spouses and persons who have lived together as
husband and wife; and for connected purposes.
Note that in legal vocabulary the word sentence denotes an authoritative decision; a
judicial judgment or decree, especially the judicial determination of the punishment to be
inflicted on a convicted criminal; the punishment itself.
Applications and further practice:
1.Find 5 main and 5 subordinate clauses in the following text:
A separation order which is made before the second anniversary of the marriage may not
be converted into a divorce order under this section until after that anniversary. A
separation order may not be converted into a divorce order under this section at any time
while an order preventing divorce is in force under section 10. Otherwise, if a separation
order is in force and an application for a divorce order is made under this section by either
or both of the parties to the marriage, and is not withdrawn, the court shall grant the
application once the requirements of section 11 have been satisfied.
2. Find 3 complement clauses in the following text:
The court may, on the application of either party, direct that there must also be produced to
the court a declaration by both parties that they have taken such steps as are required to
dissolve the marriage in accordance with those usages. A direction under subsection (3) may be
given only if the court is satisfied that in all the circumstances of the case it is just and
reasonable to give it; and may be revoked by the court at any time. There are exceptional
circumstances which make it desirable in the interests of the child that the court should give a
direction under this section, it may direct that the divorce order or separation order is not to be
made until the court orders otherwise.
3. Find 3 relative clauses in the fallowing text:
In any proceedings for a divorce order or a separation order, the court shall consider
whether there are any children of the family to whom this section applies. The welfare of
the child will be best served by his having regular contact with those who have parental
responsibility for him and with other members of his family. In making that decision, the
court shall also have particular regard, on the evidence before it, to the wishes and feelings
of the child considered in the light of his age and understanding and the circumstances in
which those wishes were expressed.
4. Find 3 adverbial clauses and mention their type in the following text:

Where a maintenance assessment made under this Act requires the making of periodical
payments, it shall be the duty of the absent parent with respect to whom the assessment
was made to make those payments. Where, in any case which falls to be dealt with under
this Act, the Secretary of State or any child support officer is considering the exercise of
any discretionary power conferred by this Act, he shall have regard to the welfare of any
child likely to be affected by his decision. A child is a "qualifying child" if one of his
parents is, in relation to him, an absent parent; or both of his parents are, in relation to him,
absent parents. The parent of any child is an "absent parent", in relation to him, if that
parent is not living in the same household with the child; and the child has his home with a
person who is, in relation to him, a person with care. A person is a "person with care", in
relation to any child, if he is a person with whom the child has his home; who usually
provides day to day care for the child (whether exclusively or in conjunction with any other
person); and who does not fall within a prescribed category of person.
5. Compose 5 main clauses with the nouns settlement (intelegere); avoidance (anulare
a unui contract); precedence (anterioritate, precedent); heading(antet); usury
(camata) and then develop them into sentences by adding complement clauses, relative
clauses, and adverbial clauses.
6. Make a list of the new legal phrases found in the texts above and identify their heads.
7. Identify the heads of the following legal phrases: polling booth; commodity
exchange; pawn shop/office; unconsummated marriage; common law marriage;
land register; lower house; court chambers; law case; criminal record;
assignment of copyright; shopping centre; to yield ones rights; to assign a claim
to; to be on remand; to claim for damages; to bring in justice; to take legal
action; to argue innocence; to vacate an office; to disclaim the competence.
8. Summarise the following text in one sentence:
Please accept without obligation, express or implied, these best wishes for an
environmentally safe, socially responsible, low-stress, non-addictive and genderneutral
celebration of the winter solstice holiday as practised within the most enjoyable traditions
of the religious persuasion of your choice (but with respect for the religious or secular
persuasions and/or traditions of others, or for their choice not to practise religious or
secular traditions at all) and further for a fiscally successful, personally fulfilling and
medically uncomplicated onset of the generally accepted calendar year (including, but not
limited to, the Christian calendar, but not without due respect for the calendars of choice of
other cultures). The preceding wishes are extended without regard to the race, creed, age,
physical ability, religious faith or lack thereof, choice of computer platform or sexual
preference of the wishee(s).
B. Declarative and Interrogative Clauses
The main clauses may have either a declarative aspect (Periodical payments are referred to
in this Act as child support maintenance) or an interrogative aspect (Are the periodical
payments referred to in this Act as child support maintenance?).
Declarative Constructions in their turn can be either active or passive. It is generally
accepted that the declarative active construction in the most frequent type of construction
in English, allowing the widest range of modifications.
EX:

The child support maintenance refers to the periodical payments.

The child support maintenance is referred to in this Act.

Interrogative Constructions can be either active or passive.
EX:

EX:

EX:

Does the child support maintenance refer to the periodical payments?

Is the child support referred to in this Act?
The interrogative constructions may be separated into two types:
 Yes-No Interrogatives
Is the prosecution prepared to deliver its plea?
Yes, it is, your honor. / No, it is not, your honor.
 Wh- Interrogatives
Where did your client spend the day of March the 3rd?
Who did he meet with?
What did he do with his pocket money?
B1. Tag Questions
The Tag Questions are instances of interrogative clauses that reiterate the information
expressed before.

EX:

We use tags in spoken English but not in formal written English. They are not really
questions but are a way of asking the other person to make a comment and so keep the
conversation open. Making a tag is very mechanical. To make a tag, use the first auxiliary.
If there is no auxiliary, use do, does or did. With a positive sentence, make a negative tag
and with a. negative sentence, make a positive tag.
Its beautiful, isnt it?
He has been, hasnt he?
You can, cant you?
It must be, mustnt it?
You know him, dont you?
He finished it, didnt he?
He will come, wont he?
It isnt very good, is it?
It hasnt rained, has it?
It cant be, can it?
Jenny doesnt know James, does she?
They didnt leave, did they?
He wont do it, will he?
Notice these:
There isnt an ATM here, is there?
Lets have a cup of coffee, shall we?
To reply, use the same auxiliary:
Its beautiful, isnt it?
Yes, it is. I think its fabulous.
It isnt very good, is it?
No, it isnt. In fact, its terrible.

Applications and further practice:

1. Identify 5 declarative active constructions and 3 declarative passive constructions
in the following fragment:
A qualifying child who has attained the age of 12 years and who is habitually resident in
Scotland may apply to the Secretary of State for Scotland a maintenance assessment to be
made with respect to him if no such application has been made by a person who is, with
respect to that child, a person with care or an absent parent; or the Secretary of State has
not been authorised under section 6 to take action under this Act to recover child support
maintenance from the absent parent (other than in a case where he has waived any
requirement that he should be so authorised). An application made under subsection (1)
shall authorise the Secretary of State to make a maintenance assessment with respect to any
other children of the absent parent who are qualifying children in the care of the same
person as the child making the application.
2. Form 5 wh-interrogative constructions with the verbs to attain; to authorize; to
waive; to make an assessment; to take action.
3. Where possible, split the above fragment into main declarative active clauses and
then rephrase them into active interrogative forms.
Work on the model below:
A qualifying child may apply to the Secretary of State for Scotland a maintenance
assessment to be made with respect to him.
May a qualifying child apply to the Secretary of State for Scotland a maintenance
assessment to be made with respect to him?
He has attained the age of 12 years.
Has he attained the age of 12 years?
4. Ask 5 wh-questions about the information given in the text above.
5. Work on the model:
She is your cousins wife?
No, she is my brothers.

Is that the new subsection to the 1996 Family Act?

Are those the natural parents of the child?
Does it sound well the definition for matrimonial home rights?
Did it start with a non-molestation order?
Are you the supposed cohabitant of this childs mother?
6. Match the two parts of the sentence:
She isns very old
Shes very graceful
He isnt very happy about it
Hes really tall
Its easy
It isnt very difficult
Theres a lot to do

Werent they?
Is she?
Is there?
Isnt she?
Is it?
Isnt it?
Wasnt he?
10

There isnt enough time

He was angry
They were late
7. Add the tags:
There isnt an answer
Hes really good looking
It isnt any good
Theres pub on the corner
They werent enjoying it
She isnt here yet
Its the last one
Shes leaving tomorrow
It isnt what we wanted
He isnt very happy with it

Isnt there?
Is he?
Isnt he?

8. Complete the questions and answers with the phrases in the box:
Hasnt he?; Yes, we could.; No, she doesnt.; No, I shouldnt.; Yes, I would.;
Have you?; Couldnt we?; No, I havent.; will he?; No, he wont.; wouldnt
you?; does she?; yes, she can.; cant she?; should you?; didnt they?; yes,
they did.; yes, he has.
Fiona can cook really well ...........................
................................. i love going to dinner at her house.
Youd like to see the play.....................
....................................Ive heard its very good.
We could try it..............................
..................................I think it could work.
You havent been back to the office........................
.................................... Why?
He wont do it..........................
.................................but perhaps Sylvie will.
They finished it on time........................
................................. Just!
Ricks also applied for the job...................
...................................but I dont think hell get it.
You shouldnt do that........................
..............................but I want to.
She doesnt have a car.......................
...............................but I think shes getting one.

11

C. Coordination and Subordination

There are two sorts of relationships between syntactic structures, be it word, phrase, or
clause: coordination and subordination. Coordination is possible only with constituents of
the same category while subordination expresses the relationship between a head element
and its determiners. Both rapports are marked by coordinating and, respectively,
subordinating conjunctions also noun as complementizers.

EX:

EX:

 The coordinating conjunctions are: and; but; for (because); nor; or;
yet; so (so as to).
A qualifying child who has attained the age of 12 years and who Right of child in is
habitually resident in Scotland may apply to the Secretary of State.
The child who has made the application, but not the person having care of him, may at any
time request the Secretary of State to cease acting under this section.
She remained silent, for her heart was heavy and her spirits low.
The power shall extend to the making of rules permitting a party to such proceedings, in
such circumstances as may be specified in the rules, to be represented by a person who is
neither an advocate nor a solicitor.
In this section comply means to comply with the requirement or with the regulation in
question.
I found a way simple yet effective.
Any power of a kind mentioned in subsection (1) may be exercised so as to make the full
provision to which it extends or any lesser provision (whether by way of exception or
otherwise).

 The subordinating conjunctions are: after, although, as if, as much as, as long as,
as soon as, as though, because, before, but, even if, even though, if, in that, in order
that, lest, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where,
wherever, whether, while.
No person shall be treated as continuing to fall within subsection (1) by virtue of regulations
made under subsection (7) after the end of the week in which he reaches the age of 19.
This section applies where it appears to the Secretary of State that it is inappropriate to
make a deduction from earnings order against him (because, for example, he is not
employed); or, although such an order has been made against him, it has proved
ineffective as a means of securing that payments are made in accordance with the
maintenance assessment in question.
The amount of child support maintenance fixed by that assessment (the original
assessment) shall be reviewed by a child support officer under this section as soon as is
reasonably practicable after the end of that prescribed period.
An application under this section may be made only on the ground that, by reason of a
change of circumstance since the original assessment was made, the amount of child
support maintenance payable by the absent parent would be significantly different.
A child support officer is considering whether to make a maintenance assessment with
respect to a person who is alleged to be a parent of the child, or one of the children, in
question.
An amount is collected by the Secretary of State from the absent parent which is less than
the total amount due in respect of the payments.

12

 There are several conjunctions that go together in correlative structures such as:

Either do they pay the damages or prepare for a little rest behind the bars.
Not only is the solicitor well informed but he is also brilliant.
Neither the requirements nor the provisions of the new acts are familiar to the
defence.
Both the claimant and the defendant withdraw their charges.
Whether you take it into court or keep it here is your decision.

Kind of
clause

common conjunctions

function

example

time clauses

when, before, after, since,

while, as, as long as,
until,till, etc.
(conjunctions that answer
the question "when?");
hardly, scarcely, no
sooner, etc.

These clauses are used

to say when something
happens by referring to
a period of time or to
another event.

Her goldfish died

when she was
young.

if, unless, lest

These clauses are used

to talk about a possible
or counterfactual
situation and its
consequences.

If they lose weight

during an illness,
they soon regain it
afterwards.

in order to, so that, in

order that

These clauses are used

to indicate the purpose
of an action.

They had to take

some of his land so
that they could
extend the
churchyard.

because, since, as, given

These clauses are used

to indicate the reason
for something.

I couldn't feel anger

against him because
I liked him too
much.

so...that

These clauses are used

to indicate the result of
something.

My suitcase had
become so damaged
on the journey
home that the lid
would not stay
closed.

concessive
clauses

although, though, while

These clauses are used

to make two statements,
one of which contrasts
with the other or makes
it seem surprising.

I used to read a lot

although I don't get
much time for books
now.

place clauses

where, wherever,
anywhere, everywhere,

These clauses are used

to talk about the

He said he was
happy where he

conditional
clauses

purpose
clauses

reason
clauses

result
clauses

13

etc. (conjunctions that

answer the question
"where?")
clauses of
manner

clauses of
exclamation

location or position of
something.

was.

as, like, the way

These clauses are used

to talk about someone's
behaviour or the way
something is done.

I was never allowed

to do things as I
wanted to do them.

what a(an), how, such, so

Exclamations are used

to express anger, fear,
shock, surprise etc.
They always take an
exclamation mark (!).

What horrible
news! How fast she
types! You lucky
man!

Applications and further practice:

1. Identify on two columns the coordinating and the subordinating conjunctions in the
following fragment:
In this Act an independent trade union means a trade union which is not under the
domination or control of an employer or group of employers or of one or more employers
associations, and is not liable to interference by an employer or any such group or
association (arising out of the provision of financial or material support or by any other
means whatsoever) tending towards such control; and references to independence, in
relation to a trade union, shall be construed accordingly. A trade union whose name is
entered on the list of trade unions may apply to the Certification Officer for a certificate of
independence. The application shall be made in such form and manner as the Certification
Officer may require and shall be accompanied by the prescribed fee. The Certification
Officer shall maintain a record showing details of all applications made to him under this
section and shall keep it available for public inspection (free of charge) at all reasonable
hours. If an application is made by a trade union whose name is not entered on the list of
trade unions, the Certification Officer shall refuse a certificate of independence and shall
enter that refusal on the record.
2. Rephrase the following sentences:
1. John wouldnt tell you his secret and Mary wouldnt either.
Neither..
2. She cannot lend you either the textbook or the dictionary.
She can..
3. Both you and your friends disapprove of his talking like that
Neither.
4. Her work finished, she felt relieved.
Not before
5. The little lost girl stopped crying only when she found her mother.
Not until
6. Both my sister and my brother play the piano well.
Not only
7. They not only swim well but also ski well
Not only
8. Alice is not only intelligent, but also hard working.

14

Not only
3. Rephrase the following sentences:
1. Ice melts if you heat it (when).
2. Paris is a wonderful place and I stayed there for a short period of time (where).
3. If he makes a promise, he keeps it (whenever).
4. Does she know the exact date they are going to court again (when)?
5. During our dinner we discussed about the programme for the next day (while).
6. The last time I spoke to them was two weeks ago (for).
7. We havent been to an Italian restaurant for ages (since).
8. First Pam looked at the timetable and then she bought a train ticket (after).
9. It was silly of her to leave in such weather (which).
10. Without him, she couldnt have coped with so many problems (but).
11. The person who will get the job will have a lot of work to do (whoever).
4. The following words are commonly used to replace a phrase in English and
American contracts:
herein, therein, hereto, thereto, hereof, thereof, hereabove, herebelow
.
Note the following points:
The word here commonly refers to the actual document that one holds in ones hands
and reading, or the actual article in the document that you are reading.
The word there commonly refers to either a document other that that which you are
actually reading or an article other than that which you are actually doing.
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word from the list above:
1. This document constitutes the entire agreement of the parties.. (who have
consented to this contract).
2. The agreement contained in this document is intended to bind the parties hereto and
to replace all previous documents of this nature and the covenants .. (which are
contained in it).
3. A person includes where the context so admits a corporation and incorporated
body of persons or any state, government or ministry ao any agency . (of that
state).
4. The provisions set out. Shall govern all borrowings under this agreement (in
the section below, in the following section f the contract).
5. This agreement shall not alter the status of the loans, as defined in the pervious loan
agreement and in the schedules affixed . (to that agreement).
6. Subject to the terms and the conditions set forth., the bank hereby sells and
transfers to you an undivided participation in the bank. (in this agreement)
7. You hereby purchase from us on the date .. your agreed percentage share of the
term loan and the revolving credit (of this document).
8. You acknowledge that you will continue to make your own credit analysis and
decisions with respect to the participation agreement and the documents referred
to. (in that agreement).
9. You agree to be bound by this credit agreement and the confidentiality provisions
set forth .. (in the above article).
10. The agreement shall become effective upon receipt by us of a counterpart duly
executed by you (of this agreement).

15

F. The Grammatical Functions

EX:

EX:

F1. The Subject (within the clause/ as a clause within a sentence)

The Subject is a central constituent of the clause. The subject influences agreement
between itself and the verb and governs the person, number, case, and gender, where
relevant, of several other determiners within the clause. The grammatical subjects share a
series of proprieties such as form, position, agreement, pronouns, and voice.
The Subject might be a NP (noun phrase) or a clause as in the following examples:
The Lord Chancellor may by order amend subsection (3)(b) by varying the specified
period.
Who is directly responsible for doing it may by order amend subsection (3)(b) by
varying the specified period.
A distinction shuld be made between the grammatical subjects and the real subjects,
especially in passive constructions such as:
If a statement [grammatical subject] is made by one party [real subject who performs the
action] it must also state that that party is aware of the purpose of the period for reflection
and consideration as described in section 7.
Applications and further practice:
Identify all the subjects in the following text:
The Office of Fair Trading Establishment of OFT
There shall be a body corporate to be known as the Office of Fair Trading (in this Act
referred to as "the OFT"). The functions of the OFT are carried out on behalf of the Crown.
In managing its affairs the OFT shall have regard, in addition to any relevant general
guidance as to the governance of public bodies, to such generally accepted principles of
good corporate governance as it is reasonable to regard as applicable to the OFT. The
functions of the Director General of Fair Trading (in this Act referred to as "the Director"),
and his property, rights and liabilities, are transferred to the OFT.
The office of the Director is abolished. Any enactment, instrument or other document
passed or made before the commencement of subsection (1) which refers to the Director
shall have effect, so far as necessary for the purposes of or in consequence of anything
being transferred, as if any reference to the Director were a reference to the OFT. The OFT
shall, before each financial year, publish a document (the "annual plan") containing a
statement of its main objectives and priorities for the year.
The OFT shall for the purposes of public consultation publish a document containing
proposals for its annual plan at least two months before publishing the annual plan for any
year. The OFT shall lay before Parliament a copy of each document published under
subsection (2) and each annual plan.

EX:

F2. The Predicate (within the clause/ as a clause within a sentence)

The predicate is also one of the main constituents of the clause and is usually
expressed by a verb in a predicative mood such as the indicative, the subjunctive, the
imperative or the conditional moods.
Subsection (4) does not apply (indicative, present).
That young solicitor is doing a good job (indicative, present continuous).
The licensed conveyancer has already done the petition (indicative, present perfect).

16

The officer made the separation order (indicative, past simple).

When I called the Honourable was signing the separation order (indicative, past
continuous).
Before he left on holiday, the adoption officer had filled in all the necessary forms
(indicative, past perfect).
The vendor will procure the cancellation of the registration (indicative, future, first form).
The Chief Land Registrar shall cancel the registration of the charge first registered
(indicative, future, second form).
The order would cause the transferee financial hardship (conditional present).
The order would be causing the transferee financial hardship (conditional progressive).
The order would have caused the transferee financial hardship (conditional perfect).
If that be true, then the decision rests the same (present subjunctive).
Whether that be true or not, the decision rests the same (present subjunctive).
Lest he complete the imprisonment term too soon, the prosecutors keep an eye on him
(present subjunctive).
Come here! (imperative)
Could you come here for a moment? (polite imperative)
Applications and further practice:
Identify all the predicates in the following text:
There shall be a body corporate called the Competition Service (in this Part referred to as
"the Service"). The purpose of the Service is to fund, and provide support services to, the
Competition Appeal Tribunal. In subsection (2) "support services" includes the provision
of staff, accommodation and equipment and any other services which facilitate the carrying
out by the Tribunal of its functions. The activities of the Service are not carried out on
behalf of the Crown (and its property is not to be regarded as held on behalf of the Crown).
The Secretary of State shall pay to the Service such sums as he considers appropriate to
enable it to fund the activities of the Tribunal and to carry out its other activities.
F3. The Subject Complement (within the clause/ as a clause within a sentence)
The subject complement completes a reference to and/or an implication suggested by
the subject of the clause. It has a few properties unique to itself, such as position as the
subject complement always occurs after a copular verb in the SVC clause pattern. The
most common copular verb in English is the verb be used as a main verb, although other
verbs that relate to perception also serve in this category, such as appear, seem, look,
sound, feel, etc.
EX:

The family is
seems
appears
looks
sounds
tastes

rather compact.

The family is what one considers his affective community.

17

Applications and further practice:

1. Identify all the subject complements in the following text:
In the case of a decision of the OFT which is the subject of an appeal mentioned in
paragraph (a), the period following the decision of the Tribunal on the appeal during which
a further appeal may be made under section 49 or under those Regulations; in the case of a
decision of the Tribunal mentioned in subsection (6)(c), the period during which a further
appeal may be made under section 49 or under those regulations; in the case of any
decision which is the subject of a further appeal, the period during which an appeal may be
made to the House of Lords from a decision on the further appeal; and, where any appeal
mentioned in paragraph (a), (b), (c) or (d) is made, the period specified in that paragraph
includes the period before the appeal is determined.
2. Combine the words in a and b columns so as to take appropriate SC nouns. The
sentences resulted should describe the work lawyers do.
a. adviser, draft, litigation, practice, representative, research
b. cases, disputes, clients, law, contracts, legislation, corporations, decisions, defendants
3. Find appropriate nouns so as to take at least 5 SC from the box below.
bar corporate defence, public-sector sole tax, government, trial, patent practitioner
F4. The Direct Object (within the clause/ as a clause within a sentence)
A direct object will follow a transitive verb. Direct objects can be nouns, pronouns,
phrases, or clauses.

subject + verb + what? or who? = direct object

EX:

After the court has received a statement, it may give a direction respect to requiring each
party to attend a meeting arranged in accordance with the mediation. direction for the
purpose.
The Lord Chancellor certifies whether he has complied with the provision made in the
rules by virtue of paragraphs (a) and (b).
Applications and further practice:
Identify all the direct objects in the following text:
The OFT shall, as soon as practicable after the end of each financial year, make to the
Secretary of State a report (the "annual report") on its activities and performance during
that year. The annual report for each year shall include a general survey of developments in
respect of matters relating to the OFT's functions, an assessment of the extent to which the
OFT's main objectives and priorities for the year (as set out in the annual plan) have been
met, a summary of the significant decisions, investigations or other activities made or
carried out by the OFT during the year, a summary of the allocation of the OFT's financial
resources to its various activities during the year, and an assessment of the OFT's
performance and practices in relation to its enforcement functions. The OFT shall lay a
copy of each annual report before Parliament and arrange for the report to be published.

18

The OFT may prepare other reports in respect of matters relating to any of its functions,
and arrange for any such report to be published.
2. There are several ways to refer to what a law says. Look at the following sentences and
sum up the following excerpts from various British Acts by using DO clauses.
The law stipulates that corporations must have three governing bodies.
The law provides that a witness must be present.
The patent law specifies that the subject matter must be 'useful'.
The law states / sets forth / determines / lays down / prescribes that
a. Any person making a request for information to a public authority is
entitled to be informed in writing by the public authority whether it holds
information of the description specified in the request, and if that is the
case, to have that information communicated to him.
b. Before making an order under this section, the Secretary of State shall
consult every person to whom the order relates, or persons appearing to
him to represent such persons.
c. In this act the date of receipt means the day on which the public authority
receives the request for information, or if later, the day on which it
receives the information referred to in section 1(3).
d. In this act working day means any day other than a Saturday, a Sunday,
Christmas Day, Good Friday or a day which is a bank holiday under the
Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971 of the United Kingdom.
e. In all the circumstances of the case, the public interest in maintaining the
exemption outweighs the public interest in disclosing the information.
f. If an employer makes an employee an offer (whether in writing or not and
whether before or after the ending of his employment under the previous
contract) to renew his contract of employment, or to re-engage him under a
new contract, so that the renewal or re-engagement would take effect before
or during the protected period, and the offer constitutes an offer of suitable
employment in relation to the employee, the following subsections have
effect.
g. If the employee unreasonably refuses the offer, he is not entitled to
remuneration under the protective award in respect of a period during
which but for that refusal he would have been employed.
h. The trial period begins with the ending of his employment under the
previous contract and ends with the expiration of the period of four
weeks beginning with the date on which the he starts work under the
contract as renewed, or the new contract, or such longer period as may
be agreed in accordance with subsection (6) for the purpose of retraining
the employee for employment under that contract.

F5. The Indirect Object (within the clause/ as a clause within a sentence)
An indirect object precedes the direct object and tells to whom or for whom the action of
the verb is done and who is receiving the direct object. There must be a direct object to
have an indirect object. Indirect objects are usually found with verbs of giving or
communicating like give, bring, tell, show, take, or offer.

19

Indirect Objects usually occur with a Direct Object, and they always come before the
Direct Object. The typical pattern is:

Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object

Here are some more examples of sentences containing two objects:
EX:
Indirect Object Direct Object
Tell

me

a story

He showed

us

his war medals

We bought

David

a birthday cake

Can you lend your colleague a pen?

EX:

The most common realisations of the Indirect Object are Noun Phrases, seldom Clauses:
David told whoever saw her to report to the police.
Use:
1. If the indirect object comes first in a sentence, there is no preposition.
They gave Harold a new car.
2. If it comes second, a preposition must be used.
They gave a new car to Harold.
3. If the direct object is a pronoun (it, this ... ), it comes first and we must a preposition.
Compare the difference in the following examples.
I bought it for my sister.
Can you send it to him?
(Not: I bought my sister it. Can you send him it?)
Notes:
1. If the verbs read and write are only followed by the indirect object, a preposition must be
used.
Please, read to me. (Not: Please, read me).
But: Read me the letter. Read the letter to me. (There are two objects in these
sentences.)
I'll write to you soon.
But: I'll write you a letter. I'll write a letter to you. (two objects)
4. We can use the verbs promise, show, and tell with the indirect object only, but without
a preposition. Compare the examples:
I can't promise you. (Or: I can't promise it to you.)
Show him. (Or: Show it to him.)
Can you tell me?
Applications and further practice:
1. In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the underlined string is a direct
object or an indirect object.

20

a. The senators comments caused a great deal of anger.

direct object
indirect object
b. The company is offering employees a generous severance package.
direct object
indirect object
c. Tell me your news.
direct object
indirect object
d. Ill call you a taxi.
direct object
indirect object
e. They owe the bank a small fortune.
direct object
indirect object
2. Identify only the subject, the direct object, and the indirect object in each sentence.
Example: Our teacher gave us some work to do.
subject: teacher/ direct object: work / indirect object: us

1. We sent a package to our relatives in Iowa.

subject: ______ / direct object: ________ / indirect object: _____
2. He told his parents a lie.
subject: ____ / direct object: ______ / indirect object: ______
3. Please hand me the remote control for the TV.
subject: ______/ direct object: ________/ indirect object: _______
4. Tina is making dinner for us.
subject: ______/ direct object: _______ / indirect object: ______
5. Our boss is buying us dinner.
subject: _______/ direct object: _______/ indirect object: _______
6. A movie on TV gave me the chills.
subject: ____ / direct object: ________ / indirect object:_______
7. Wish me luck.
subject: ____/ direct object: _______ / indirect object: ______
8. His grandmother sends him five dollars on his birthday every year.
subject: ____ / direct object: _______ / indirect object: _______
9. They tried giving their baby some mashed peas.
subject: _______ / direct object: ________ / indirect object: ___________________
10. John paid the bill for us.
subject: _______ / direct object: ____ / indirect object: ____
3. Select the direct and indirect objects.

21

1. She has sent me her address.

2. Have you lent Mary the book?
3. Write your mother a long letter.
4. The government has granted him a pension.
5. Show the children the picture.
6. When did you sell Mr. Brown the house?
7. He brought the sick man some beautiful flowers.
4. Create new sentences in which the nouns or the noun phrases creditor, court,
offender, expert witness, district attorney function as indirect objects.

F6. The Adjective/Relative Clause

A dependent clause used as an adjective within a sentence, also known as an
adjectival clause or a relative clause. An adjective clause usually begins with a relative
pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose), a relative adverb (where, when, why), or a zero
relative.
An adjective clause is a group of words that works like an adjective to modify a
noun. There are five relative pronouns that are used in adjective clauses. An adjective
clause usually begins with a relative pronoun: a word that relates the information in the
adjective clause to a word or a phrase in the main clause. The most common adjective
clauses begin with one of these relative pronouns: who, which, and that. All three
pronouns refer to a noun, but who refers only to people and which refers only to things.
That may refer to either people or things. Two other relative pronouns used to introduce
adjective clauses are whose (the possessive form of who) and whom (the object form of
who). Whose begins an adjective clause that describes something that belongs to or is a
part of someone or something mentioned in the main clause.
EX:

EX:

The transitional provisions that are applied within a three-month period will cease to
apply.
These are the political restrictions to which the restriction applies.
Elisabeth I is the queen, who was Henry 8ths daughter.
The sun, which is million miles away, is proved to be an old star.
Here comes my mother, who was a successful teacher in her times.
The relative clause has many properties in common with a wh-interrogative. But
relative clauses are not interrogative, but declarative. This is clear from the fact that they
may start with the complementizer that which introduces declarative clauses. Thus, the
wh-element which starts relative and interrogative clauses seems to have a different set of
features. For instance, in English although what is a perfectly good interrogative pronoun,
its use as a relative pronoun is somewhat stigmatised, being seen as a characteristic of
uneducated speech.
The only acceptable use of a what-relatives in standard English is in the headless
relatives:
What you have just said there is perfectly recorded.
What I say and what I do are two totally different things.
What I dont understand is why you do not keep working with your students.
Applications and further practice:

22

1. Identify the relative clauses in the following fragment:

Born out of the Enlightenment political theory, the US was created on the premise that the
a model state could be constructed from the scratch out of rational mechanisms. It is
precisely this point that has been forgotten in the reformist enthusiasm for a bill of rights.
Such a permanently installed document would create a cumbersome, reactionary monolith
which slows government response to public opinion. Notwithstanding its respect for
traditions, it is altogether nave to believe that a bill of rights could be tacked on the
existing British system that does not accept any fundamental changes on authority. Only
the Queen, whose position has been expressed on several occasions, could settle the
matters straight.
2. Choose the right relative pronoun:
a. The dog (which, who) is under the tree is very old.
b. My cousin (whose, who) is an engineer, will participate in an international
conference next week.
c. That child (whose, whom) eyes are green is my son.
d. The woman (whose, whom) you met at that party seems very pretty.
e. The museums (which, whom) we visited last week were closed yesterday.
f. The university (which, whose) rector has just been elected achieved great results last
year.
3. Choose the right relative pronoun in the following sentences:
a. These are the duties of employer (who, that) deducts union contributions.
b. A "trade union" means an organisation (which, that) consists wholly or mainly of
workers of one or more descriptions and (whose, whom) principal purposes include the
regulation of relations between workers of that description or those descriptions and
employers or employers associations.
c. The Certification Officer shall keep a list of trade unions containing the names of
the organisations (whose, which) names were, immediately before the commencement of
this Act, duly entered in the list of trade unions kept by him under section 8 of the Trade
Union and Labour Relations Act 1974.
d. The fact (that, which) the name of an organisation is included in the list of trade
unions is evidence (which, that) the organisation is a trade union.
e. The Certification Officer shall not enter the name of an organisation in the list of
trade unions if the name is the same as (that, who) under (which, that) another
organisation.
f. The parent of any child is an "absent parent", in relation to him, if (whose, that)
parent is not living in the same household with the child.
g. The person with care of the child, the absent parent and the child concerned shall,
so far as they reasonably can, comply with such regulations as may be made by the
Secretary of State with a view to the Secretary of State or the child support officer being
provided with the information (which, that) is required to enable the absent parent to be
traced.
h. The obligation to provide information (which, that) is imposed by subsection (5)
shall not apply in such circumstances as may be prescribed by the Secretary of State.
i. The Secretary of State may by regulations make such incidental, supplemental or
transitional provision as he thinks appropriate with respect to cases in (which, that) he is
requested to cease to act under this section.

23

j. In any case where subsection (1) applies, no court shall exercise any power (which,
that) it would otherwise have to make, vary or revive any maintenance order in relation to
the child and absent parent concerned.

F6. The If Clauses

A particular type of subordination is expressed within conditional structures, also named
If Clauses. Basically, there are three types of such conditional structures but there are
also lots of mixed types:
1. The "zero" conditional is formed with both clauses in the present tense. The
introductory "if" can be replaced by "when" or "whenever".
EX:

If the judge agrees, the term prorogues.

If the law is applied, the family institutions are sheltered.
2. The potential or indicative conditional, often referred to as the "first conditional" or
"conditional 1", is used more generally to express a hypothetical condition that is
potentially true, but not yet verified. The conditional clause is in the present or past tense
and refers to a state or event in the past.

EX:

If she made that decision yesterday, she would have come to the ADR (alternative
dispute resolution) commission.
If she took that flight yesterday, she would be somewhere in town today.
If she took that train yesterday, we would see her tomorrow.

2. The contrary-to-fact present conditional, often referred to as the "second

conditional" or "conditional 2" is used to refer to a current state or event that is
known to be false or improbable. The result clause contains a conditional verb form
consisting of would (or could, should, might) plus a main verb in the base form
(infinitive without to). The inversed topic has an emphatic value.
EX:

If she were [colloq. was] at work today, she would know how to deal with this client.
If I were [colloq. was] the person in charge, I could have you thrown in jail.
Were she at work today, she would know how to deal with this client.
Were I the person in charge, I could have you thrown in jail
Note that the choice between the first and the second conditional is often a question of
speaker's attitude rather than of facts. Compare these examples. Otto thinks these things are
possible, Peter doesn't.
Otto If I win the lottery, I'll buy a big house.
Peter If I won the lottery, I'd buy a big house.
Otto If I get promoted, I'll throw a big party.
Peter If I got promoted, I'd throw a big party.
Otto If my team win the Cup, I'll buy champagne for everybody.
Peter If my team won the Cup, I'd buy champagne for everybody.

24

EX:

4. The contrary-to-fact past conditional (sometime referred to as the "third" conditional,

conditional 3) is used to refer to contrary-to-fact past events. We can use the Third
Conditional to talk about 'impossible' conditions, impossible because they are in the past
and we cannot change what has happened. The past perfect is used in the condition clause.
If you had called me, I would have come.
If you had done your job properly, we wouldnt be in this mess now.
Had you called me, I would have come.
Had you done your job properly, we wouldnt be in this mess now.
Notice that the main clause can contain 'would', 'could' or 'might.
If I had seen him at the meeting, I would have asked him. (But he wasn't there so I didn't.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I could have asked him. (But he wasn't there so it wasn't
possible.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have asked him. (But I'm not sure. Perhaps if the
opportunity had arisen)
If I had paid more attention in class, I would have understood the lesson.
5. If clauses may be also introduced by unless and lest. Notice that 'unless' means the
same as 'if not'.
Refuse to do any more work on the project, unless he asks you politely
Unless he asks you politely, refuse to do any more work on the project.
I watched him closely, lest he make a mistake.
Lest he make a mistake, i watched him closely. (lest + subjunctive)

6. In formal English, conditional sentences can be formed by inversion of the subject

and the auxiliary verb. In such sentences, if is removed.
For example, these two sentences are (almost) the same:
Normal Conditional Sentence
Conditional Sentence with Inversion
If I were taller, I would be happier.
Were I taller, I would be happier.
We can use inversion in unreal present as well as unreal past.
Unreal present
Were I you, I would visit my grandfather.
Unreal past
Had I known this fact before, I wouldn't have come here.
Had Jake been informed about the meeting, he would have participated.

EX:

EX:

6. The omission of if
The omission of if takes place only in conditional sentences of Type II and Type III
and in these two cases the conditional clause may precede the main clause.
A conditional clause may be introduced not only by the conjunction if but also by other
conjunctions such as unless, but for, in case, on condition that, sp long as,
provided/providing that, suppose/supposing that.
Providing that she spoke with her counsellor, the meeting would stay on our agenda.
But for his benevolent intervention, the meeting would have been cancelled.
But for is used when the verb to be forms the predicate of the sentence by itself, and is in
the negative.
I would go for a walk if it were not for this rain.
25

But for this rain, I would go for a walk.

The children would have lost themselves if it hadnt been for their compass.
But for their compass, the children would have lost themselves.

EX:

EX:

EX:

In case specifies a future condition that may or may not arise:

In case she disturbs the meeting of the board, the scribe shall write that in the minute.
Suppose/supposing that occur in non finite sentences such as:
Suppose the chairman accepts her complaints!
Supposing that the chairman lends her the ear!
So long as/provided/ providing that replace if when the sentence expresses the limits of
permission in a context of restrictions.
The adoption officer will give you the documents provided that the child does not know
about it.
In other cases conditional clauses may be replaced by constructions such as:
Present participle - By cutting short her testimony she may cause more grief and pain.
Past Participle Awoke to new freedom awareness, the convict would have started to write
his memoirs.
Prepositional Constructions Without their compass, the children would have been lost.
Applications and further practice:
1. Identify the if clauses in the following contexts:
a. A child support officer would not make an assessment if it were applied for.
b. It has to make a maintenance order in relation to a child if a written agreement (whether
or not enforceable) provides for the making, or securing, by an absent parent of the child of
periodical payments to or for the benefit of the child.
c. It has to make a maintenance order in relation to a child if the maintenance order which
the court makes is, in all material respects, in the same terms as that agreement.
d. If the order were to be made the child is, will be or would be receiving instruction at an
educational establishment or undergoing training for a trade, profession or vocation (whether or
not while in gainful employment).
g. This section shall not prevent a court from exercising any power if a disability
living allowance is paid to or in respect of him.
h. A child is disabled if he is blind, deaf or dumb or is substantially and permanently
handicapped by illness, injury, mental disorder or congenital deformity or such other
disability as may be prescribed.
2. Notice the topic of the sentences above and create the inversed variants.
3. Rephrase the following sentences according to the model:
Perhaps one day somebody will tell us the truth.
What will he do if somebody tells him the truth?
c.
d.
e.
f.

Perhaps one day she will pay the child monthly maintenance.
Perhaps one day his father will recognize him.
Perhaps one day you will lose your impetus.
Perhaps one day the Attorney General will invite him to his office.

26

g. Perhaps one day the police will find the criminal.

4. Use the verbs in the brackets in the correct form:
a. I would finish my work much earlier if you (to help) me.
b. If I (to be) you I would say that at once.
c. The kids would be disappointed if it (to rain) in the afternoon.
d. What (to happen) if you pressed these charges?
e. Im sure the absent parent would turn up if he (do not pay) the monthly
maintenance.
f. The senior associates in the company (to help) you if you asked them to.
5. Rephrase the following sentences according to the model:
Perhaps she will remember everything about the accident.
What would she do if she remembered everything about the
accident?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Perhaps it will rain every day.

Perhaps we will come home late.
Perhaps they will miss the meeting.
Perhaps one day she will find a better partner.
Perhaps one day she will be free.

6. Work on the model using in case:

It was possible that she should forget my address. So, she wrote it down.
She wrote my address down in case she forgot it.
a. It was possible that his parents were nervous on hearing the news. So, he
wrote them a letter.
b.It was possible that you would travel abroad. So, you took a one-year ticket
to all train lines.
c. It was possible that they would come back in spring. So, I advised them not
to take too much luggage.
d.It was possible that the thieves would try to break in. So, I called the police.
e. It was possible that they would hear us. So, we kept our voices as down as
we could.
7. Work on the model:
I didnt tell her the secret because I didnt trust her.
If I had trusted her, I would have told her the secret.
Had I trusted her, I would have told her the secret.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

I didnt go to bed because I was not tired.

We didnt stop to talk to her because we believed her innocent.
You lawyer didnt get here in time because he got caught in a traffic jam.
You didnt get probation because you did not follow my advice.
The victim did not take the poison because she smelled the danger.

8. Rephrase the following sentences:

a. He didnt find a taxi, so he missed the match.

27

If
b. I will give you a raise provided you work on Sunday.
Unless.
c. The child support officer concerned shall make a fresh maintenance assessment,
unless he is satisfied that the original assessment has ceased to have effect.
If.....
d. The child support officer shall not proceed unless he considers that he will be
required by subsection (6) to make a fresh maintenance assessment.
Provided that....
e. The child support officer concerned shall make a fresh maintenance assessment,
unless he is satisfied that the original assessment has ceased to have effect.
If....
f. She didnt drown because the man reached her in time.
If...
g. I thing you are wrong not to trust him.
If I....
h. It is all right if you tell the truth.
As long as....
i. We wont go there if they dont invite us.
Unless....
j. In case of fire, call the fire brigade.
If
k. Unless the driver had seen us, he wouldnt have stopped the car.
Had the driver..
9. Use the past subjunctive or the perfect subjunctive after as if/ as though according
to the meaning:
a. Lisa speaks English as if she (to be) an English girl.
b. They looked as if they (to see) a ghost.
c. You acted as though you (not to know) anything about your new neighbour.
d. Our guest behaves as if he (to be) one of our family.
e. The boy smiled as if he (to recognize) us.
F7. Sequence of Tenses
The sequence-of-tenses rules apply to three types of subordinate clauses: Direct Object
Clauses, Conditional Clauses and Adverbial Clauses of Time.
The structure of such sentences can be expressed by the following scheme:

I. Main/ Independent Clause

Subordinate/ Dependent Clause

28

MAIN/ INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

Present Tense
Present Perfect
Future

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
Any tense required by the meaning of the sentence

EX:

A number of previous decisions explain that the English judges interpreted the ratio
decidendi of a case by assimilating their issue with a similar legal problem of their French
counterparts.
An English High court judge has pondered upon two similar cases only when he could
follow a French example.
The two legal systems will differ while their political factors do not work out a common
solution.
II. Main/ Independent Clause

Subordinate/ Dependent Clause

Past Perfect
(to express an

anterior
action)

MAIN
CLAUSE
Past Tense
Past Tense (to
express
a
simultaneous
action)

EX:

Future in the
Past
(to
express
a
posterior
action)

Humorously, Lord Atkin said that the famous neighbourhood principle had been
invented in his personal bedroom.
Lord Atkin also said that it was difficult to determine who ones neighbour was.
Lord Atkin replied that he would take measures to define more closely the concept of
neighbourhood.

F8. Time Clauses

29

The time clauses are introduced by time complementizers such as while, until, till, when,
after, before, since, as, as long as, hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc.
I. In time clauses, a basic rule is that no Future Tense can occur in a subordinate/
dependent clause.
PRESENT
TENSE
(for
simultaneous
action)

FUTURE
TENSE

PRESENT
PERFECT
(for anterior
action)

EX:

The enterprise will cease to be when the company charter expires.

The arrangements will bring to a relevant result after the company founders have been
acted wisely.
II. When the Main/Independent Clause is in the Past Tense or Future in the Past, in the
subordinate/dependent time clause there will be used the Past Tense or the Past perfect.
PAST TENSE
(for
simultaneous
actions)

PAST
TENSE
FUTURE
IN
THE
PAST

PAST
PERFECT
(for anterior
actions)

EX:

The Organisation made a reference to this case after they had carried through all their
evaluations.
The Organisation would make a reference to this case after they had carried through all
their evaluations.

30

The Organisation made a reference to this case whenever they carried through their
evaluations.
The Organisation would make a reference to this case when they carried through their
evaluations.

EX:

Similarly, other future forms also change to the present simple tense.
He is going to leave. The room will be empty.
As soon as he leaves the room will be empty.
We are moving next week. Then we'll call you.
When we move next week we'll call you.

EX:

EX:

If we describe an action that is happening at the same time as another future action
(the two activities are simultaneous), we use the present continuous tense in time clauses.
We are going to cut the grass. You'll pick the apples.
While we are cutting the grass you'll pick the apples.
The future perfect becomes the present perfect.
I'll have finished my grammar exercises in ten minutes. Then I'll go out.
After I have finished my grammar exercises I'll go out.
They will have repaired our car by the weekend. And we will go for a trip.
As soon as they have repaired our car we will go for a trip.
If when introduces a noun clause which is the object of a verb, it is followed by a
future tense.
I don't know when she will arrive.
I can't remember when the race will start.
You must decide when you will meet them.
In all these sentences the question is: What? not When? (I don't know what, I can't
remember what, You must decide what.)
When explaining something sequentially, the order of the steps to be taken can be
indicated using sequencing words. Look at the following examples:
Well, the first thing you have to do is check the memorandum of association ...
Then you have to find out whether they've issued all their share capital already or
not.
The next step would be to determine the amount of increase of share capital.
But before the EGM can take place. the shareholders have to be informed by notice
about the EGM.
Finally, within 15 days, the following documents have to be filed at Companies
House ...
Here are some more sequencing words and phrases:
After that, Afterward(s), At this point, following this, Once you have done that,
Subsequently, after, afterwards, as soon as, at first, at last, before, before long, finally,
first... second... third, in the first place, in the meantime, later, meanwhile, next, soon,
then

31

First, second, third, generally, furthermore, finally, in the first place, also, lastly,
pursuing this further, finally, to be sure, additionally, lastly, just in the same way,
basically, similarly, as well.
Therefore, this, hence, in final analysis, in conclusion, in final consideration
indeed.
Admittedly, assuredly, certainly, granted, no doubt, nobody denies, obviously, of
course, to be sure, true, undoubtedly, unquestionably, generally speaking, in general,
at this level, in this situation.
However, on the other hand, but, yet, nevertheless, on the contrary.
Consequently, clearly, then, furthermore, additionally, and, in addition, moreover,
because, besides that, in the same way, following this further
also, pursuing this further, in the light of the..., it is easy to see that
Another feature of such an explanation is the use of words and expressions indicating
necessity such as to have to, must, to be required and to be necessary:
The first thing you have to do is ...
Tell your client that they have to call a board meeting ...
This notice must state the following things ...
The chairperson is required to preside at the EGM, and it's necessary that a
quorum is present.
Minutes of the two meetings ... have to be drawn up.
Applications and further practice:
Read and translate the following texts and transform them into narrative paragraphs by
using sequencing words and time clauses.
1. The Minute
Longfellow Ltd
Minutes of a meeting of the Board of Directors held at Company premises, Langdon
Building, Sherwood Road, Manchester On:
Present: 10 September. 2005. at 3 p.m.
Debra Smith (Chairperson)
Anna Bean (Director)
Claire Thurman (Secretary)
1 The Chairperson confirmed that notice of the meeting had been given to all the
Directors of the Company and that a quorum of the Board of Directors was present at the
meeting.
2 Applications were presented to the meeting from Debra Smith, Anna Bean and
Allison Sharp for the allotment of 10.000, 20,000 and 20.000 shares respectively by the
Company. and it was resolved that their applications be approved subject to the approval of
the extraordinary general meeting.
3 It was noted that Debra Smith and Anna Bean had declared their interests in the
shares pursuant to 5317 Companies Act 1985.
4 The Chairperson reported that it was proposed to increase the authorised share
capital of the Company by 50,000.

32

5 The Chairperson reported that the directors required authority to allot shares, as
there was no power in the Company's articles of association.
6 The Chairperson also informed the members that the Company would need to disapply 589 Companies Act 1985 in relation to pre-emption rights.
7 There was presented to the meeting a notice of an extraordinary general meeting at
which resolutions would be proposed to implement the above proposals to increase the
Company's share capital. It was resolved that the notice be approved, that the secretary be
instructed to send it to an the members and the auditors of the Company, and subject to an
the members agreeing to short notice, that the meeting be held immediately.
8 The meeting was adjourned to enable the extraordinary general meeting to be held.
9 The meeting resumed at 8 p.m. and the Chairperson reported that the resolutions set
out in the notice of an EGM had been duly passed.
10 It was resolved that the application by Debra Smith, Anna Bean and Allison Sharp
for 10,000, 20,000 and 20,000 shares respectively be accepted and that the capital of the
Company be allotted to the applicants on the terms of the application.
11 The secretary was instructed to enter the names of the applicants in the register of
members of the Company as the holders of the shares allotted.
12 The secretary was instructed to prepare share certificates in respect of the shares
allotted and to arrange for the common seal to be affixed to them and to deliver the share
certificates to the applicants.
13 The secretary was instructed to prepare and file with the Registrar of Companies:
Form 88(2) (return of allotments) in respect of the allotment just made.
14 There being no further business, the meeting was closed.
Chairperson
2. A Dialogue
Lawyer 1: This "pestilent dust" has appeared only three times.
Lawyer 2:It was found to be limestone... Messy, but innocuous.
Lawyer 1: Innocuous?
Lawyer 2: Harmless.
Judge: I know what it means. May I?
Lawyer 1: Your Honour... Imagine how the neighbourhood children feel. The pounding of
construction ringing in their ears. This skyscraper, a tribute to mankind's greed, grows
daily.It casts a shadow over their lives and surrounds them with toxic dust.
Lawyer 2: Kendall Construction is rebuilding this neighbourhood.Granting a restraining
order here will throw 753 people out of work.
Lawyer 1: You cannot validate this groundless example of rapacious litigation. It is a
threat to our society.
Judge: Let's not go off the deep end. You have made a compelling case, Mr. Miller.

3 . AGENDA
FIRST BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING
The agenda for the first meeting of the board of directors of a new nonprofit
corporation would usually include some or all of the following.
A. Notice of meeting or written waiver of notice (signed by all the directors) is filed
with the minutes.
B. Temporary Chairperson and Secretary of the meeting are selected.
C. Report of filing of Articles of Incorporation is received and ordered into the
record.

33

D. Bylaws are adopted and dated.

E. Corporate officers (Chairperson of the Board, Vice-Chairperson of the Board,
President, Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer) are elected and sworn in.
F. A corporate seal is adopted.
G. The Secretary is authorized to buy corporate record books and a corporate seal in
the form adopted.
H. Accounting year is selected and adopted.
I. A principal office is designated.
J. The Chairperson, President, or other appropriate officer is authorized to apply for
an employer identification number. A bank is selected and the necessary bank account
forms are signed to enable the Treasurer to open one or more corporate bank accounts. The
Treasurer is authorized to pay incorporation expenses and other expenses, including fees
and taxes, if any. Other officers are authorized to sign checks, corporate contracts, etc.
K. Form for Membership Certificates (if applicable) is presented and adopted. If form
is adopted, membership dues are established and membership certificates are issued.
L. If the directors desire the corporation to be exempt from federal and state
corporate income taxes, the corporation is authorized to apply for tax-exempt status as a
charitable organization under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code and Section
23701d of the California Revenue and Taxation Code.
M. The Directors order the filing and recording of all reports and registration
statements required by state statutes for new corporations, such as the Statement of
Information.
N. A registered agent for service of process is appointed.
O. Approval of employment and lease agreements and the fixing of compensation, if
any, for officers.
P. Adjournment.
3. Checklist for making a meeting (work in 9 groups so as to keep all the moments in
the checklist in your sequencing narration):
1. Planning the Meeting
Is there a need for a meeting?
Can a group only make the decision?
Have you defined what the objectives are fore the meeting?
Can you identify a group(s) who would have the best information to make a
decision?
2. Establish who should participate
Do participants have any agenda items they would like to discuss?
Were there additional agenda items from prior meetings?
3. Prepare the Agenda
Describe each topic for discussion or decision.
Assign a time limit for each item.
Schedule sufficient breaks.
Identify who will be leading the discussion and should prepare a presentation.
Is the agenda realistic?
Get agreement on the agenda.
Determine the best time and day to hold the meeting.
Reserve the meeting room or verify meeting place is available during the time set
for the meeting.
4. Prepare the following forms:

34

Meeting Announcement (Consists of the following information:)

Agenda
Time and Place of the meeting.
Directions and special instructions for members that are outside of the organization
sponsoring the meeting. (Be sure to specify where to park, and security clearances
required, if any. Include a list of local hotels and sites of interest.)
Name all participants (Including those that will not be attending but will receive a
copy of the minutes from the meeting.)
Any additional supporting information that each attendee must have in order to make
informed decisions.
Include a copy of the minutes from the prior meeting if necessary.
Attendance List (Consists of a table with the following columns:Name, Affiliation,
Phone, Fax, E-mail address, Signature)
Send the meeting announcement to all participants in time to allow them to prepare.
5. Prepare the Meeting Room

Make sure Coffee, donuts, bagels water, etc. are available for long meetings.
Make sure there are ample pens, markers and paper.
Clean the easel, dry erase or chalkboard to start the meeting with a fresh
environment.
Arrange the tables and chairs into a configuration conductive for the purposes of
the meeting.
Make sure everyone can see all visual aids.
Make sure there are spare bulbs for the overhead projector.

6. At the Start of the Meeting

Welcome all attendees.

Introduce the groups participating.
Allow each person to briefly introduce themselves.
Pass around the Attendance List to let each attendee sign and update any
information
Appoint the following roles: (Must be someone other than the chairperson) A time
keeper, A scribe to write down decisions, conclusions, and action items and their
rationale.
Introduce the Agenda.
If necessary, update the agenda. (This is the only time this will be allowed and only
if all or most members agree on the need for the change.)

7. During the Meeting

Make sure everyone is participating.

Direct questions to specific attendees in order to elicit their participation.
Keep the meeting moving.
Make sure the conversation is on the topic.
If new topics come up, agree to postpone them for another meeting.

35

If the discussion stalls: Summarize the discussion into a number of key points and
evaluate each one; Take a consensus vote and decide with the majority.
Do not allow people to interrupt others or rule their point out.
Accept only the presentation of facts and not emotion or judgments.

8. Wrap-up

Review all decisions.

Review all conclusions.
Review Action items.
Name who is the person or group responsible for the action.
Agree on a due or decision date.
Evaluate the meeting.
Are there things that could be done better?
What worked?
What did not work? Why?
Did everyone participate
?
Get a consensus on the value of the meeting. Was it even necessary?
Schedule the next meeting time.

9. After the Meeting

Give everyone a copy of the Attendance List before they leave.

Have the scribe type up the minutes.
Review the minutes and make any corrections.
Send a copy of the minutes to each participant.
Make sure that the Action Items are completed on schedule.
Apply the lessons learned to improve this checklist.

4.The CV (work in groups so as to sequence closely all the moments in Betty HOBKINS
Education group 1, Betty HOBKINS Legal Work Experience Group 2, Betty
HOBKINS Skills and Qualifications group 3)

Europass
Curriculum Vitae

Insert photograph.

Personal information
First name(s) / Surname(s)
Betty HOBKINS
Address(es)
32 Reading rd, Birmingham, B26 3QJ, United Kingdom
Telephone(s)
+44 2012345678
Mobile:
Mobile: +44 7123456789
Fax(es)
+44 2012345679

36

E-mail

hobbies@kotmail.com

Nationality

British

Date of birth

07.10.1974

Gender

Female

Desired employment / EUROPEAN PROJECT MANAGER

Occupational field
Work experience
Dates
August 2002 onwards
Occupation or position Independent
held
consultant
Main activities and
Evaluation of European Commission youth training support measures
responsibilities
for youth national
agencies and young people
Name and address of British Council, 123, Bd Ney, F-75023 Paris
employer
Type of business or sector
Independent worker
Dates
March July 2002
Occupation or position nternship
held
Main activities and
- Evaluating youth training programmes for SALTO UK and the
responsibilities
Partnership between the Council of Europe and
European Commission
- Organizing and running a 2 day workshop on non-formal education for
Action 5 large scale projects focusing on quality, assessment and
recognition
- Contributing to the Steering Group on training and developing
action plans on training for the next 3 years. Working on the Users
Guide for training and the Support Measures
Name and address of European Commission, Youth Unit, DG Education and Culture, 200,
employer
Rue de la Loi, B-1049
Brussels
Type of business
European institution
or sector
Dates
October 2001 - February 2002
Occupation or position Researcher
held
/ Independent Consul

37

Main activities and

responsibilities

Working in a research team carrying out in-depth qualitative evaluation

of the 2 year Advanced Training of Trainers in Europe using
participant observations, in-depth interviews and focus groups.
Work carried out in training courses in Strasbourg, Slovenia and
Budapest.
Name and address of Council of Europe, Budapest
employer
Type of business
European institutions
or sector
Education and
training
Dates
1997-2001
Title of qualification PhD
awarded
Principal
Thesis Title: 'Young People in the Construction of the Virtual
subjects/occupational skills
University, Empirical research that directly contributes to debates
covered
on e-learning.
Name and type of
Brunel University, London, UK
organisation providing
education and training
Level in national or
ISCED 6
international
classification
Dates
1993- 1997
Title of qualification Bachelor of Science in Sociology and Psychology
awarded
Principal
- Sociology of Risk, Sociology of Scientific
subjects/occupational Knowledge/ Information Society;
skills covered
- E-learning and Psychology; Research Methods.
Name and type of
Brunel University, London, UK.
organisation providing
education and training
Level in national or
ISCED 5
international
classification
Personal skills and
competences
Mother tongue(s)

English

Other language(s)
Self-assessment
European level (*)

Understanding
Listening
Reading

38

Speaking
Writing
Spoken interaction
Spoken
production

French
German

Social skills and

competences

Proficient
B2
Independent user
C1
Proficient user
C2
Proficient user
user
A2
Basic user
A2 Basic user
A2
Basic user
A2
Basic user A2
Basic user
(*)Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
C1
Proficient userC2

- Team work: I have worked in various types of teams from

research teams to national league hockey. For 2 years I coached my
university hockey team;
-Mediating skills: I work on the borders between young people,
youth trainers, youth policy and researchers, for example running
a 3 day workshop at CoE Symposium Youth Actor of Social
Change, and my continued work on youth training programmes;
- Intercultural skills: I am experienced at working in a European
dimension such as being a rapporteur at the CoE Budapest youth
against violence seminar and working with refugees

- Whilst working for a Brussels based refugee NGO Convivial I

Organisational skills and
organized a Civil Dialogue between refugees and civil servants
competences
at the European Commission 20th June 2002.
- During my PhD I organised a seminar series on research methods.
Technical skills and
competences
Computer skills and Competent with most Microsoft Office programmes and some
experience with HTML.
competences
Artistic skills and
competences
Other skills and
competences
Driving license

B+

Additional
information

PUBLICATION
How to do Observations: Borrowing techniques from the Social
Sciences to help Participants doObservations in Simulation Exercise
Coyote EU/CoE Partnership Publication, (2002).
PERSONAL INTERESTS
Creating pieces of Art and visiting Modern Art galleries. Enjoy all
sports particularly hockey, football and running. Love to travel and
experience different cultures.

39

Annexes

List any items attached. (Remove heading if not relevant, see

instructions)

5. By using the model above, fill in your own CV.

6. Exchange your CV with your desk mates, read it carefully, and then turn it into a
narration by using sequencing words.

G. The Agreement between the Subject and the Predicate

EX:

The general rule is that a Subject in the singular takes a Predicate in the singular.
The Attorney General reads the provisions.
The Attorneys General read the provisions.
The provision of the Directive shall be read with the following adaptations.
The provisions of the Directive shall be read with the following adaptations.

EX:

When the sentence has a multiple Subject, the Predicate is in the plural.
The Government, the Parliament, and the Justice are the three institutional powers
mentioned in the Constitution.

Exceptions:

EX:

EX:

EX:

1. Collective nouns may be followed by either a singular verb (when they are considered as
a whole) or a plural verb (when they are considered as a group of distinctive individuals).
The adopted childs family reside abroad.
The adopted childs family resides abroad.
The Government are in agreement.
The Government is concerned about the unemployment rates.
The people of the United States ordain this Constitution.
The American people ordains this Constitution.
2. Two singular subjects connected by eitheror, neithernor, not onlybut also, no
less than, and not are followed by a singular verb.
Neither House nor any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting shall
adjourn for more than three days.
Either the Government or the Parliament out-speaks the concerns and issues of the
common people.
Not only is Mount Rushmore an important national landmark, but it is also located in a
good place for camping.
3. When the compound Subject is considered as a whole the predicate may have a singular
form.
Whisky and soda is an exhausted lawyers favourite drink.
The defendant and the claimant is the same John Johnson.
Ten years is a long time to stay behind the bars.

40

EX:

EX:

EX:

EX:

EX:

EX:

EX:

4. The singular nouns preceded by each, either, every, and neither take singular verbs.
Each House of Parliament gives a resolution.
Either House of Parliament annules the resolution.
Every maintenance assessment shall be made in such form so as to comply with the
provisions.
5. The nouns body, heart, life, mind, soul are used in the plural whenever they refer to
more than one person.
All the student bodies decide to lower the accommodation fee.
6. In the sentences beginning with there the formal subject must agree with the real
subject.
There is no certificate of independence in force.
There are no reasonable grounds for believing that there was any contravention
7. The noun number takes a singular verb when preceded by the definite article the, and
a plural verb when preceded by the indefinite article a.
The number of voting papers is distributed for purposes of of the ballot.
A number of particular branches or sections of the union are voting the provisions of this
section.
8. When the pronoun it is used emphatically, then it is followed by a singular verb.
It is these trade unionists that broke the strike.
9. The Singularia Tantum nouns are followed by singular verbs.
The information is disclosed for purposes of collective bargaining.
Such advice is appropriate on matters concerned with industrial relations.
10. The Pluralia Tantum nouns will be followed either by plural verbs when they name
things made of two or more than two parts (scissors, trousers, glasses, contents, ashes,
riches, surroundings), or by singular verbs when they name diseases (measles, mumps),
games (billiards, draughts, cards), sciences (acoustics, phonetics, physics,
mathematics, economics). Other plural nouns such as means, series, and species also
take singular verbs.
Any other means of action is permitted.
The new series of the review is in print.
The contents of the dwelling house is split between the parties.
Acoustics is a science developed since the 18th century.
The acoustics of this room are quite astonishing.
In its uttermost abstractions, mathematics glides into poetry.
The mathematics of the case can be summed up very easy.
Applications and further practice:
1. Rephrase the following sentences:
1. He had never shot in his life.
It was
2. It was not necessary to post it today.
You
3. The bottle of champagne is almost empty.

41

There is
4. There are more books on the bottom shelf than on the top one.
There are not
5. It takes twenty minutes to walk to school.
Its..
6. Everybody agreed with her except George.
The only
7. The problem was so difficult that I asked my brothers to help me.
It was
8. Is anybody taking care of this child?
Is this child
9. Is this the only way to the railway station?
Isnt there?
10. The only person who didnt like the song was John.
Except

H. Topicalisation and Inversion

Def: The emphasis placed on the topic or focus of a sentence by preposing it to the
beginning of the sentence; placing the topic at the beginning of the sentence is typical for
English.
Most of the errors here are caused by topicalization; that is putting what is
considered to be the most important word or phrase at the beginning of a sentence.
Topicalization often has the effect of bringing the object to the beginning of a statement.
Generally speaking, putting objective information at the beginning of a sentence (so
that it occupies the place normally reserved for the subject), unintentionally adds emphasis
to that information. You can highlight a topic in English, but this should be done by using a
special fronting device.
EX:

Those girls, they giggle when they see me.

Cigarettes, you couldnt pay me to smoke them.

Adverbs are very mobile within the sentence structure, therefore topicalisation occures
more frequently in adverbial constructions. When an adverb is "short" (not composed), we
usually put it between the noun and the verb (in a mid-position), but we can also put it at
the beginning or at the end of the sentence. The short adverbs are: always, frequently,
habitually, never, normally, occasionally, often, rarely, sometimes, usually
Adverbs of frequency (generally, frequently, ocassionally, often, etc.) and
viewpoint adverbs normally take the first position in a sentence, whereas the adverbs of
manner (heavily, carefully etc.) must be placed after the verb (She was wispering
carefully). But when rarely and seldom are preceded by very and only, their place is at the
end of the sentence (She leaves the premises of the courthouse only seldom.)
(MODAL VERB) + NOUN + SHORT ADVERB + VERB
NOUN + (MODAL VERB) + SHORT ADVERB + VERB

EX:

A. What time do you normally eat dinner?

42

I normally eat dinner at 7:00.

Normally I eat dinner at 7:00.
I eat dinner at 7:00 normally.
I don't normally eat dinner.
B. Do you drink rum and soda often?
Yes, I often drink rum and soda.
I do not usually drink rum and soda.
Usually I do not drink rum and soda.
I do not drink rum and soda usually.
The use of ever and never:
NOUN + "never" + VERB
NOUN + MODAL VERB + "not" + "ever" + VERB
MODAL VERB + NOUN + "ever" + VERB?
EX:

A. Does he ever go to the doctor?

He never goes to doctor.
Never does he go to the doctor!
.
B. Do they ever attend classes?
No, they never attend classes.
Never, do they attend classes
Yes, they always work.
Usually, the place of the long adverbs is either in the beginning or at the end of the
sentence. The long adverbs are: a bit, a little, a lot, all the time, at times, enough, every
day, every month, every now and then, every week, from time to time, in the morning,
little, loads, lots, much, now and then, once a day, once a week, plenty, some, three
times a day, tons, twice a week, twice a year.
(MODAL VERB) + NOUN + VERB + LONG ADVERB
NOUN + (MODAL VERB) + VERB + LONG ADVERB
LONG ADVERB + NOUN + (MODAL VERB) + VERB

EX:

A. When do you study English?

I study English every day.
Every day I study English
(NOT: I every day study English).
B. Does she often go to the hair-dresser?
Yes, she goes twice a month.
Twice a month she goes to the hair-dresser.
(NOT: Yes, she twice a month goes.)
Much and "at all" occurs in questions and negative declarations:

EX:

A. Does he visit much?

Yes, he visits a lot.
No, he doesn't visit much.
No, he doesn't visit at all.
B. Do they go to church at all?

43

Yes, they go to church every day.

No, they don't go to church much.
No, they don't go to church at all.
The intensifiers create a great variety of topicalised constructions:
POSITIVE intensifiers: about, almost, nearly, practically, quite, really, too, very
NEGATIVE intensifiers: barely, hardly, only, scarcely
EX:

EX:

EX:

A. Do you smoke much?

Yes, I smoke almost a pack a day.
No, I hardly smoke at all.
Hardly do I smoke at all.
B. How often does Suzy swim?
She swims almost every day.
Every day she would swim.
She swims very frequently.
Frequently she would swim.
She almost never swims.
Never does she swim!
She swims in the morning.
In the morning she swims.
She swims once a year.
Once a year she swims.
She swims when it's hot.
She swims practically every weekend.
Every weekend she swims.
She doesn't swim very often.
She hardly ever swims.
Hardly would she swim!
She doesn't ever swim.
C. Does she study a lot?
No, she doesn't. She very rarely studies.
Rarely does she study in the library.
Syntactic cases of inversed structures in adverbial constructions:
1. after negative adverbs: never, seldom, scarcely, barely, seldom
when, no sooner than, in no circumstances, on no account,
little, nowhere, not until, neither, nor, rarely
No sooner has she closed the door than she realized that the thief was looking for the other
entrance.
Little does she care about the procedures.
On no account, must she accept the invitation.
2. after restrictive adverbs: only by, only now, only when, only
then, only in this way, only there, not only.
Only by working with all these difficult cases did he understand the ins and outs of English
justice.
Only now does she care more for poor people.
Only there, in court, does he prove his speaking talents and skills.

44

EX:

3. the adverbs of place and time that take a front position in the
sentence may be followed by an inversion: near the courthouse;
often, once a week, twice a week, by ones side etc.
Often have we discussed on these legal matters.
Once a week has he gone to his clients cell.
By his side did walk all his family.

EX:

4. after the adverbs here, there, back, down, up, round, forward
with a noun subject. When the subject is a pronoun, the inversions
are rather infrequent (In she came).
Here are the new scripts of the meetings.
There comes the new Lord Spiritual!
Up go all the scores on the stock exchange.
Down went all the defendants hopes.

EX:

5. in constructions with so and such

So great was his personality that none of us could press any charge against him.
Such was the case that all the victims involved withdrew their complaints.

Applications and further practice:

1. Rephrase the following sentences:
a. The only way you can reach the management line is by working hard.
Only
b. She speaks English so fluently that one often takes her for an English
solocitor.
So
c. The will have repaired the car by next week.
The roof
d. Such valuable artifacts are to be found nowhere else
Nowhere
e. If you had come on time, you could have squeezed in the debate.
Had
f. They are selling a valuable collection of medals.
A valuable collection of medals.
g. I rarely get the chance to eat on time.
Rarely
g. They will on no account agree to such a nonsense.
On no account
h. He has to was his hands.
His hands
i. My car is so old that Im afraid it will explode one day.
So
j. The bomb raid started so suddenly that the children could not put
themselves under shelter.
So suddenly
2. Combine the following sentences with the adverb (in parenthesis):

45

Model: I ask you questions. (hardly ever)

I hardly ever ask you questions.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

I wash my car. (once a year)

Ms. Marino goes to Seoul Korea on business. (frequently)
Timothy plays poker. (practically never)
Mario visits Barbara. (every now and then)
Maria and Sumiko fight. (a lot)
We go sailing. (practically every weekend)
Does he act like an idiot? (always)
He changes his clothes. (three times a day)
Do they sing that song? (every night)
Are you tired and irritable? (every morning).

4. Form adverbs from the following adjectives and then complete the sentences with
one appropriate adverb by taking into consideration their place in the sentence.
Bad, bright, fast, careful, foolish, fluent, good, happy, immediate, hard, merry, polite,
punctual, thorough
a. Why are you so rude? You should behave
b. My daughter has improved her Spanish lately. She also speaks English.
c. It was a beautiful day: the sun was shining, the birds were singing, and the children
were playing
d. Marin is a good football player. He always plays
e. Why are you driving so today?
f. As she doesnt want to learn by heart the new provisions, she reads the act
g. I am nor late. I have arrived.
5. Insert the adverbs in brackets in their correct place by taking into consideration that
the natural order should follow the scheme Manner+ Place+Time.
a. Ill be waiting for you (in the morning, at the station, at 9 o clock).
b. They are going (for two weeks, to France, on Monday).
c. This woman stayed (all day, quietly, here).
d. The plane arrived (that day, early).
e. The children were playing (at noon, happily, there).
f. He is singing (now, here, beautifully).
g. Father worked (at the town courthouse, very hard, yesterday).
6. Put the following adverbs in the right position:
a. We have seen that statute (never).
b. The boy is very active after meals (often).
c. I learn many English words during classes (usually).
d. My father smokes in the office during the day (never).
e. This store received complaints from the customers (seldom).
f. That man has tried to follow my instructions carefully (always).
g. Does the head of the department have any discussion with his fellows (ever)?
7. Put the adverbs of degree in the right place.
a. Maria forgot to buy bread (completely).

46

b. fortunately, the driver was not injured in the accident (seriously).

c. We have finished our work for today (nearly).
d. I didnt realize that (really)!
e. This is a difficult exercise for them (rather).
f. He criticized me for that (strongly).
8. Answer the questions using the adverbs in brackets followed by inversion.
a. Was John dismissed as soon as he had been promoted (no sooner)?
b. Has she ever stayed in such expensive hotel (never before)?
c. Can you pass this difficult exam without working hard (only by)?
d. Does she know much about this (little)?
e. Have you ever eaten such good cakes (never)?
f. Did Mary go both to the cinema and to the theatre (not only, but also)?
g. Shall I find such interesting museums anywhere else (no where else)?
h. Will he be permitted to leave (under no circumstance)?
i. Did the telephone ring immediately as he entered the room (scarcely)?
9. Correct the following sentences.
a. She always nearly goes to on Sunday to Edinburgh?
b. Our neighbour spoke fluently the Cockney dialect.
c. They often have visited us here.
d. She perhaps will not find after all the right answer.
e. She is quite really certain that she is intelligent extremely.
f. She generally always on time comes to school.
I.
PHRASAL VERBS
J. REPORTED SPEECH

II. CIVILIZATION NOTIONS

I.

Read, resume, and compare the following chapters/articles regulating trade

union and labour relations in the UK and Romania.
Trade Union and Labour
Relations (Consolidation) Act
1992
CHAPTER 52
An Act to consolidate the enactments relating to collective labour relations, that is to
say, to trade unions, employers' associations, industrial relations and industrial action. [16th
July 1992]
BE IT ENACTED by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and
consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:
PART I
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
Meaning of "trade union"
1. In this Act a "trade union" means an organisation (whether temporary or permanent).

47

(a) which consists wholly or mainly of workers of one or more descriptions and whose
principal purposes include the regulation of relations between workers of that description
or those descriptions and employers or employers associations; or
(b) which consists wholly or mainly of
(i) constituent or affiliated organisations which fulfil the conditions in paragraph (a) (or
themselves consist wholly or mainly of constituent or affiliated organisations which fulfil
those conditions), or
(ii) representatives of such constituent or affiliated organisations, and whose principal
purposes include the regulation of relations between workers and employers or between
workers and employers' associations, or the regulation of relations between its constituent
or affiliated organisations.
The list of trade unions
2.(l) The Certification Officer shall keep a list of trade unions containing the names of
(a) the organisations whose names were, immediately before the commencement of this
Act, duly entered in the list of trade 1974 c. 52. unions kept by him under section 8 of the
Trade Union and Labour Relations Act 1974, and
(b) the names of the organisations entitled to have their names entered in the list in
accordance with this Part.
(2) The Certification Officer shall keep copies of the list of trade unions, as for the time
being in force, available for public inspection at all reasonable hours free of charge.
(3) A copy of the list shall be included in his annual report.
(4) The fact that the name of an organisation is included in the list of trade unions is
evidence (in Scotland, sufficient evidence) that the organisation is a trade union.
(5) On the application of an organisation whose name is included in the list, the
Certification Officer shall issue it with a certificate to that effect.
(6) A document purporting to be such a certificate is evidence (in Scotland, sufficient
evidence) that the name of the organisation is entered in the list.
3.( 1) An organisation of workers, whenever formed, whose name is not entered in the
list of trade unions may apply to the Certification Officer to have its name entered in the
list.
(2) The application shall be made in such form and manner as the Certification Officer
may require and shall be accompanied by
(a) a copy of the rules of the organisation,
(b) a list of its officers,
(c) the address of its head or main office, and
(d) the name under which it is or is to be known,
and by the prescribed fee.
(3) If the Certification Officer is satisfied
(a) that the organisation is a trade union,
(b) that subsection (2) has been complied with, and
(c) that entry of the name in the list is not prohibited by subsection
(4),
he shall enter the name of the organisation in the list of trade unions.
(4) The Certification Officer shall not enter the name of an organisation in the list of
trade unions if the name is the same as that under which another organisation
(a) was on 30th September 1971 registered as a trade union under the Trade Union Acts
1871 to 1964,

48

(b) was at any time registered as a trade union or employers' association under the
Industrial Relations Act 1971, or 1971 c. 72.
(c) is for the time being entered in the list of trade unions or in the list of employers'
associations kept under Part II of this Act, or if the name is one so nearly resembling any
such name as to be likely to deceive the public.
4.(1) If it appears to the Certification Officer, on application made to Removal of name
him or otherwise, that an organisation whose name is entered in the list of trade unions is
not a trade union, he may remove its name from the list.
(2) He shall not do so without giving the organisation notice of his intention and
considering any representations made to him by the organisation within such period (of not
less than 28 days beginning with the date of the notice) as may be specified in the notice.
(3) The Certification Officer shall remove the name of an organisation from the list of
trade unions if
(a) he is requested by the organisation to do so, or
(b) he is satisfied that the organisation has ceased to exist.
Certification as independent trade union
5. In this Act an "independent trade union" means a trade union which
(a) is not under the domination or control of an employer or group of employers or of one
or more employers' associations, and
(b) is not liable to interference by an employer or any such group or association (arising out
of the provision of financial or material support or by any other means whatsoever) tending
towards such control;
and references to "independence", in relation to a trade union, shall be construed
accordingly.
6.(1) A trade union whose name is entered on the list of trade unions may apply to the
Certification Officer for a certificate that it is independent.
The application shall be made in such form and manner as the Certification Officer may
require and shall be accompanied by the prescribed fee.
(2) The Certification Officer shall maintain a record showing details of all applications
made to him under this section and shall keep it available for public inspection (free of
charge) at all reasonable hours.
(3) If an application is made by a trade union whose name is not entered on the list of
trade unions, the Certification Officer shall refuse a certificate of independence and shall
enter that refusal on the record.
(4) In any other case, he shall not come to a decision on the application before the end
of the period of one month after it has been entered on the record; and before coming to his
decision he shall make such enquiries as he thinks fit and shall take into account any
relevant information submitted to him by any person.
(5) He shall then decide whether the applicant trade union is independent and shall
enter his decision and the date of his decision on the record.
(6) If he decides that the trade union is independent he shall issue a certificate
accordingly; and if he decides that it is not, he shall give reasons for his decision.
7.(1) The Certification Officer may withdraw a trade union's certificate of independence
if he is of the opinion that the union is no longer independent.
(2) Where he proposes to do so he shall notify the trade union and enter notice of the
proposal in the record.
(3) He shall not come to a decision on the proposal before the end of the period of one
month after notice of it was entered on the record; and before coming to his decision he
shall make such enquiries as he thinks fit and shall take into account any relevant
information submitted to him by any person.

49

(4) He shall then decide whether the trade union is independent and shall enter his
decision and the date of his decision on the record.
(5) He shall confirm or withdraw the certificate accordingly; and if he decides to
withdraw it, he shall give reasons for his decision.
(6) Where the name of an organisation is removed from the list of trade unions, the
Certification Officer shall cancel any certificate of independence in force in respect of that
organisation by entering on the record the fact that the organisation's name has been
removed from that list and that the certificate is accordingly cancelled.
8.( 1) A certificate of independence which is in force is conclusive evidence for all
purposes that a trade union is independent; and a refusal, withdrawal or cancellation of a
certificate of independence, entered on the record, is conclusive evidence for all purposes
that a trade union is not independent.
(2) A document purporting to be a certificate of independence and to be signed by the
Certification Officer, or by a person authorised to act on his behalf, shall be taken to be
such a certificate unless the contrary is proved.
(3) A document purporting to be a certified copy of an entry on the record and to be
signed by the Certification Officer, or by a person authorised to act on his behalf, shall be
taken to be a true copy of such an entry unless the contrary is proved.
(4) If in any proceedings before a court, the Employment Appeal Tribunal, the
Central Arbitration Committee, ACAS or an industrial tribunal a question arises whether a
trade union is independent and there is no certificate of independence in force and no
refusal, withdrawal or cancellation of a certificate recorded in relation to that trade union
(a) that question shall not be decided in those proceedings, and
(b) the proceedings shall instead be stayed or sisted until a certificate of independence has
been issued or refused by the Certification Officer.
(5) The body before whom the proceedings are stayed or sisted may refer the question
of the independence of the trade union to the Certificate Officer who shall proceed in
accordance with section 6 as on an application by that trade union.
Supplementary
9.(1) An organisation aggrieved by the refusal of the Certification Officer to enter its
name in the list of trade unions, or by a decision of his decision of to remove its name from
the list, may appeal to the Employment Appeal Tribunal.
(2) A trade union aggrieved by the refusal of the Certification Officer to issue it with a
certificate of independence, or by a decision of his to withdraw its certificate, may appeal
to the Employment Appeal Tribunal.
(3) If on appeal the Tribunal is satisfied that the organisation's name should be or
remain entered in the list or, as the case may be, that the certificate should be issued or
should not be withdrawn, it shall declare that fact and give directions to the Certification
Officer accordingly.
(4) The rights of appeal conferred by this section extend to any question of fact or law
arising in the proceedings before, or arising from the decision of, the Certification Officer.
(Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992)
ART. 214 (1) Sindicatele, federaiile i confederaiile sindicale, denumite n continuare
organizaii sindicale, sunt constituite de ctre salariai pe baza dreptului de liber asociere,
n scopul promovrii intereselor lor profesionale, economice i sociale, precum i al
aprrii drepturilor individuale i colective ale acestora prevzute n contractele colective i
individuale de munc sau n acordurile colective de munc i raporturile de serviciu,
precum i n legislaia naional, n pactele, tratatele i conveniile internaionale la care
Romnia este parte.

50

(2) Constituirea, organizarea i funcionarea sindicatelor se reglementeaz prin

lege.
ART. 215 Sindicatele particip prin reprezentanii proprii, n condiiile legii, la negocierea
i ncheierea contractelor colective de munc, la tratative sau acorduri cu autoritile
publice i cu patronatele, precum i n structurile specifice dialogului social.
ART. 216 Sindicatele se pot asocia n mod liber, n condiiile legii, n federaii,
confederaii sau uniuni teritoriale.
ART. 217 Exerciiul dreptului sindical al salariailor este recunoscut la nivelul tuturor
angajatorilor, cu respectarea drepturilor i libertilor garantate prin Constituie i n
conformitate
cu
dispoziiile
prezentului
cod
i
ale
legilor
speciale.
ART. 218 (1) Este interzis orice intervenie a autoritilor publice de natur a limita
drepturile sindicale sau a mpiedica exercitarea lor legal.
(2) Este interzis, de asemenea, orice act de ingerin al patronilor sau al o
rganizaiilor patronale, fie direct, fie prin reprezentanii sau membrii lor, n constituirea
organizaiilor sindicale sau n exercitarea drepturilor lor.
ART. 219 La cererea membrilor lor, sindicatele pot s i reprezinte pe acetia n cadrul
conflictelor de munc, n condiiile legii.
ART. 220 (1) Reprezentanilor alei n organele de conducere ale sindicatelor li se asigur
protecia legii contra oricror forme de condiionare, constrngere sau limitare a exercitrii
funciilor lor.
(2) Pe toat durata exercitrii mandatului, reprezentanii alei n organele de
conducere ale sindicatelor nu pot fi concediai pentru motive ce in de ndeplinirea
mandatului pe care l-au primit de la salariaii din unitate.
(3) Alte msuri de protecie a celor alei n organele de conducere ale
sindicatelor sunt prevzute n legi speciale i n contractul colectiv de munc aplicabil.
(Codul Muncii 2011)

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