LE 7
Inventory Management
and Risk Pooling
E
JAM Electronics: Service
Level Ci
JAM Electronics is a Korean manufacturer of products
such as industrial relays. The company has five Far
Eastem manufacturing facilities, each in a different
country, with headquarters in Seoul, South Korea.
JAM USA is a subsidiary of JAM Electronics and
was established in the United States in 1978. The U.S.
subsidiary provides distribution and service functions
in this country. It has a central warehouse in Chicago
that serves two types of customers: distributors and
original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Distribu-
tors typically keep inventory of JAM’s products and
supply them to their clients as needed. OEMs use
JAM’s products to produce different types of items
such as automatic garage door openers.
JAM Electronics. produces about 2,500 different
products, all of them manufactured in the Far East.
Finished products are stored in a central warehouse in
Korea and are shipped from there to different coun-
tries. In particular, items sold in the United States are
transported by ship to the warehouse in Chicago.
In recent years, JAM USA has seen both a signif
icant increase in competition and huge pressure from
its clients and distributors to improve service levels
and reduce costs. Unfortunately, as Al Jones, the
Source: JAM Electronic
inventory manager, points out, “the service level right
now is at an all-time low. Only about 70 percent of all
orders are delivered on time. On the other hand, inven-
tory, primarily that of low-demand products, keeps
Ina recent meeting with Chan Moon, the president
of JAM USA; Ken Hall, vice president and general
‘manager; and Li Chan, a representative of the Korean
headquarters, Al pointed out several reasons for the
low service level:
1. Difficulty forecasting customer demand. Indeed,
‘many factors, including changes in the economy
and changes in customer behavior, have had a
major impact on demand, and these are quite
difficult to predict.
2. Long lead time in the supply chain. A typical order
placed by the warehouse in Ilinois arrives in about
six to seven weeks. There are two primary reasons
for the long lead time. First, there is a week of
processing time in the central distribution center in
Korea: second, the ocean transit time is very long.
3. The large number of SKUs handled by JAM US
Recall that JAM USA distributes about 2,500 dif-
ferent products, ranging from small relays to large
programmable controllers, to its customers.
4. The low priority given the U.S. subsidiary by
headquarters in Seoul. An order that arrives at
the Korean headquarters from Japanese or Korean
clients typically receives a higher priority over an
«fictional company. The material in this case is loosely based on ovr experience with several companies.
43DESIGNING AND MANAGING THE SUPPLY CHAIN
250
2
&
Demand
(in thousands)
&
a
Ape May june July Ag
m Size
Ox Now: Dec Jan Feb. Mar
15190 7730 22750 10100 14850 4895 12240 GLAD 4760 526210840 4550
Months, 1997-98
FIGURE 3-1 Monthly demand for item xxx-1534.
order received from the United States. Thus, the
lead time to the United States is occasionally much
longer than seven weeks,
To illustrate the difficulty in forecasting customer
demand, Al provided a graph that showed monthly
demand information for item xxx-1534, a relay
product used in the manufacture of refrigerators (see
Figure 3-1). As the graph demonstrates, variability in
customer demand is very high; demand changes from
‘month to month and it is difficult to predict what cus-
tomer demand is going to be even with sophisticated
forecasting techniques.
Ken, the general manager, was very critical of Al's
analysis. He pointed out that if long lead time is an
issue, then JAM USA needs to reduce it, perhaps by
using air carriers, which would probably reduce lead
time to about two weeks. Ken, however, was unsure of
the impact of this change on the overall supply chain.
He pointed out that “transportation costs are certainly
‘going to increase, but where are the savings?”
The meeting ended with a decision to establish a
task force, headed by Ken, to address the service level
crisis.
As Al left the meeting, he could not help but
think that many companies must be facing similar
problems: high demand variability, long lead times,
unreliable supply processes, and a large number of
‘SKUs. “What is the competition doing to cope with
these problems?” he wondered.
By tne end of this chapter, you will understand the following issues
+ How firms cope with huge variability in customer demand.
+ What the relationship is between service and inventory levels.
‘What impact lead time and lead time variability have on inventory levels.
What an effective inventory management policy is.
How buyers and suppliers use supply contracts to improve supply chain performance.
‘What approaches can be used to forecast future demand.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
‘The importance of inventory management, and the need for the coordination of
entory decisions and transportation policies, has long been evident. Unfortunately,
‘managing inventory in complex supply chains is typically difficult, and may have a
significant impact on the customer service level and supply chain systemwide cost.(CHAPTER o: INVENTORY MANAGEMENT AND RISK POOLING
As we discussed in Chapter 1, atypical supply chain consists of suppliers and manu-
facturers, who convert raw materials into finished products, and distribution centers and
warehouses, from which finished products are distributed to customers. This implies
that inventory appears in the supply chain in several forms:
+ Raw material inventory.
* Work-in-process (WIP) inventory,
+ Finished product inventory.
Each of these needs its own inventory control mechanism. Unfortunately, determining
these mechanisms is difficult because efficient production, distribution, and inventory
control strategies that reduce systemwide costs and improve service levels must take
into account the interactions of the various levels in the supply chain. Nevertheless, the
benefits of determining these inventory control mechanisms can be enormous.
EXAMPLE 3-1
‘General Motors (GM) has one of the largest production and distribution networks in the wort. In
11984 GM's distribution network consisted of 20,000 supplier plants, 133 parts plants, 31 assembly
plants, and 11,000 dealers. Freight transportation costs were about $4.1 bilion with 60 percent for
‘material shipments. In addition, GM valued at $7.4 billon, of which 70 percent was,
|WIP and the rest was finished vehicles. GM has implemented a decision tool capable of reducing
‘the combined corporate cost of inventory and transportation. Indeed, by adjusting shipment sizes
(Le. inventory policy) and routes (Le. transportation strategy), costs could be reduced by about
28 percent annually [14}.
Of course, the key question is: Why hold inventory at all? Some of the reasons
include
1. Unexpected changes in customer demand. Customer demand has always been hard
to predict, and uncertainty in customer demand has increased in the last few years
due to
a, The short life cycle of an increasing number of products. This implies that his-
torical data about customer demand may not be available or may be quite limited
(see Chapter 1).
b. The presence of many competing products in the marketplace. This proliferation
of products makes it increasingly difficult to predict demand for a specific model.
Indeed, while it is relatively easy to forecast demand across product groups—
that is, to forecast demand for all products competing in the same market—it is
‘much more difficult to estimate demand for individual products. We discuss this
in more detail in Section 3.3 and in Chapters 5 and 9.
2. The presence in many situations of a significant uncertainty in the quantity and
quality of the supply, supplier costs, and delivery times.
3, Even if there is no uncertainty in demand or supply, there is a need to hold inventory
due to delivery lead times.
4. Economies of scale offered by transportation companies that encourage firms to
transport large quantities of items, and therefore hold large inventories. Indeed, many
of the transportation providers try to encourage large-size shipments by offering all
sorts of discounts to shippers (see Chapter 2),
edNet46 cesicnna avo uanAcine TH SUPPLY CHAN
Unfortunately, managing inventory effectively in this environment is often difficult,
as the following examples illustrate:
+ In 1993, Dell Computer's stock plunged after the company predicted a loss. Dell
acknowledged that the company was sharply off in its forecast of demand, resulting
in inventory write-downs [164].
+ In]993, Liz Claiborne experienced an unexpected earnings decline, asaconsequence
of higher-than-anticipated excess inventories [165].
+ In 1994, IBM struggled with shortages in the ThinkPad line due to ineffective
inventory management [166].
* In 2001, Cisco took a $ 2.25B excess inventory charge due to declining sales.
‘These examples raise two important issues in inventory management:
1. Demand forecasting.
2. Order quantity calculation,
Since demand is uncertain in most situations, forecast demand is a critical element
in determining order quantity. But what is the relationship between forecast demand
and the optimal order quantity? Should the order quantity be equal to, greater than, or
smaller than forecast demand? And, if order quantity is different than forecast demand,
by how much? These issues are discussed below.
3.2 A SINGLE WAREHOUSE INVENTORY EXAMPLE
What are the key factors affecting inventory policy?
1. First and foremost is customer demand, which may be known in advance or may
be random, In the latter case, forecasting tools may be used in situations in which
historical data are available to estimate the average customer demand, as well as the
amount of variability in customer demand (often measured as the standard deviation).
2. Replenishment lead time, which may be known at the time we place the order, oF
may be uncertain.
3. The number of different products.
4, The length of the planning horizon.
5. Costs, including order cost and inventory holding cost.
a, Typically, order cost consists of two components: the cost of the product and the
transportation cost.
1b, Inventory holding cost, or inventory carrying cost, consists of
i, State taxes, property taxes, and insurance on inventories.
Maintenance costs,
Obsolescence cost, which derives from the risk that an item will lose some
of its value because of changes in the market
iv. Opportunity costs, which represent the return on investment that one would
receive had money been invested in something else (e.g., the stock market)
instead of inventory.
6. Service level requirements. In situations where customer demand is uncertain, it is
often impossible to meet customer orders 100 percent of the time, so management
needs to specify an acceptable level of service.(CHAPTER 6: INVENTORY MANAGEMENT AND RISK POOLING. rr]
3.2.1 The Economic Lot Size Model
The classic economic Lot size model, introduced by Fore W. Harris in 1915, is a simple
model that illustrates the trade-offs between ordering and storage costs. Consider a
warehouse facing constant demand for a single item. The warehouse orders from the
supplier, who is assumed to have an unlimited quantity of the product. The model
assumes the following:
+ Demand is constant at a rate of D items per day.
+ Order quantities are fixed at Q items per order: that is, each time the warehouse
places an order, itis for Q items.
+ A fixed cost (setup cost), K, is incurred every time the warehouse places an order.
+ An inventory carrying cost, h, also referred to as a holding cost, is accrued per unit
held in inventory per day that the unit is held,
+ The lead time, the time that elapses between the placement of an order and its receipt,
zero.
+ Initial invemtory is zero.
+ The planning horizon is long (infinite).
‘Our goal is to find the optimal order policy that minimizes annual purchasing and
carrying costs while meeting all demand (that is, without shortage).
This is an extremely simplified version of a real inventory system. The assumption
of a known fixed demand over a long horizon is clearly unrealistic. Replenishment of
products very likely takes several days. and the requirement of a fixed order quantity
is restrictive. Surprisingly, the insight derived from this model will help us to develop
inventory policies that are effective for more complex realistic systems.
Itis easy to see that in an optimal policy for the model described above, orders should
bbe received at the warehouse precisely when the inventory level drops to zero. This is
called the zero inventory ordering property, which can be observed by considering a
policy in which orders are placed and received when the inventory level is not zero,
Clearly, a cheaper policy would involve waiting until the inventory is zero before
ordering, thus saving on holding costs.
To find the optimal ordering policy in the economic lot size model, we consider
the inventory level as a function of time (see Figure 2-7 in Chapter 2). This is the
so-called saw-toothed inventory pattem. We refer to the time between two successive
replenishments as a cycle time. Thus, total inventory cost in a cycle of length Tis,
ATQ
ite
since the fixed cost is charged once per order and holding cost can be viewed as the
product of the per unit per time period holding cost, #; the average inventory level,
Q/2; and the length of the cycle, T.
Since the inventory level changes from Q to 0 during a cycle of length T, and demand
is constant ata rate of D units per unit time, it must be that @ = TD. Thus, we can divide
the cost above by 7, or, equivalently, Q/D, to get the average total cost per unit of time:
KD | hi
eee Pe
oe
Using simple calculus, it is easy to show that the order quantity Q* that minimizes the
cost function above is,
2KD
va
g
‘This quantity is referred to as the economic order quantity (EOQ).Nea 8 vesicnne ano MANAGING THE SUPPLY CHAIN
si60
si40
siz0
$100
$80
$60
40
$20
$0
Total cost
Holding cost
Cost
Order cost
1,000) 1500
(Onder quantity
(number of units)
FIGURE 3-2 Economic lot size model: Total cost per unit
tm
This simple model provides two important insights:
1. An optimal policy balances inventory holding cost per unit time with setup cost
per unit time. Indeed, setup cost per unit time = KD/Q, while holding cost per
unit time = hQ/2 (see Figure 3-2). Thus, as one increases the order quantity Q.
inventory holding costs per unit of time increase while setup costs per unit of time
decrease. The optimal order quantity is achieved at the point at which inventory:
setup cost per unit of time (KD/Q) equals inventory holding cost per unit of time
(hQ/2). That is:
or
2. Total inventory cost is insensitive to order quantities; that is, changes in order quan-
tities have a relatively small impact on annual setup costs and inventory holding
costs. To illustrate this issue, consider a decision maker that places an order quan-
tity Q that is a multiple 6 of the optimal order quantity Q*. In other words, for
a given b, the quantity ordered is @ = bQ*. Thus, b = | implies that the deci-
sion maker orders the economic order quantity. If b = 1.2 (b = 0.8), the decision
maker orders 20 percent more (less) than the optimal order quantity. Table 3-1
presents the impact of changes in b on total system cost. For example, if the deci
sion maker orders 20 percent more than the optimal order quantity (b = 1.2) then
the increase in total inventory cost relative to the optimal total cost is no more than
1.6 percent.
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
> os 08 08 TIM iw as= <2
Increase incost 25.0% 2.5% 05% 0 0.8% 1.6% 80% 250%(CAUETER |NVENTORY MANAGEMENT AND FISK POOLING Pe
3.2.2 The Effect of Demand Uncertainty
The previous model illustrates the trade-offs between serup costs and inventory holding
costs. It ignores, however, issues such as demand uncertainty and forecasting. Indeed,
many companies treat the world as if it were predictable, making production and inven-
tory decisions based on forecasts of the demand made far in advance of the selling
season. Although these companies are aware of demand uncertainty when they create
a forecast, they design their planning processes as ifthe initial forecast was an accurate
representation of reality. In this case, one needs to remember the following principles
of all forecasts (see [113]):
1, The forecast is always wrong.
2, The longer the forecast horizon, the worse the forecast.
3. Aggregate forecasts are more accurate.
Thus, the first principle implies that it is difficult to match supply and demand, and
the second one implies that it is even more difficult if one needs to predict customer
demand for a long period of time, for example, the next 12 to 18 months. The third
principle suggests, for instance, that while itis difficult to predict customer demand for
individual SKUs, itis much easier to predict demand across all SKUs within one product
family. This principle is an example of the risk pooling concept (see Section 3.3).
To illustrate the importance of incorporating demand uncertainty and forecast
demand into the analysis, and to characterize the impact of demand uncertainty on
the inventory policy, consider the following example.
E
Swimsuit Production
Consider a company that designs, produces, and sells
summer fashion items such as swimsuits. About six
months before summer, the company must commit
itself to specific production quantities for all its prod-
ucts. Since there is no clear indication of how the
‘market will respond to the new designs, the company
needs to use various tools to predict demand for each
design, and plan production and supply accordingly.
In this setting the trade-offs are clear: overestimat-
ing customer demand will result in unsold inventory
while underestimating customer demand will lead to
inventory stockouts and loss of potential customers.
To assist management in these decisions, the mar-
keting department uses historical data from the last
five years, current economic conditions, and other fac-
torso construct a probabilistic forecast of the demand
for swimsuits. They have identified several possible
scenarios for sales in the coming season, based on
such factors as possible weather patterns and com-
petitors’ behavior, and assigned each a probability,
‘or chance of occurring. For example, the marketing
department believes that a scenario that leads to 8,000
unitsales has an 11 percent chance of happening; other
scenarios leading to different sales levels have
ferent probabilities of occurring. These scenarios are
illustrated in Figure 3-3. This probabilistic forecast
suggests that average demand is about 13,000 units,
but there is a probability that demand will be either
larger than average or smaller than average.
Additional information available to the manufac-
turer includes:
+ To start production, the manufacturer has to invest
$100,000 independent of the amount produced. We
refer to this cost as the fixed production cost,
+ The variable production cost pet unit equals $80.
+ During the summer season, the selling price of a
swimsuit is $125 per unit,
Source: This case is based Tocely on [53] and course material prepared atthe Columbia University Graduate School of BusinessNess ccsionna ano manacina THE SUPPLY CHAN
25%}
= 0%
“Het I
= 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
FIGURE 3-3 Probabilistic forecast.
‘+ Any swimsuit not sold during the summer season
is sold to a discount store for $20. We refer to this
value as the salvage value.
To identify the best production quantity, the firm
needs to understand the relationship between the
production quantity, customer demand, and profit.
‘Suppose the manufacturer produces 10,000 units
while demand ends at 12,000 swimsuits. It is easily
verified that profit equals revenue from summer sales
minus the variable production cost minus the fixed
production cost. That is:
Profit = 125(10,000) ~ 80(10,000)
= 100,000
= 350,000
On the other hand, if the company produces 10,000
swimsuits and demand is only 8,000 units, profit
‘equals revenue from summer sales plus salvage value
minus the variable production cost minus the fixed
production cost. That is:
Profit
125(8,000) + 20(2,000) — 80(10,000)
— 100,000
= 140,000
Notice that the probability that demand is 8,000
units is 11 percent while the probability that demand
is 12,000 units is 27 percent. Thus, producing 10,000
swimsuits leads to a profit of $350,000 with prob-
ability of 27 pereent and a profit of $140,000 with
probability of 11 percent. In similar fashion, one
can calculate the profit associated with each sce-
nario given that the manufacturer produces 10,000
swimsuits. This allows us to determine the expected
(or average) profit associated with producing 10,000
units. This expected profit is the total profit of all
the scenarios weighted by the probability that each
scenario will occur.
We would, of course, like to find the order quantity,
that maximizes average profit. Whatis the relationship
between the optimal production quantity and aver-
age demand, which, in this example, is 13,000 units?
Should the optimal order quantity be equal to, more
than, or less than the average demand?
To answer these questions, we evaluate the mar-
ginal profit and marginal cost of producing. an
additional swimsuit. If this swimsuit is sold during
the summer season, then the marginal profit is the
difference between the selling price per unit and the
variable production cost per unit, which is equal to
$45. If the additional swimsuit is not sold during the
summer season, the marginal cost is the difference
between the variable production cost and the salvage
value per unit, which is equal to $60. Thus, the cost of
not selling this additional swimsuit during the summer
season is larger than the profit obtained from selling it
during the season. Hence, the best production quantity
will in general be less than the average demand.
Figure 3-4 plots the average profit as a function
of the production quantity. It shows that the optimal
production quantity, or the quantity that maximizes
average profit, is about 12,000. It also indicates that
producing 9,000 units or producing 16,000 units will
lead to about the same average profit of $294,000. If,
for some reason, we had to choose between produe-
ing 9,000 units and 16,000 units, which one should
‘we choose?
To answer this question, we need to better under-
stand the risk associated with certain decisions. For
this purpose, we construct a frequency histogram (see
Figure 3-5) that provides information about potentiala)
ss00900
ssmno0
& samom
sieo000
*
son Tz000 T0000
ee.
ee res
FIGURE 3-4 Average profit as a function of production quantity.
100%
80% NI
2 an 5S 0-900
g
E 40% 16,000
"ae IH
oh -$300 --S100 $100» $300 $500
Cost
Cinthousands)
FIGURE 3-5 A frequency histogram of profit.
profit for the two given production quantities, 9,000
units and 16,000 units. For instance, consider profit
when the production quantity is 16,000 units. The
graph shows that the distribution of profit is not sym-
metrical. Losses of $220,000 happen about 11 percent
of the time while profits of at least $410,000 happen
50 percent of the time, On the other hand, a fre-
quency histogram of the profit when the production
quantity is 9,000 units shows that the distribution has
only two possible outcomes. Profit is either $200,000
with probability of about 11 percent, or $305,000
with probability of about 89 percent. Thus, while
producing 16,000 units has the same average profit
as producing 9,000 units, the possible risk on the one
hand, and possible reward on the other hand, increases
as we increase the production size.
To summarize:
+ The optimal order quantity is not necessarily
equal to forecast, or average, demand. Indeed,
the optimal quantity depends on the relationship
between marginal profit achieved from selling an
additional unit and marginal cost. More impor-
tantly, the fixed cost has no impact on the pro-
duction quantity, only on the decision whether to
produce or not. Thus, given a decision to produce,
the production quantity is the same independently
of the fixed production cost.
+ Asthe order quantity increases, average profit typi-
cally increases until the production quantity reaches
certain value, after which the average profit starts
decreasing
+ As we increase the production quantity, the risk—
that is, the probability of large losses—always
increases. At the same time, the probability of
large gains also increases. This is the risk/reward
trade-off.
‘THE EFFECT OF INITIAL INVENTORY
‘Suppose now that the swimsuit under consideration is
amodel produced last year, and that the manufacturersa
DESIGNING AND MANAGING THE SUPPLY CHAIN
Production quantity
(eumber of units)
FIGURE 3-6 Profit and the impact of intial inventory.
I inventory of 5,000 units. Assuming that
demand for this model follows the same pattern of
scenarios as before, should the manufacturer start
production, and if so, how many swimsuits should
be produced?
Ifthe manufacturer does not produce any additional
swimsuits, no more than 5,000 units canbe soldand no
additional fixed cost will be incurred. However, if the
manufacturer decides to produce, a fixed production
cost is charged independent of the amount produced,
To address this issue, consider Figure 3-6, in which
the solid line represents average profit excluding fixed
Production cost while the dotted curve represents
average profit including the fixed production cost
Notice that the dotted curve is identical to the curve in
Figure 3-4 while the solid line is above the dotted line
for every production quantity; the difference between
the two lines is the fixed production cost.
Notice also that if nothing is produced, average
profit can be obtained from the solid line in Figure 3-6
and is equal to
225,000 (from the figure) + 5,000 x 80 = 625,000
where the last component is the variable production
cost already included in the $225,000.
On the other hand, if the manufacturer decides to
produce, it is clear that production should increase
inventory from 5,000 units to 12,000 units. Thus, aver-
age profit in this case is obtained from the dotted line
and is equal to
371,000 (from the figure) + 5,000 x 80 = 771,000
Since the average profit associated with increasing
inventory to 12,000 units is larger than the average
profit associated with not producing anything, the
optimal policy is to produce 7,000 = 12,000 — 5,000
units.
Consider now the case in which initial inventory
is 10,000 units. Following the same analysis used
before, it is easy to see that there is no need to pro-
duce anything because the average profit associated
‘with an initial inventory of 10,000 is larger than what
‘we would achieve if we produce to increase inventory
to 12,000 units. This is true because if we do not pro-
duce, we do not pay any fixed cost; if we produce, we
need to pay a fixed cost independent of the amount
produced.
Thus, if we produce, the most we can make on
average is a profit of $375,000. This is the same aver-
age profit that we will have if our initial inventory is
about 8,500 units and we decide not to produce any-
thing. Hence, if our initial inventory is below 8,500
units, we produce to raise the inventory level to 12,000
units. On the other hand, if initial inventory is at least
8,500 units, we should not produce anything.
The swimsuit analysis motivates powerful inventory policy used in practice to manage
inventory: Whenever the inventory level is below a certain value, say s, we order (or
produce) to increase the inventory to level S. Such a policy is referred as an (s, S)
Policy or a min max policy. We typically refer to s as the reorder point and to S as the
order-up-to-level; in the swimsuit production example, the reorder point is 8,500 units(CHAPTER 3: INVENTORY MANAGEMENT AND RISK POOLING so
and the order-up-to level is 12,000 units. The difference between these two levels is
driven by fixed costs associated with ordering, manufacturing, or transportation,
3.2.3 Supply Contracts
The analysis of the swimsuit case so far was under the assumption that the swimsuit
‘manufacturer had an adequate supply of raw materials, which would always be delivered
on time and in the exact quantity the manufacturer ordered. For this purpose, buyers
and suppliers typically agree on supply contracts. These contracts address issues that
arise between a buyer and a supplier, whether the buyer is a manufacturer purchasing,
raw materials from a supplier or a retailer purchasing manufactured goods from a
manufacturer. In a supply contract, the buyer and supplier may agree on
+ Pricing and volume discounts,
+ Minimum and maximum purchase quant
‘+ Delivery lead times.
+ Product or material quality.
'* Product return policies.
As we will see, supply contracts are very powerful tools that can be used for far
more than to ensure adequate supply of, and demand for, goods.
To illustrate the importance and impact of different types of supply contracts on suj
ply chain performance, consider the following set of examples, based on the swimsuit
case analyzed in the previous section.
EXAMPLE 3-2
Consider once again the swimsuit example discussed in Section 9.2.2. In this case, we assume that
there are two companies involved in the supply chain: a retailer who faces customer demand and
‘a manufacturer who produces and sells swimsuits to the retailer. Demand for swimsuits follows the
‘same pattern of scenarios as before, and the retailer pricing and costing information are the same:
+ During the summer season, a swimsuit is sold to customers at $125 per unit.
+ The wholesale price paid by the retaller to the manufacturer is $80 per unit
+ Any swimsuit not sold during the summer season is sold to a discount store for $20,
For the manulacturer, we have the following information:
+ Fixed production cost is $100,000,
+ The variable production cost per unit equals $36.
Observe from these data that the marginal proft of the retaler is the same as the marginal
profit ofthe manufacturer, $45, Also, notice that, excluding the fixed production cos, the retaler
seling price, salvage value, and variable cost ar the same asthe seling price, salvage value, and
production cost in the original example. This implies that the retailers marginal proft for seling @
Lnit during the season, $45, is smaller than the marginal loss, $60, associated with each unit sold
atthe end ofthe season to discount stores.
How much should the retailer order from the manufacturer? Recall our conclusion atthe end of
the swimsuit case study: the optimal order quanti depends on marginal prof and marginal loss
but not onthe fixed cost. Indeed, the sold line in Figure 3-6 represents average profit forthe retailer
since itdoes not account forthe fied cost. Thus, the optimal policy forthe retailer isto order 12,000
Units for an average profit of $470,700.
It the retailer places this order, the manufacturers profits
412,000(80 — 35) — 100,000 = 440,000
Notice that the sequence of events described in the previous example is sequential
in nature. The retailer makes a purchasing decision to optimize his own profit, and theN54 DESIGNING AND MANAGING THE SUPPLY CHAIN
manufacturer reacts to decisions made by the retailer. This is referred to as a sequential
supply chain, that is, a supply chain in which each party determines its own course of
action independent of the other parties. As we observed in Chapter I, this cannot be an
effective strategy for supply chain partners.
Tis natural to look for mechanisms that enable supply chain entities to move beyond,
this sequential optimization and toward global optimization. More specifically, are
there mechanisms that the supply chain parties can use to improve all profits? To answer
that question, observe that in the supply chain in the previous example, the retailer
assumes all of the risk, of having more inventory than sales, while the manufacturer
takes no risk. Indeed, since the manufacturer takes no risk, the manufacturer would
like the retailer to order as much as possible, while the retailer is willing to order only
12,000 units because of the huge financial risk, If the manufacturer is willing and able to
share some of the risk with the retailer, it may be profitable for the retailer to order more
than 12,000 units, thereby increasing profit for both the manufacturer and the retailer.
Ittums out that a variety of supply contracts will allow this risk sharing, and therefore
increase profits for both supply chain entities.
Buy-Back Contracts In a buy-back contract, the seller agrees to buy back unsold
goods from the buyer for some agreed-upon price. Let’s return to the swimsuit example.
EXAMPLE 3-3
‘Suppose the manufacturer offers to buy unsold swimsuits from the retaler for $95. Under this
Contract, the sold line in Figure 3-7 ilustrates the retale’s average profit while the dotted line
represents the manufacturer's average profit. The figure shows that inthis case the retaller has an
incentive to increase its order quantity to 14,000 units, for a profit of $513,800, while the manu-
facturer’s average profit increases to $471,900. Thus, the total average profit for the two parties,
Increases from $910,700 (= $470,700 + $440,000) in the sequential supply chain to $985,700
(= $519,600 + $471,900) when a buy-back contract is used.
‘The buy-back contract is effective because it allows the manufacturer to share some
of the risk with the retailer, and thus motivates the retailer to increase the order quantity,
in this case by about 17 percent. The manufacturer compensates for its increase in risk
Profit vs. Onder Quanti
600,000
500,000 ease
& 400,000 <
E amoo Er
Mig. P
200,000
100,000
0
0 30006000 9,000 12,000 15,000 18,000 21,000
Quantity
FIGURE 3-7 Buy-back contract.RE ereenicccnoretrcam sO
by being able to sell more products at full price if demand turns out to be larger than
12,000 units.
Revenue-Sharing Contracts _ Observe that in the sequential supply chain, one impor-
tant reason for the retailer to order only 12,000 units is the high wholesale price. If
somehow the retailer can convince the manufacturer to reduce the wholesale price,
then clearly the retailer will have an incentive to order more. Of course, a reduction
in wholesale price will decrease the manufacturer's profit if it is unable to sell more
units. This is addressed by reyenue-sharing contracts. In a revenue-sharing contract,
the buyer shares some of its revenue with the seller, in return for a discount on the
wholesale price. Consider the swimsuit example.
‘Suppose the swimsuit manufacturer and retailer have @ revenue-sharing contract, in which the
‘manufacturer agrees to decrease the wholesale price from $80 to $60, and, in return, the retailer
provides 15 percent of he product revenue to the manufacturer. Under this contact, the sold ine in
Figure 3-6 ilustates the retailer's average profit while the dotied line represents the manufacturer's
average profit. The figure shows that, in this case, the retailer has an incentive to increase his order
‘Quantity to 14,000 (as in the buy-back contract fora profit of $504,325, and this order increase leads
to increased manufacturer's profit of $481,375, in spite of lower wholesale prices. Thus, the supply
hain total profit is $985, 700 (= $504,925 ~ $481,375), Thats, the reduction inthe wholesale price
Coupled with revenue sharing leads to increased profits for both parties,
Other types of supply contracts can be equally effective [22]
Quantity-Flexibility Contracts | Quantity-flexibility contracts are contracts in which
the supplier provides full refund for retumed (unsold) items as long as the number of
returns is no larger than a certain quantity. Thus, this contract gives full refund for a
portion of the returned items, whereas a buy-back contract provides partial refund for
all returned items (22).
Sales Rebate Contracts Sales rebate contracts provide a direct incentive to the
retailer to increase sales by means of a rebate paid by the supplier for any item sold
above a certain quantity.
Profit vs. Order Quantity
$700,000.00
$600,000.00
$ 500,000.00
= $400,000.00
+ 300,000.00
$ 200,000.00
@
Profit
$100,000.00
$0.00
5,000 8,000 11,000 14,000 17,000
Quantity
FIGURE 3-8 Revenue-sharing contract.256 _ocsionnc ano wanasins THE suPPUy CHAN
Global Optimization The various contracts described earlier raise an important
question: what is the most profit both the supplier and the buyer can hope to achieve?
To answer this question, we take a completely different approach. What if an unbi-
ased decision maker is allowed to identify the hest strategy for the entire supply chain?
This unbiased decision maker would consider the two supply chain partners, the manu-
facturer and the retailer, as two members of the same organization. That is, the transfer
‘of money between the parties is ignored.
{nthe swimsuit example, the only relevant data in this case are the selling price, $125; the salvage
valle, $20; the variable production costs, $35; and the fixed production cost. In this case, the cost
that the retailer charges the manufacturer is meaningless, since we are only intarested in external
costs and revenues. Evidently, in this case the supply chain marginal profit, 90 = 125 ~ 35, is sigs
nificantly higher than the marginal loss, 15 = 35 ~ 20, and hence the supply chain will produce
more than average demand, Indeed, Figure 3-9 suggests that inthis global optimization strategy,
the optimal production quantity is 16,000 units, which implies an expected supply chain proft of
$1,014,500.
The examples above illustrate some of the power of supply contracts. Effective
supply contracts provide incentives for supply chain partners to replace traditional
strategies, in which each partner optimizes its own profit, with global optimiza
where supply chain profit is maximized. The difficulty with global optimization is that
it requires the firm to surrender decision-making power to an unbiased decision maker.
This is precisely why supply contracts are so important. They help firms achieve
global optimization, without the need for an unbiased decision maker, by allowing
buyers and suppliers to share the risk and the potential benefit, Indeed, in the examples
above, the contracts we discussed came close to, but did not reach, the profit obtained
by the global optimization strategy. In fact, it is not difficult to show that a more
careful design of these contracts can achieve the exact same profit as the profit in global
iimization, For example, in revenue sharing this is achieved by carefully selecting
the wholesale price and the level of revenue sharing, while in the buy-back contract
Profit vs. Order Quantity
26
1,000, 000,
800,000
600,000
Profit 6)
400,000
200,000
°
0 3000 6000 9,000 12,000 15,000 18,000 21,000
Quantity
FIGURE 3-9 Profit using global optimization strategy.(CHAPTER >: INVENTORY MANAGEMENT AND RISK POOLING ~
Profit vs. Onder Quantity
1,200, 000,
1,000, 000,
800, 000
@
Ret. P
Mfg. P
Total P
600,000
Prot
490,000
200,000
0 3000, 6000 900 1200015000 18000 21,000
‘Quantity
FIGURE 3-10 Globally optimal buy-back contract.
it is achieved by choosing the buy-back price and, sometimes, the wholesale price.
Figure 3-10 shows the retailer’s, manufacturer's, and system profit with the same buy-
back contract discussed earlier, except that the wholesale price has been decreased to
$75 and the buy-back price has been increased to $65. In this case, the retailer will elect
to buy 16,000 units, and system profit will be $1,014,500.
In addition, from an implementation point of view, the main drawback of global
optimization is that it does not provide a mechanism to allocate supply chain profit
between the partners. It only provides information on the best, or optimal, set of actions
that need to be taken by the supply chain to improve profit. Supply contracts allocate
this profit among supply chain members.
More importantly, effective supply contracts allocate profit to each partner in a way
that no partner can improve his profit by deciding to deviate from the optimal set of
decisions. That is, there is no incentive for either the buyer or the seller to deviate from
the set of actions that will achieve the global optimal solution. For example, observe
that in the improved buy-back contract illustrated in Figure 3-10, the retailer’s optimal
order quantity is 16,000 units, which is equal to the manufacturer’s optimal supply
quantity.
The following example illustrates the impact of supply contracts in practice.
nti 1998, video renal stores used to purchase copies of newly released movies from the movie
studs for about $65 and rent them to customers for $3. Because of the high purchase price,
rental stores did not buy enough copies to cover peak demand, which typically occurs during the
first 10 weeks after a movie is released on video. The result was low customer service level in
£2 1008 survey, about 20 percent of customers could not get their frst choice of movie. Then, in
1998, Blockbuster Video entered into a reverwe-sharing contract wih the movie studios in which
the wholesale price was reduced from S65 to $8 per copy, and, in return, stuclos were paid about
‘80-45 percent ofthe rental price of every rental. Ths revenue-sharing contract had a huge impact
‘on Blockbuster revenue and marketshare. Today, revenue sharing is used by most large video rental
stores [23Ness ccsouna a0 moucna me upton
3.2.4 Multiple Order Opportunities
‘We now return to the single-decision-maker models we considered in Section 3.2.2.
The models described and analyzed in Section 3.2.2 assume that the decision maker
can make only a single ordering decision for the entire horizon. This may be the case
for fashion items such as swimsuits or ski jackets, where the selling season is short
and there is no second opportunity to reorder products based on realized customer
demand. In many practical situations, however, the decision maker may order products
repeatedly at any time during the year.
Consider, for instance, a distributor of TV sets. The distributor faces random demand
for the product and receives supply from the manufacturer. Of course, the manufacturer
‘cannot instantaneously satisfy orders placed by the distributor: there is a fixed lead time
for delivery whenever the distributor places an order. Since demand is random and the
‘manufacturer has a fixed delivery lead time, the distributor needs to hold inventory,
even if no fixed setup cost is charged for ordering the products. At least three reasons
explain why the distributor holds inventory:
1. To satisfy demand occurring during lead time, Since orders aren’t met immediately,
inventory must be on hand to meet customer demand during the period between the
time the distributor orders and when the order arrives.
2. To protect against uncertainty in demand.
3. Tobalance annual inventory holding costs and annual fixed order costs. We have seen
that more frequent orders lead to lower inventory levels and thus lower inventory
holding costs, but they also lead to higher annual fixed order costs.
‘While these issues are intuitively clear, the specific inventory policy that the distrib
utor should apply is not simple. To manage inventory effectively, the distributor needs
to decide when and how many TV sets to order. We distinguish between two types of
policies:
+ Continuous review policy. in which inventory is reviewed every day and a decision
‘is made about whether and how much to order.
+ Periodic review policy, in which the inventory level is reviewed at regular intervals
and an appropriate quantity is ordered after each review.
3.2.5 Continuous Review Policy
‘We make the following additional assumptions.
* Daily demand is random and follows normal distribution. In other words, we assume
that the probabilistic forecast of daily demand follows the famous bell-shaped curve.
Note that we can completely describe normal demand by its average and standard
deviation.
+ Every time the distributor orders TV sets from the manufacturer, the distributor pays
a fixed cost, K, plus an amount proportional to the quantity ordered.
«+ Inventory holding cost is charged per item per unit time.
«= Inventory level is reviewed at the end of every day and if an order is placed, the order
arrives after the appropriate lead time.
+ If a customer order arrives when there is no inventory on hand to fill the order (i.e.,
when the distributor is stocked out), the order is lost.
+ The distributor specifies a required service level. The service level is the probability
of not stocking out during lead time. For example, the distributor might want toCHAPTERS: INVENTORY MANAGEMENT AND RISK POOLING sw
ensure that the proportion of lead times in which demand is met out of stock is
95 percent. Thus, the required service level is 95 percent in this case.
To characterize the inventory policy that the distributor should use. we need the
following information:
AVG = Average daily demand faced by the distributor
STD = Standard deviation of daily demand faced by the distributor
L = Replenishment lead time from the supplier to the
distributor in days
h = Cost of holding one unit of the product for one day at the
distributor
a = service level. This implies that the probability of stocking
out is | — a
In addition, we need to define the concept of inventory position. The inventory
position at any point in time is the actual inventory at the warehouse plus items ordered
by the distributor that have not yet arrived minus items that are backordered.
To describe the policy that the distributor should use, recall our previous definitions
of s and S, the reorder point and order-up-to level. An effective inventory policy i
this case is an (s,S) policy where the difference between S and s is due to the fixed
cost. Hence, in this case, whenever the inventory position level drops below level s, the
stributor should order to raise its inventory position to level S.
The reorder level, s, consists of two components. The first is the average inventory
uring lead time, which is the product of average daily demand and the lead time. This,
ensures that when the distributor places an order, the system has enough inventory
to cover expected demand during lead time. The average demand during lead time is,
exactly
Lx AVG
‘The second component represents the safety stock, which is the amount of inventory
that the distributor needs to keep at the warehouse and in the pipeline to protect against.
deviations from average demand during lead time. This quantity is calculated as follows:
zx STD x VE
where < isa constant, referred to as the safety factor. This constant is associated with.
the service level. Thus, the reorder level is equal to
Lx AVG+2 x SID x VL
The safety factor z is chosen from statistical tables to ensure that the probability of
stockouts during lead time is exactly 1 — a. This implies that the reorder level must
satisfy:
Probability {Demand during lead time > L x AVG +z x STD x JI} =1—a
Table 3-2 provides a list of z values for different values of the service level a.
‘Whaat about the order-up-to level, $? This value is calculated following the intuition
developed in the economic lot size model. Recall from this model that the order quantity,
2K x AVG
Q
Q, is calculated as follows:N6260 cesicnne AND MANAGING THE SUPPLY CHAIN
SERVICE LEVEL AND THE SAFETY FACTOR, Z
Sarvice level 90% 91% 92% 98% Gd% 95% 96% 97% 98% 99% 9.9%
Zz 129 134 141 148 156 1.65 1.75 188 205 293 308
If there is no variability in customer demand, the distributor would order Q items
whenever inventory is at the level L > AVG since it takes L days to receive the order.
However, there is variability in demand, so the distributor places an order for Q items
‘whenever the inventory position is at the reorder level, s. Therefore, the order-up-to
level is
S=Qts
Observe that when (s, $) policies are employed, the inventory position may drop below
the reorder point, in which case the (s, S) policy implies thatthe distributor should order
enough to raise the inventory position to the order-up-to level. Evidently, this amount
may be larger than Q.
Figure 3-11 illustrates the inventory level over time when this type of policy is
implemented, What is the average inventory level in this policy? Observe that, between
two successive orders, the minimum level of inventory is achieved right before receiving,
an order, while the maximum level of inventory is achieved immediately after receiving
the order. The expected level of inventory before receiving the order is the safety
stock
2x SIDx VL
while the expected level of inventory immediately after receiving the order is
Q+2x STD x VL
Thus, the average inventory level is the average of these two values, which is equal to
osx sx VE
vi Inventory position
Inventory level —e
Time —=
FIGURE 3-11 (s, S) policy with multiple order opportunities.(CHAPTER & INVENTORY MANAGEMENT AND FISK POOLING
PETE
‘Suppose the distributor of the TV sels is trying to set inventory policies at the warehouse for one of
the TV models. Assume that whenever the distributor places an order for TV sets, there is a fixed
‘ordering cost of $4,500, which is independent of the order size. The cost ofa TV set tothe distributor
js $250 and annual inventory holding cost is about 18 percent of the product cost. Replenishment
time (i.e, lead time) is about two weeks.
‘Table 3-3 provides data on the number of TV sets sold in each of the last 12 months. Given
that the distributor would lke to ensure 97 percent service level, what is the reorder level and the
lorder-up-to level thatthe distributor should use?
HISTORICAL DATA
Month Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar Apr May June July Aug
Sales 200 182 100 221 287 176 151 198 246 309 98 156
‘Table 3-3 implies that average monthly demand is 191.17 and the standard deviation of monthly
demand is 66.53.
Since lead time is two weeks, we transform the average and the standard deviation to weekly
values as follows:
vile
Monthly standard deviation
;ndard deviation of =
Standard ‘weekly demand oad
‘These data are provided in Table 3-4. This allows us to calculate average demand during lead time
and safety stock using a safety factor z = 1.9 (or, more precisely, 1.88) taken from Table 3-2 based
‘on a 97 percent service level. The reorder point is simply the sum of the average demand during
lead time plus the safety stock. All these data are presented in Table 3-4
TABLE 3-4
INVENTORY ANALYSIS
| Average Standard deviation Average demand Safety Reorder
Parameter weekly demand of weekly demand during lead time stock _point
4458 32.08 89.16 86.20 176
=
‘To determine the order-up-to level, observe that the weekly inventory holding cost per TV set is
0.18 250
2
‘or 87 cents. This implies that the order quantity, Q, should be calculated as
87
% 4,500 x 44.5
087
@
‘and hence the order-up-to level is
Reorder point + Q = 176 + 679 = 855
‘That i, the distributor should place an order to raise the inventory position to 855 TW sets whenever
the inventory level is below or at 176 units. Finally, the average inventory evel is equal to
2 ana = 8
\which means that, on average, the distributor keeps atthe warehouse about 10
‘of supply.N62 ocsranmc avo manscina THE SUPPLY CHAN
3.2.6 Variable Lead Times
In many cases, the assumption that the delivery lead time to the warehouse is fixed and
known in advance does not necessarily hold. Indeed, in many practical situations, the
lead time to the warehouse must be assumed to be normally distributed with average
lead time denoted by AVGL and standard deviation denoted by STDL. In this case, the
reorder point, s, is calculated as follows:
AVG x AVGL + 2\/AVGL STD? + AVG? x STDL?
where AVG x AVGL represents average demand during lead time, while
GLE GST?
VAVGL x STD? + AVG? x STDL?
is the standard deviation of demand during lead time. Thus, the amount of safety stock
that has to be kept is equal to
VAVGL x STD? + AVG? x STDL?
‘As before, the order-up-to level is the sum of the reorder point and Q; that is,
S=Q+AVG x AVGL + zV/AVGL x STD? + AVG? x STDI2
Finally, the safety factor < is chosen from Table 3-2.
3.2.7 Periodic Review Policy
In many real-life situations, the inventory level is reviewed periodically, at regular
intervals, and an appropriate quantity is ordered after each review. For instance, the
inventory level may be reviewed at the start of each month or the end of each week, and
an order may be placed at that time. Since inventory levels are reviewed at a periodic
interval, the fixed cost of placing an order is a sunk cost and hence can be ignored;
presumably, the fixed cost was used to determine the review interval. The quantity
ordered arrives after the appropriate lead time.
What inventory policy should the warehouse use in this case? Since fixed cost does
‘not play a role in this environment, the inventory policy is characterized by one para-
meter, the base-stock level. That is, the warehouse determines a target inventory level,
the base-stock level, and each review period, the inventory position is reviewed and the
warehouse orders enough to raise the inventory position to the base-stock level.
What is an effective base-stock level? For this purpose, let r be the length of the
review period—we assume that orders are placed every r period of time. As before, L
is the lead time, AVG is the average daily demand faced by the warehouse, and STD is
the standard deviation of this daily demand.
‘Observe that at the time the warehouse places an order, this order raises the inventory
position to the base-stock level. This level of the inventory position should be enough
to protect the warehouse against shortages until the next order arrives. Since the next,
order arrives after a period of r + L days, the current order should be enough to cover
demand during a period of r +L days.
Thus, the base-stock level should include two components: average demand during
an interval of r +L days, which is equal to
(+1) x AVGSe eperatearisrorenroye. 0D
Base stock
i
Inventory Level. —>
FIGURE 3-12 Inventory level in a periodic review policy.
and the safety stock, which is the amount of inventory that the warehouse needs to keep
to protect against deviations from average demand during a period of r +L days. This,
quantity is calculated as follows:
2x STD x Jr FL
where z is the safety factor.
Figure 3-12 illustrates the inventory level over time when this type of policy is
implemented. What is the average inventory level in this case? As before, the maximum
inventory level is acheived immediately after receiving an order, while the minimum
level of inventory is acheived just before receiving an order. It is easy to see that the
expected level of inventory after receiving an order is equal to
rx AVG+z x STDx Vr +L
while the expected level of inventory before an order arrives is just the safety stock,
2x STD x Jr +L
Hence, the average inventory level is the average of these two values, which is equal to
rx AVG
apoE vr+Lb
‘We continue withthe previous example and assume that the distributor places an order for TV sets
‘every three weeks, Since lead time is two weeks, the base-siock level needs to cover a period of
five weeks. Thus, average demand during that period is,
44.58 x 5 = 222.9
and the safety stock, for 97 percent service level, is
1.9 x 82.08 x V5 = 136.3
Hence, the base-stock level should be 223 + 196 = 369. That is, when the distributor places an
‘order every three weeks, he should rise the inventory position to 359 TV sets. The average inventory
level in this case equals.
34458
| 2
‘hich implies that, on average, the distributor keeps five (= 203.17/44.58) weeks of suppl.
+ 1.9 «92.08 x iB = 208.17