.

2011

1.
1.1.
1.2.

2.

5
..
5
.
5
6
..
7
..
Pauling 9
. 10
14
14
14
15
15
16
19
22
22
22
22
22
27
27
29
29
30
30

2.7.

.

.
- Shape factors..
.
.

.

.
..
..
..

..
..

- ..

3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.

..

34
34
35
35
35

4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.

..

37
37
38
38
39

2.1.
2.2.
2.3.

2.3.

2.4.
2.5.

2.6.

3.

4.

31
33

5.

(SINTERING)
..

.
- .


-
..
-

41
41
41
42
45
47
48
50
51
53

54

..

55 - 62

5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.
5.7.
5.8.

1.
1.1

.

,
.
:
1.
2.
3.


.
1.2.

,
.
.
.
( )
,
.
1.
2.
3.Van der Waals
4.
5.
6.
,
(


)

(Radius ratio ).

(Coordination number ).
,
.

.

.

(unit cell) .

.

(random network)
(glassy state ).

..
(
,
),
14
Bravais.
( 1)
(crystal structures) ,
.


(packing)
.. , , .
.
,
:
1. . ( Simple cubic structure )

. . 48% .
2. ( Close - packed cubic structure ).

, .
26% .
3. ( Close packed hexagonal structure )

.
.

, ,
.
, , , ,
, , , , .
14
Bravais, ,
.
.



.
.
( Rock Salt Structure )


.
0.732 0.414,
.
6 , .

: MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, CdO, MnO, FeO, CoO NiO.
( Wurtzite structure )
( ZnS ).
BeO 0.25

,
.

.
ZnS ( Zinc Blende Structure )
,
( cubic close packing )

( Polymorphism ).
.. ( SiO2 )
.

, .

.
.
, ,
.
( solid solutions )


.

(), .

.

.
.. KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2
KFe2+3Si3AlO10(OH)2,
2Al+3 2Fe+3 3g+2.
Pauling, ,
(+15%)
.
.. Fe+3 (r = 0.64 A) Al+3 (r =
0.51A) Fe+2 r = 0.74A .

:
Mg r = 0.66A
Zn r = 0.74A
Ni r = 0.69A
Co r = 0.72A
E .
.. 2Al+3 2Fe+3 3Mg+2
.. - NaAlSi3O8 <----> CaAl2Si3O8
, Na+ Si+4
Ca+2 Al+3
+15%
,
.

.. 6500 C + Na+ r = 1.33A 0.97A

,

Na-
-.


,
(
) .

,
,
.

.
.
Pauling (
)
1. ,
.
2.
. .
.

,
.
( . ).
.


..
90%
.
3. .
.
.
.. Fe+2O= Fe2+3O3= +l+3Si3 +4O8-2

10

: .
.
.. Fe0.92 - 0.97O, Fe O1.08 - 1.103
, Fe O1.08 - 1.103
2 (
)
.
Fe0.92 - 0.97 O 100 92
97 8 3 .
packing .
Fe++
Fe+3 200 200
100 .
4. .
( )
.
.. , Si+4 =
1 / 2
.
5. .
,
,
.
, ,
, ..
6. ()
( 6).
.

, (ionic), (covalent),
(molecular), (metallic) (hydrogen
bond crystals).
.

.
NaCl,
6 .

11

:
E = l2 / 40R + B / Rn + x ( ev )
0 = .
R =
= Born
n =
x =
e =
Zie .. NaCl

.
Zie Zje
Bij
Ei = i ( -------------- + ------ )
40Rij
Rijn
: Rij = i j
Zie Zje = j
B = Born
n =
0 =

. 1/2
ij ji ,
.

().
.

( ) ,

,

(overlapping ).
,
, (M.O, Molecular

12

Orbital ).
.

.

.

.



.

,
.
packing ,
(directional
nature ).
,
(SiC) ,
( )
.

.


, ,
Van der Waals.
, .

.

.


.
.
Van der
Waals .

Van der Waals .

13

, ,
, hydrated salts, ..


,
.

,
(
d ).

14

2.

2.1. .

:
1. .
2. .
3. (
.. < 1
m., active powders). Fe < 1 m,
().

, .
453 gr. Fe 1m 38 cm3
93,75x104 cm2 ,
.
.

.
,

.
,
(.. cold pressing, cold extrusion, slip casting, plastic forming ),
(sintering, densification and grain growth)
.. .
2.2. .


~ 0.001 . - 0.05 .
1.000 m ( 1 cm = 104 m 1 m = 104 )

5m - 200 m.
.
Ball clay < 2m bulk
China clay () < 5m bulk
SiO2 < 80 m
CaCO3 < 80 m

15

.
2.3. .

.
c = f ( s, sh, o, p, c )

s
sh

p
c

= size ( + )
= shape ( )
= orientation ( )
= packing ( + )
= composition ( + )

.
)

( inch )
%
Leadspheres
0.19
36.9}
Leadspheres
0.07
36.9}

0.04
39.8}

0.003
42.5}
% ,
.
) 2 ( )

.
) 3

16

minimum %
Coarse : Fine : Medium
)

~15:1

Andreansen pipette
Stokes law
2gd2 ( p1 - p0 )
u = -----------------9n

: u : . cm/s
g : .. cm/sec2
d : .. cm
p1 : . . g/cm3
p0 : g/cm3
n : g/cm x sec

t h
< h/t

d .
Ct
% dt =------ x 100 : Ct : . .
C0

C0 : .

17

- Shape factors
(surface area) =

.

s = d2

v = ( /6) d3

d = (average)

* ,
:

s = x d2. = s d2 .
v = xv ( / 6 ) - d3 = d3
s ( shape
factors ).
H
s
n s d2
s
1
---- = sv = ------------ = ------ . ----v
n v d3

n =
sv = . (/)

n s d2
s
1
sv
sw = .
sw = ------------ = ------ . ----- = ----- ( / )
n v d3
v
d
=
* :
v = / 6 s =
* v. .
, 1 gr.
( = x . ) :

18

W = v N d3

W = = 1 gr.
N = ( . )
d = ( average )
Adreansen
=

v.
To s

Surf av = s d2v

Surf av : .. Gas Adsorption

d2v : ,, Adsorption

- .
1. (Gas Adsorption )
*
( )
* ( )
2. ( Liquid Adsorption )
* .. -
. ( ).
3. X - R ( Low Angle X - R scattering )
*
X - R 30 .
4. ( Light Adsorption - + size - )
*

.

* Lambert - Beer I = I0 10-kd

I =
= (extinction coef. )
d =

19

ln (I0 /I)= c d
c =

, c.

* : ,

.
* Andreansen,
.
Stoke.
(Composition )
- () - .
1. ,

.
,
, ..
, . , , .
:
( Wet Chemistry )
( X - Ray fluoresense )
.

( Atomic absorption
spectrophotometry )

20

E
2. ( Light microscope )
1 m
0.2 - 250 .
.
3.
) T.E.M ( Transmission Electron Microscope )
,
,
,
~ 5
,
specimen interaction.
b ) S.E.M ( Scanning Electron Microscope )
100

.
4. E.P.M.A ( Electron Probe Micro Analyser )
imaging facilities.


.
5. X.R.D. ( X - Ray Diffraction ) & X - R D(H-T)
( Debye - Sherrer )
paterns

, .
Bragg:
= 2d ( d
)
6 D.T.A ( Differential Thermal Analysis ) -
.
- - .
.
D.T.A -
, .. - - (
carbonates - sulphates )

21

7. T.G.A ( Thermo Gravimetric Analysis )

T.G.A ..
, ,
( FeS2 ), , ,
..

..
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 ----- Al2Si2O7 + 2H2O ^
. D.T.A T.G.A .
8. I.R - A.S ( Infra - Red Absorption Spectroscopy )
A.S ( )
of radiation transmitted by speciment.
IR - AS ,
transmitted radiation
standard.

,
.. -

22

2.3. .

!
:
1. ,
( p. 56 Norton ).
2. ,
!
( .

( 2)

..
) .
)
) ,
.
)
( )
) .
) .. ( Ball clays )


.

.

.
( a ) ( Jaw crusher ).
1 1 - 3 . 100 tons/h.
: .

23

( b ) ( Gyratory crusher ).
( , CaCO3 ).
.
( c ) ( Cone crusher ). (
feldspars ) . 20 mesh
10 tons / h.
( d ) ( Roll crusher ).
. 1 8
mesh . 10 tons / h.
( e ) ( Toothed rolls ).
.
180 tons / h.
( f ) ( Single roll crusher ).
.. .
( g ) ( Roller mill ).
. 325 mesh.
( h ) ( Dry pan ).

( I ) ( Wet pan).
,
.
( j ) (Ball pulverizer).
, .
( k ) ( Ring roll crusher )
( l ) ( Hammer mill ). .
150 tons / h.
( m ) ( Disintegrator).
.
( n ) ( Stem purverizer ) ,
.
( o ) , ( p ), ( q ) ( Ball mills ).
( ).
( r ) ( Rod mill ). , ,
.

.
( s ) ( Vibro - energy mill ) . ,

( t ) ( Rubbing mills ) .

24

( Ball mills )

.
. ( Batch ball mills )
. ( Continious )
. ( Vibro - energy )

%

45 % V
23 % V
~ 50 % V
~ 18 % V

( Linings )
1. ( ) 11/2 3

2. Silex. , 3
6, ( 99 % - ).

- blistering
3. - - -
4. .
2 - 4 .

25

( Grinding Media )
1. ( Flint pepples ) / .
2. .
3. ( Allorite ) - .
4.
: ,
.
impact, abrasion, sheer effect
1/4, 1/2 1 1/2
:
:
2.63 gr./cm3
3.3 3.6 gr./cm3

1. :
.

2. :

.

:
.
.

26

( Vibro - Energy Mill ).

.
- .
1 inch.

200
325 mesh 5 .
( feldspars ) 10 ft
7 1/2 ft , 85 hp, 3/4,
1 tn/h 90 % 325 mesh.

.
1. (Screens ) ,
400 mesh.
325 mesh .

27

.
2. ( Air Classifiers ).
( ) ..
.
,
( )

Stokes
2 g ( 1 -2 )
1 =
2
u = ----- . -------------- r
2 =
9
n
r =
n =
3. ( Thickeners )

4. ( Centrifuge classifiers )
5. ( hydrocyclones )
6 100 gpm
33 psi 30 - 40 .
.
2.4.

(Disintegration )
( blungers )


.


, , alumina,
zirconia beryllia.
( Froth Flotation )

,

28

gangue
.


.
.

.
.

.
.

.

( weathering ) ..
( workability ).

2.5.

(mixing)

.
1. ( , )

29

2. ( ,
)

(Ceramic
Whitewares )
Ball Clay

(SiO2)

(Blungers)
(Blungers)
(Ball mills)
(Ball mills)

=1.2

=1.3

=1.55

=1.55

-
( )

mesh)

(120

(= 1.35)

(spray dryers)

(agglomerates)

( Blungers )

.

30

,
:
1. ( Slow )
2. ( Marine type )
3. ( High speed )
: 1. ( 1 4 )
2.
3.
4.
2.6.
-

1. , 2. , 3.
.

.
..
1.

.
2.
3.
.
4.
.
5. ( wear of plaster moulds )
.


( deflocculants).
.
) -
.
Si+4
Al+3
- ,
.

Helmholtz.
Gouy Freundlich

31

.

.
- , Muller
Abramson, :
= 4d / D

=
d = 2 ( )
D =

d, d
stand - off .
Na+ + . stand - off Ca++,
Mg++, H+.
Na+ + -
, ,
.
Na+,
d , Na+
.
)
Na+ :
Na - < Na+ + ( ) a- ,
. ()-
.
Ca++ , :
Ca - ( )2 < Ca++ + 2( )
( Van der Waals ).
Na+
.
Na - <Na+ + ( ) ,
Na+ .


.

32

,
,
.

:
1. Na2CO3
2. Na2CO3 . 10 H2O . .

.
3. ( Water Glass ) ( sodium silicate )
Na2O : SiO2 ( )

. SiO2 gel.
4. .. ( sodium polyacrylate )
5. Calgon ( sodium hexa meta phosphate )
6. Na - oxalate
7. Sodium Tannate ..
2.7.

(spray dryers)


.
( )
()
( )
(
). ,
,
.
H
. nt

nt= Ti - T0 / Ti - t
: nt =
Ti =
T0 =
t = 200 C
3.

33

.

1. ,
2. ,
3. ...
,

.


.
3.1.

().

plaster of Paris ( ).

,

.

.

.

.


,
,
,

.

.

3.2.

34

,

. .

shear stresses.

,
.
..
, ...
3.3.

.

( extruders )

( vacuum ).

10 tn/.

, , , ,

.
(die)

. .. ,
(
).
3.4.

().

()

.
.

.

35

: ( ) , ( )
( ) .



.

,
,
,
.
,
,
, ...


5.000 20.000 p.s.i.
T () ()
()
()
.
. wet bag, ,
dry bag
.


..
( ).

4.

36

.
,
,

.


1. ,
2. ,
,
3. .
4.1.

.

.
.

10%,
25%.

.

4.2.

:

dV/ dt = ( C2 - C1 ) / l n

:
V = ( )

37

C2 = .
C1 = .
l
=
2
( length of path )
= ()
n =


C n . C
.
n
.
4.3.

( )
: 1.
2.
3.

.
,

, .

% . .
.

.

38

,
.
%
leatherhard moisture content.

.
..
SiO2 , CaCO3 ..
,
.

,
,
.
~950 C

.
.
(humidity drying).
4.4.

.
.
:
1. ,
, , ..

,
.

.
2. ( cross - circulation )
.
.
3. :

.
4. : ,
, ...

.

39

5.


.

5.

( )
(SINTERING)

5.1. .
( sintering )
.
F.Thummler (
)

40

,
.

.

.
1. British Standard Association
( )

2. Metals Handbook, vol. 1, Am.Soc.of Metals, 1961.

.
3. The International Powder Metallurgy Glossary, Ed. Metal Powder
Report London.

.

.
4. Powder Metallurgy Glossary with Definitions. Issued by Jernkontorets
Lab, Sweden.

,
,
.
5.2.


.


,
.


,
,
, ,
.

41

.


.
,

. .



.
,
, .
: ;

.
5.3.


.

.


.

, 1 cal / cm3
O
1000 erg / cm2
E ,

2R 2
: R =
= --------= ----- =
2
R
R
1 = 103 erg / cm2 ,
40 atm.

42

,
,


.
.

( )
.


,
.


.
White
( lattice vacancies ) .

n0
n


C0
(- W/kT)
Co= e
n / no = C0

W
=

C0

A R ,

P = 2 / R
3 ( 0 )
,
:
03 =203 / R

, C
:

43

- W +2 a03/R
kT
C = e

- W +2 a03/R
kT
C=

C- C0 =

(- W/kT)
- e

03 <<
( = 2 / R )
Kelvin
C = 2 C0 03 / R

R.

. R ( )
.
<=> =>
.

(
).
5.4. - .
S / V
.

.


.

:

44

=
r =
=

v =


=
t 2.
V, h, A r .

V =
h
= =

4 / 2r
0
23 / r
2 / 2r

()

4 / 4r
2 / 2r
23 / 4r
2 / 4r
()
,

,
- .
( V )

.
.
( )
1.
2.
- .

45

( )
1. plastic flow .
2.
.
3. ( grain boundaries )
.
, (
) :
= ctm =
t = 2
c = ,
, ...
m =

m active powders,
L/Lo = h/r,
.
.
.
1.
2.
( , ).

(
).
Kuczynski

.
Kuczynski :
n / rm = k t

r =
=
=
t =
k =

46

n & m =

:
m
n
1.

2
1
2.

5
2
3.

7
3
4.

3
1
m, n
Kuczynski
Kuczynski


.
Herring
, :


:
t2 = n t1
t1 t2
, ,

r1 r2 r2 = r1 (= ).
n = 1
n = 3

() Herring
.
5.5.

.
(Liquid phase sintering)

47

.
( )

.



.

.

1. ( Porosity ) - .
2. ( density ) -
3. ( lectrical resistivity )
4. (mechanical strength ) - A.
5. ( grain size ) - A

.

()

(grain boundaries).
,
- .
(fluxes)
,

48

(..fully dence Al2O3 99%)

.


(bulk
diffusion). ( . Kirkendall )

.
bulk diffusion

5.6.

- .

49

5.7. .

50

.
1. :
. (intermittent or periodic)
. (continious )
:
.
, -
(preheating, firing, cooling zones)
.
..
. ( Rotary )

, ,
,
.
:
1. (box type)
2. (shuttle type) ,
.
3. - (portable cover top hat
elevator type)
, .
2.
, , , , ,
3.
( , ... )

( , ... )
4.
( muffle type )
( open flame type )
5. - (
).
- (Up - draupht)
- (Down - draupht)

51

- (through or cross draupht or horizontal)

,
.
:
.

% = ------------------------------------------------- 100

.. :

100

40

40 %

+ +

5.8. -
:
1.
-
6.

52

2.
3.
4.
5.

7.
8.
9.

:




.

1. Griffiths,R., Radford, C. (1965). Calculations in Ceramics, G. Fenn,

Stoke-on-Trent.

53

2. Jackson, G. (1969). Introduction to Whitewares, Maclaren & Sons,

London.
3. Kingery, W.D., Bowen, H.K., Uhlmann, D.R. (1976). Introduction to
Ceramics, J. Wiley & Sons, N. Y.
4. Komar,A. (1979).
Building Materials and Components, MIR,
Moscow.
5. Norton, F. H. (1952). Elements of Ceramics, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, Mass.
6. Ristic, M.M. (1979). Sintering - New developments, Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
7. Singer, F., Singer, S. (1978). Industrial Ceramics, Chapman & Hall,
London.
8. Van Vlack, L.H. (1973). A Textbook of Materials Technology,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
9. Worral, W.E. (1986). Clays and Ceramic Raw Materials, Elsevier,
London.