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Folio Chemistry Form 5 Chemicals For Consumers
Folio Chemistry Form 5 Chemicals For Consumers
No.
TITLE
1.
Soaps & Detergents
2.
3.
Intro
Soaps
- History of Soap
Manufacturing
- Preparation of Soap
Manufacturing
- Structure of Soap Molecule
Detergents
- Preparation of Detergents
- Structure of Detergent
Molecule
- Cleansing of Soap &
Detergent
- Additives in Detergent
- Effectivesness of Soaps &
Detergents
Food Additives
Uses of Food Additives
- Types of Additives &
Examples
- Functions of Food Additives
- Effects of Food Additives
The Rationale for using Food
Additives
Medicines
Sources & Uses of Traditional
Medicines
Modern Medicines
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21-22
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30
SOAPS &
DETERGENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. Cleansing agents are chemical substance used to remove
grease and dirt.
2. There are two type of cleansing agents :
a) Soaps
b) Detergents
3. Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that
contains 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule.
4. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or
vegetable oil by saponification.
Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap
molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain (composed of
carbons and hydrogens) with a carboxylic acid group on one
end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or
potassium. The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and is soluble in
nonpolar substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end
(the salt of a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water. The structure
of a soap molecule is represented below:
O
||
CH3-CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2CH2- CH2-CH2- C-O Na+
Non-polar hydrocarbon chain ionic end.
(Soluble in nonpolar substances) (Soluble in water)
Detergents are structurally similar to soaps, but differ in the
water-soluble portion. Three examples of detergents are
shown below.
SOAP
The History of Soap Manufacturing
1. Soap have been used for more than 3000 years. It was recorded that the
Babylonians were making soaps around 2800 B.C.
2. The Purifying Oils were recorded on Hebrew tablets in 4000 B.C.
3. In ancients time, soap made from ashes of plants which contain sodium carbonate
and potassium carbonate. The ashes were boiled with lime (calcium oxide) to
produce caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). Caustic potash is then boiled with
the animal fats to produce soap.
a) Ash
+
(K2CO3)
Lime
boiled
(CaO)
Caustic Potash
(KOH)
boiled
Soap
4. In 1861, the Belgian Chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) discovered the process to
make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium chloride) and calcium
carbonate.
5. This process is known as the Solvay Process which produces sodium carbonate
cheaply for industrial use. Sodium carbonate (often called soda or soda ash) is
used for making glass, soaps and detergents.
6. Michel Chevreul (1786-1889), a French chemist, was noted for his research in the
composition of animal fats is composed of fatty acids and glycerol. This discovery
contributed to the rapid development of the soap and candle industry.
soap +glycerol
3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using alkali solutions. From the
chemist aspect, soaps are sodium salts or potassium salts of long chain
carboxylic acids (with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule).
4. Some examples of soaps are shown below.
a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa
b) Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa
c) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa
Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and sometimes antiseptics are added
to soaps to enhance their marketability.
5. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters commonly found in animal fats
and vegetable oils. When the ester is boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and mixture of sodium
stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained.
CH2COOC17H35
CHCOOC17H35
CH2OH
3NaOH
CHOH
(heating)
CH2COOC17H35
3C17H35COONa
CH2OH
Glyceryl tristearate
Glycerol
6. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium chloride)
to the reaction mixture.
7. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a result,
precipitation of soap occurs.
8. The properties of soap depend on :
a) The type of alkali used for saponification
b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used.
9. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps produced from
potassium hydroxide are soft.
10. Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive oil) ae
used for making soap.
C17H35COO- (aq)
stearate ions
+ Na + (aq)
2. The active substance in soap is the carboxylate ion, for example, stearate ion. The
stearate ion consist of two parts : the head and the tail. The head id negatively
charged and the tail is a long hydrocarbon chain.
(a)
(b)
The figure 5.3 9a) shows the molecular model of palmitate ion and Figure 5.3 (b)
shows the simple representation of the structure of the palmitate ion.
DETERGENTS
1. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from
petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.
2. Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge on the
detergent ion.
a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a
negatively charged ion.
Example: R O SO3-Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate)
Negatively
charged ion
Positively
charged ion
Where R represents a
long
hydrocarbon
chain.
We can represent
the detergent ion, alkylbenzene sulphonate ion, more simply as :
R OSO3
Preparation of detergents
1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain
lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.
Steps 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid
b) Step 2 : Sulphonation
Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid acid to
form alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.
5. On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is lifted from the surface.
6. Emulsifying dirt in water
a) Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying agents to emulsify oils and
grease.
b) The process of emulsification breaks large drops of grease into smaller
droplets that floats in water. The greasy droplets repel on another because
they carry the same charge. As a result, the grease is suspended in the
solution.
c) When the cloth is rinsed with the water, the droplet will be carried away.
d) The cleaning process become more efficient in the water containing the
soap or detergent solution is stirred
Additives in detergents
1. Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a few types of
additives to :
a) Increase their cleaning power.
b) Make them attractive and saleable.
2. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cle4ansing agents (sodium
alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are
additives. The examples of addictives and their functions are described as follows:
3. Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O10)
a) Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard water. In the presence of
sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca2+ ions and Mg2+ ions are removed.
b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this way,
muddy dirt can be removed.
4. Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perborate
a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation process.
When coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will disappear.
b) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in detergent are sodium
perborate (NaH2BO43H2O). Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to
release oxygen (an oxidising agent) which is responsible for the whitening
(bleaching) action.
c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are not
damaging to fabrics. When properly used, the perborate bleaches make
fabrics whiter than chlorine bleaches and the colourful dyes of the fabrics
do not fade when dirty stains are removed.
d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite, (NaCIO) can also be used
as bleaches in detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium hypochlorite is
sodium chlorate (I).
e) Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that bleaches with dirty stains.
However, high concentrations of chlorine can be quite damaging to fabrics.
These bleaches do not work well on synthetic fabrics (polyster fabrics),
often causing a yellowing rather than the desire whitening. Also chlorine
causes the dyes on fabrics to fade.
5. Biological enzymes : Amylase, lipase, and protease
a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed by
the ordinary detergents because these types of stains are insoluble in
water.
b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein
molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids
produced are soluble in water and are removed during washing.
6. Brighteners
a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners absorb the
invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light.
b) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the blue light
can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the yellow light
reflected on old fabrics make them look white.
7. Drying agents ; Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate
Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na 2S2O3) are used as drying
agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a dry condition.
8. Stabilisers
a) The functions of stabilizers is to prevents the formation of foam.
b) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the pump
working. So, washing powders for automatic washing machine are made
using detergents that are good at removing and emulsifying grease, but do
not produced foam.
9. Perfumes
Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.
Advantages of soaps
1. Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is water does not contain
Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions.
2. Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the environment. This is because soaps
are made from chemical found in animals and plants. This means that soaps are
biodegradable, that is they can be composed by the action of bacteria.
Disadvantages of soaps
1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and
calcium salts.
2. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg 2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in hard
water.
3. Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium stearate and
calcium stearate.
4. Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing
dissolves acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic
acids molecular size that are insoluble in water.
5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because
they exist mainly as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (head) that
dissolves in water.
Advantages of detergents
1. Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard
water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg + and Ca2+ ions found
in hard water.
2. The detergents ions (R O SO3- and R SO3- )react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in hard
water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are formed are
soluble in water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents are still active
in hard water and lathers easily.
3. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of the
hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergents with specific properties.
Nowadays, different types of detergents have been synthesised for specific uses
such as shampoos and dish cleaner.
4. Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H + ion is acidic
water do not combined with detergents ions.
Disadvantages of detergents
FOOD ADDITIVES
USES OF FOOD
ADDITIVES
1. Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the
growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food can
be stored for a long time.
2. In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salt, sugar and
vinegar were used to preserve food and to make the food taste better.
3. Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used, table below shows the types of
preservatives commonly used. Many of the preservatives are organic acids and
salts of organic acids.
Preservative
Sodium nitrite
Sodium nitrate
Molecular formula
NaNO2
NaNO3
Benzoic acid
Sodium benzoate
Sulphur dioxide
Sodium sulphite
C6H5COOH
C6H5COONa
SO2
Na2SO3
Uses
To preserve meat, cheese and dried fish.
To prevent food poisoning in canned
foods.
To maintain the natural colour of meat
and to make them look fresh
To preserve sauce (olyster, tomato or
chilli), fruit juice, jam and margarine
Used as bleaches and antioxidants to
prevent browning in fruit juices.
Maintain the colour and freshness of
vegetables.
To prevents the growth of yeast
Antioxidants
1. Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation of fats
and oils by oxygen in the air.
2. Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed to air.
3. When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This makes the
food unpalatable. The rancid product are volatile organic compound with foul
odours (for example , butanoic acid, C3H7COOH).
4. Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried foods to
slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not become rancid.
Flavouring agents
1. There are two types of flavouring agents : artificial flavours and flavour enhancer.
They are added to foods to make them taste better.
2. Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that are
added to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of food.
Benzyl
ethanoate
Strawberry
Octyl
ethanoate
Orange
Ethyl
butanoate
Pineapple
Dyes
1. Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give them colour
so as to improve their appearance.
2. Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food processing.
The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to :
a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing.
b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of foods.
c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour.
3. Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically prepared.
The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these
compounds are organic compounds.
4. The synthetic dyes , brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound. The
synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds.
5. Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N = N -, and
are usually yellow , red, brown, black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic
compounds containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5, and are usually green. Blue or
purple in colour.
5. Cancer
a) Chemicals that cause cancer are called carcinogens.
Sodium nitrite (a preservative) is a potent carcinogen.
Disadvantages
1. Eating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants and
flavour enhancers is excess quantities over a long period of
time is detrimental to health.
2. Some food additives are used to make foods look more
appealing. These additives have little nutritional value. Eating
such foods increases the risk of health hazard.
3. Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of nutrients,
such as vitamins A and D, or of trace elements, such as copper
and zinc. Eating foods with excessive amounts of nutrients can
ruin our health.
MEDICINES
Plant
Garlic
Ginger
Rhizome
(horizontal
underground stem)
and leaves
Aloe vera
Leaves
Lemon (lime)
Fruits
Quinine
Bark of Chinchona
tree
Ginseng
Roots
Uses
For preventing flu
attack
For reducing high blood
pressure
For treating stomach
pain due to wind in the
stomach
For supplying heat
energy to keep the
body warm
For preventing flu
attack
For preventing itchy
skin
For treating burns
(scalding) on the skin
For treating boils or
abscesses on the skin
For preventing flu
attack
For treating skin
diseases
For treating malaria
For preventing muscle
cramps
As a tonic to improve
the overall health of
human beings
Lemon grass
Stem/leaves
Tongkat Ali
Roots
Modern medicines
1. Before the 20th century, most medicines were extracted from
plants (herbal medicines). Since 1900. Thousands of modern
drugs have been synthesised from organic compound.
2. Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their
effects on the human body.
3. Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics,
antibiotics, psychotherapeutic drugs.
4. Modern drugs have a trade name and a generic name. For
example, the analgesic aspirin (generic name) is sold under
different brand names such as Caprin and Disprin. Similarly,
paracetamol (generic name) is sold under the trade name of
Panadol.
5. Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of active
ingredients prepared in different forms, such as capsules, pills,
solutions or suspensions. For example, Alka-Seltzer (used as
an antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), citric acid
and aspirin. It is the sodium bicarbonate then neutralizes the
excess stomach acid.
Psychotherapeutic medicines
1. Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for treating
mental or emotional illnesses.
2. Psychotherapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups as
shown in table below :
Types of
psychotherapeutic drugs
a) Stimulants
b) Antidepressa
nt
c) Antipsychotic
agents
3.
Example
Caffeine,
amphetamine
Prozac
Chloropromazin
Stimulants
a) Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that
stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central
nervous system.
b) Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it
needs to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.
c) Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,
less tired and more cheerful.
d) Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.
Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and is
found on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.
e) Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants and
increase alertness and physical ability.
f) Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,
as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes the
body to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,
partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.
4. Antidepressants
a) Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depression
are caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.
b) People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They
experience a loss of interest in everyday activities such as
work or hobbies.
c) There is a strong correlation between the amounts of
special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brain
Side effects
Can cause bleeding in the stomach because
Amphetamines
Codeine
Penicillin
Streptomycin
Stimulants
Antidepressants
Antipsychotic
drugs
1. Self-medication
Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for
other people. Discuss with your doctor and listen to him
concerning the medicine to be taken.
2. Follow the instructions given
Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist
concerning the dosage and method of taking the medicine.