‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Linear Equations and Inequalities Section 1.1 Linear Equations in One Variable Section 12 Linear Inequalities in One Variable Section 1.3 Linear Equations in Two Variables and Straight Lines Section 14 Linear Inequalities in Two Variables Section 15 Applications of Linear Equations Chapter 2 Linear Programming Section 2.1 The Mathematics of Linear Programming Problems Section 2.2 Applications of Linear Programming Problems Chapter 8 Matrices and Systems of Linear Equations Section 3.1 Matrices Section 3.2 Matrix Multiplication Section 3.3 Systems of Linear Zquations Scction 34 Gaussian Blimination and Row Behelon Form Section 35 Gauss-Jordan Flimination and Reduced Row Echelon Form. Section 8.6 Inverse Matrices Section 3.7 Solving Systems of Linear Equations With Inverse Matrices Chapter 4 Graph Thoory Section 4.1 Introduction Section 42 Basie Properties of Graphs Section 4.3 Paths and Circuits Section 44 Graphs and Adjacency Matrices Section 4.5 Digraphs and Their Adjacency Matrices Chapter 5 Mathematics of Finance Section 5.1 Simple Interest Section 5.2 Compound Interest, Section 5.3 Annuities Section 5.4 Loans and MortgagesSection 1.1 Definition 1.4 Example 1.1 SECTION 1.1 1 CHAPTER 1 LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES ‘Most of the material covered in Chapter 1 should be familiar to students who have completed a high school mathematics course. We hegin with the algebra of linear equations and linear inequalities in one variable, We then discuss Cartesian co-ordinates, linear equations and linear inequalities in two variables. Finally, we consider applications of these concepts to reabworld proilems in business, science, and other areas. For example, how do you compare ‘two car rental companies to decide which one gives you @ better deal? How do you compare {incomes of salespeople who work for salaries and those who work on commission? Both of these questions and many other practical problems can be answered using the matheraatics from this chapter. Linear Equations in One Variable To discuss linear equations (or any type of equation for that matter), we need some ‘terminology. ‘The following equation is an equation in x, y, and 2, 30 ~2y 442 +6 = By —82+7, equivalently, Se+ (—2y) +4246 = dy + (B82) +7. (uy Boch side of equation 1.1 is called an expression ine, y and 2, he quantities 31, ~2y, 42, sand 6 are called terms in the expression on the left side of the equation. ‘They are soparated bby + signs, Tho first torm is a term in the variable z, the second is & term in y, the third is, a terma in 2, and the last is called 8 constant term, ‘The 3 in 3z is called the coefficient of 2; similarly, —2 is the coefficient of y, and 4 is the coefficient of z. Once egain, terms are parts of an expression soparated by plus signs, Linear equations in one variable s are deserihed in our first definition, A linear equation in ¢ is an equation that can be expressed in the form on = 5, (1.2) ‘where a and b are constants with @ #0. For exarnple, exch of the following equations js linear in its varlablo; itis either already in the above form or ean be ptt in this form: W=4, 3245=0, Syts=—l, de+2=2e—5, e-5)4+4(S—2e)= 45. Determiae whether the following equations ag linear in (@)de=3 (bye Iet4—0 © (E+ Ge=2 Ad) Be 3= VE Solution (a) This equation is in form 1.2 and is therefore linear. (h) Because of the 2?-term, this equation is not linear. (c) With tho torms 5 and 3/2, this equation is not linear. (4) With tho torms 22 and 2, this equation is not finear.e Our objective in this section is to solve near equations in one Variable; that is, find the valuo of the variable that satisfies the equation, For the equation 3(2-~5)-+4(5—22) = 2-+5, this means find tho value of « that makes the expressions 3(e— 6) + 4(5 — 22) and z+ 6 equal. We do this by rewriting the equation in the form 2 = a number, the number then being the solution of the equation. We illustrate how to do this with examples.Example 1.2 Example 1.3 Example 1.4 SECTION 1.1 Find the value of « that satisfies the Iinear equation a4a=5 Solution In your early algebra studies, you may have been taught to solve an equation ike this by adding ~2 to both sides of this equation (or subtracting 2 from both sides). We show the steps here, but recommend that you adopt an equivalent procedure that is much more efficient in more complicated problems (and we will have many of them). 2+2 ‘The solution of the equation is = 3. An equivalent way to solve this equation is to move the 2 from tho loft sido of the equation ta the right side, OfScialy, this is called transposing. When a term is transposed froin one side of an oquation to the other, its sign must be changed. We write therefore that at2= 2 3. This is the came solution, We agree that there is little difference in the amount of work 5m this example whether we adopt “transposing” or not. In more complicated problems, transposing is much more efficiente Solve the equation Ae 2m 8245. Solution We transpose the 2 to the right side of the equation and simultaneously ‘transpose the term 37 to the left, in both cases changing their signs, do 34542 Solve the equation 4 ate the costiicient 4 of 2, We do this by Solution For this equation, we must elimi dividing both sidos of tho equation by 4, Be sure that you understand when to transpose and when to divide. We transpose ‘terms from one side af an equation to the other side; we divide to remove a coeflicient in {rout of a variable.Example 1.5 Example 1.6 Example 1.7 SECTION 14 a Solve the equation Sy 2=3y-7. Solution We begin by transposing the 3y and —2, Synty 742 % ‘To eliminate the coefficient 2 of y, we divide both sides of the equation by 2; the result is =tu-8. ~--§ tis always a good idea to check that our solution is correct. ‘This means substituting our solution into the left and right sides of the equation separately, and seeing that we get the same result, Por the above example we calculate that ‘Since these numbers are the same, our solution is indeed correct, Selve the equation We +4) ~ 35-2) = Te +6. Solution ‘Tho first thing to do in this example is to comovo the parentheses. In doing 80, romomber to multiply each term in tho parentheses by the number in front: (called distributivity). The result is Po +8— 15 +32= 7246. ‘We now transpose all terms in z-terms to the loft and all constant terms to the right, e+ Be — T= 6-8 +15 —2e = 13. Finally, we divide bath sidos by -2, BoB 2 Equations that contain fractions often present extra difficulties for students. A good ‘way to oliminate these complications is to begin by clearing all fractions from the equation. ‘We illustrate in the next two examples. Solve the equation Solution ‘Toclear fractions, we multiply the equation ky 6. ‘This means multiply all terms in the equation by 6, )+6(@) 40 4a bom 18SECTION 1.1 Example 1.8 Solve the equation 1 1 ae 508-2) 4 38-22) =F Solution ‘To clear all fractions, we multiply by 10, 1 1 Be (10)5(82 ~ 2) + (10)5¢8 ~22) = 10 $ ) 8(82 - 2) +.2(3- 22) = 42 1Be~ 1046-4: ue 4% Lot us summarize the steps that we take to solve linear equations (in :): 1, Remove any fractions from the equation by multiplying each term in the equation by the same number (the lowest common multiple of the denominators) 2, Remove any parentheses by expansion. 3, ‘Transpose all terms involving 2's to the left side of the equation and all constant terms to the right side of the equation. 4, Combine all 2's on the left side of the equation into a single term, and all constants on ‘the right into a single number, 5. If the coefficient of « is not 1, divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient. Some equations that contain the variable « may appear to be linear, but in actuality, are not, There aro two such situations, one of which is contained in the equation 2(e—4) - 928-41) = 5-4, ‘When wo remove parontheses, we obtain 2p 8-6 —3—5— 40 4g - 15-40 fo $4 = 5 411 0=16. This is impossible, 0 is not equal to 16. What this meaus is that no.x can satisfy the original equation. In fact, because the equation cannot be expressed in the form in Definition 1. the original equation wes not tines. ‘The second situation occurs in the very similar [ooking equation 2(@—4) - 322-41) = Az. ‘When we remove parentheses this time, we obtain ‘What this meons is that every real value of z satisfles the original equation. Once again, because the equation cannot be expressed in the form in Definition 1.1, the original equation ‘was not linear. An equation liko this is often called an idontity in z, it is satisfied by all real nusnbers.SECTION 1.2 5 EXERCISES 1.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. Tho solution of the oquation 3+ 2 = 4 is: (a) 2=-2/8 (b) 2-3 ©) 2-2/8 (@) c=2 (0) Nonoof theso 2. ‘The solution of the equation 4(2~ 2) + 3(2x — 1) = 6 is: (s) e=2 @) e=72 (@) 2-4 @ & 3, The solution of the equation 5(2—2) +a 1=3~—4e (2) z=0 (b) s=6 (@) Allreal values ofx (d) ‘There are no solutions (e) None of these 4, ‘The solution of tho equation 6(2—a) +5 —1=9 —4s is: {s) 2=0 (6) z=6 (6) Allreal values of 2 (4) There aro no solutions 6) Nono of these (©) None of these 5. Tho solution ofthe equation £4 4(8— 2) 2 2-44 is (@) 2=5/18 (h) = 18/5) e=-5/I8 (2) 2=~18/5 —(e)_Nono of these Long-anewer Questions 1m Brercises 6-29 find all solutions of tho equation, State whether each equation is linea. 14, 32~a) 46-4043 15. 8 +2 =4(4—B2) 16. 2(2r-+ 1) = 2(8r 44) = 37 +5 (47) IT. 12+ 2=3(4~ 9) +201 ~ 62) ¥_ya5- 4 =te- 18. $-Sy=5-2 19. FE 5)44= G(2—S2) 41 1b 1 go Be 20. 3(1~20) + 5 = 5s 1) +5 W F- fbi Ftet3 22, Ye -1) +6= 42 41-2442) 28. 5x44 (1-42) = 1+ -2(2 16) 24. = He-o 41 as 2th Bat 26. 2-1) +6=4e 412-4 +2) 27. 8244-4 (142) = 227 — 20 — 16) = 1 L 475 28. F-1= Fle) 45 Set? 380. Is the following statement true or false? Every linear equation in one variable has exectly one solution. If the statment is true, prove it; if the statement is not true, give a counterexample, Section 1.2 Linear Inequalities in One Variable In this section we solve linear inoqualities in one variable as opposed to linear equations as {in Section 1.1. Compare the following definition for a linear ivequality to that for a linesr equation in Definition 1.1. Definition 1.2 A linear inequality in x is an inoquality that can bo expressed in the forin arch, 3) ‘where a and b are constants with « #0. The inequality < could also be any one of the three inequalities <, >, or 2.Example 1.9 ‘Example 1.10 SECTION 1.2 When we write ax 0, Byt4e-I, dot222%-5, (0-4) 44(6—2e) Sots. As for linvar equations, the objective is to solve lincar inequalities for all values of tho unknown that satisfy them. Unlike a linear equation where there is exactly one solution, we shall find that every linear inequality has infinitely many solutions. The totality of thom is called the solution set of the inequality. Wo will have the solution set for a linear inequality ‘in x when we have written the inequality in one of the four forms 2 < a number, x > 2 number, « a numbor. We solve linear inequalities using the same five stops that we used for linear equations with one important exception. We illustrate with ‘examples. Find all values of «satisfying the linear inequality 304559422. Solution We transpose the 5 and the 22, 3n—2e<3—5 ~2, ‘Thus, all real numbers less than or equal to ~2 satisfy the given inequality. Just as wo suggested checking solutions of linear equations, we recommend checking solutions to linear inequalities. Here is a way. ‘The solution will be in one of the four forms a < number, 2 > number, # < number, or « > mumber. Substitute the number into Doth sides of the inequality; the same result should be obtained, If the same result Is not olitained, the proposed solution is incorrect. If the same result is obtained, one further chock is necessary. ‘Take any value from the solution set and verify that it satisfies the original inequality. 1Fit does, our solution is correet. If it doesw’t, tho inequality sign in our solution rust: be reversed. For instance, if we substitute « = —2 into both sides of the inequality in Example 1.9, we obtain LS. =3(-2)45=-1 RS. =342(-2)=-1. They are the same, We now substitute = —8, which is in the solution set, Into both sides of the inequality, Ls. Sinco ~-4 is less than —3, « = (8) + 5=—4 RS = 342(~3) = 3. 8 satisfios tho original inoguality. Our verification is eomploto, Solve tho inequality O+5a > 15 +ax. Solution We transpose 3x and 6, combine like terms, and divide by the coefficient of :, Sa —30 > 15-6 2 >9 a>h 3 ‘The next example contains the one very important difference botweon linear equations and linear inequalities, When both sides of am equation are multiplied or divided by the same nonzero number, the resulting equation is equivalent to the original equation. The same is true when an inequality is multiplied or divided by a positive mmber. But whonSECTION 1.2 7 oo ‘an inequality is multiplied or divided by a negative number, the inequality sign must be reversed. Tor instance, it is true that ~2 <4. If we multiply both sides by —3, we must reverse the inequality to get a correct result, 6 > —12. Remember this; itis crucial. When multiplying or dividing an inequality by a negative number, reverse the inequality sign. Example 1.11 Find all values of y satisfying the inequality 4 dy 26-40. Solution As usual, we transpose 3y to the left and 4 to the right, ~2y— Sy 26-4 ~5y 22. ‘To remove the —5, we divide by 5, but in doing s0, we reverse the inequality sign, a2 ws Example 1.12 Solve the inequality 1 2 L (82-4) — F{5 +92) < Z(1~22). Solution First we clear fractions by multiply all terms by 30, (3) o2—4)-20(2) (+30) <90(3) (1-2) 15(30 — 4) — 20(5 + 3x) < 6(1 — 22) 452 ~ 60 — 100 — 602 < 6-127 Miz +122 < 6+ 160 32 < 166 166 _ 166 a> tga Pe EXERCISES 1.2 Multiple Choice Questions 1. A simplified version of the inequality 3 — Sz > 2is: (a) 2>15 (b) 2cifS () 2>-4/ () 2 <-1/5 (6) None ofthese 2. A simplified version of the inequality 2y 45 < 3(y ~ 1) +4 is: () yzd (be) vsd (©) vS-4 (d)y2z—-4 (0) None of these 3. A simplified version of the inequality 2y — 5 > 3(y +1) +4 is: (a) y212 (bt) y 32-1 is @ 22 @ zs-f @ 22-2 @ 2s 5. A simplified version of the inequality 2n-+5 > (x 1) —4— ais (a) 2>4 (0) 2e2 () 2>0 (d) 2<0 — (e) Noncof these _ Long-answer Questions In Exercises 6-21 find all solutions of the inequality. 8 J (©) None of these6. 8 10. 12. 4. 16. 18. 20. 22, SECTION 1.3 BH5<2 Ta-82-4 Qe <8 9. Br > 5 WwHos4 AL 54> 6 Bo42 44-32) 2(2r-+1) 287 +4) > Br 45 ~ (4-7) IT. 15e+2.< 34-2) +2(1 62) y 2y 1 1 fravrs-2 19. (e-5) +4> FQ) +1 aed 1 z 218 BO 28) +5 < 52-1) +5 ML G-Ztis Ftet3 Prove that for any two real mumbers a and b, a? +6 > 2ab, Section 1.3 Linear Equations in Two Variables and Straight Lines In this section we discuss linear equations in two variables and show how they can be illustrated graphically. The goomatry that we introduce hore will also bo useful in other parts of these notes. ‘You are probably writing notes on a flat plece of paper as you read this material. Consider the (jnfinite) plane ohtsined by extending this piece of paper infinitely far in all directions. To identify points in this plane, we introduce what are called Cartesian coordinates. We pick a point O, called the origin, and draw through it two perpendicular lines, one horizontal, called tho z-axis, and the other vertical, called the y-axis (Figure 1.1). On each axis, we establish a scale, which neod not be the same, Positive markings om the ‘z-axis are usnally taken to the right, and positive markings on the zoxis are usually taken upward, ate rad Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Points in the plane are identified by an ordered pair (x,y) of real numbers called theic Cartesian coordinates (Figure 1.2). The 2-coordinate of a point P is its perpendicular distance from the y-axis, and the y-coordinate is its perpendicular distance from the 2- axis. Distances to the tight of the y-axis are taken to he positive, and distances to the left are negative. Distances vortically upward from the a-axis are taken to be positive, and downward distanees are negstive. In Figure 1.3, we have shown four points along with their coordinates. sent) +64 Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4Definition 1.3 SECTION 13 9 ‘The axes divide the plane into four parts which, beginning at the upper tight and pro- ceeding counterclockwise, are called respectively the first, second, third, and fourth quad- rants, The oxes themselves ate not considered part of any quadrant, Points in the first quadrant have a- and y-coordinates that ate both positives points in the second quadrant have a negative a-coordinate and a positive y-coordinate; and s0 on (Figure 1.4). When Cartesian coordinates have been introduced into a plane, we often call ita Carte- sian pie or the zy-plane. With Cartesian planes, we ean discuss Bnear equations in two variables geometrically as well a8 algebraically. A linear equation in bvo variables « and y is an equation that can be expressed in the form Ac+By=C, a4 where A, B and are numbers with A end B not both zero. Examples of linear equations in # and y are Me By=4, BeeSytO=Be—ytT, We+2—7—4e, 7—5y x Oy +10. ‘The first is alroady in form 14 (with A= 2, B= ~8, and C = 4), By transposing terms, the other three can also be expressed in this form. For the second equation, we would write Bn-b5y—2e+y = 7-6 zEey=1. ‘This is Hinear equation 14 with A=1, B=6, and C= 1. Linear equation 1.4 contains two variables, or unknowns. For such equations, we ask {or pairs of numbers that satisfy the equation. Consider, for example, the equation e+ By = 6. Ibis straightforward to spot come pairs of values of x and y that satisfy this equation. For instance, @ = 3 along with y =0, and x =0 along with y = 2 are two such pairs. Two other sots are x= 6 and y =~2, and z= ~3 and y =4, Bach pair is said to be a solution of the ‘equation. It is often convenient to represent solutions of linear equations as ordered pairs of mimbers. ‘The four solutions that we just spotted are (3,0), (0,2), (6,—2), and (—3,4). ‘There is an infinite number of solutions of the linear equation 2e-+ 3y = 6; we have spotted four simple ones. But consider the following procedure. Supposo we arbitrarily specify that 1 be 8; that is, we set y= 8, If wo substitute this into the equation, we obtain 22 +3(8) = 6. What we now hove is a lincar equation in 2. With our experience in Section 1.1, it is straightforward to solve this equation for @; it is z= —9, Tn other words, a solution of the equation is (9,8). Tho choice of y equal to 8 was arbitrary; we could have set y equal to any number whatsoever, and solved the resulting linear equation for 2. Alternatively, we could specify a value for 2 and solve for y. For example, if we set « = ~6, then 2-6) 434 Sy = 18 u=6. Honce, another solution of she equation is (6, 6), Substitutions of sosue values of = (or y) will Jead to noninteger solutions for y (oF 2). In fact this will happen more often than not. For instance, if we set = 1, we obtain10 SECTION 1.3 2) +3y =6 ays 4 y= ‘The solution corresponding to x = 1 is (1,4/3). ‘Example 1.13. Find the value of x so that x and y ~4 satisfy the linear equation 32 —Sy~8. in the equation Be —5(4) 8 30 = 8 Solution If we set y= ae Example 1,14 Find the solution of the equation Qe —6y +4= 524+ 2y—7 corresponding to. Solution When we set = in the equation, we obtain 21) —6y +4 by -2y ty Hence, the solution corresponding to x = 1 ts (1,1).© Let us now turn to the geometric visualization of solution pairs of linear equations, In the above discussion of linear equation 22-+-3y = 6, we obtained seven solutions (3,0), (0,2), (6.2), (3.4), (-9,8); (-6,6), and (1,4/3). Suppose we interpret these ordered pairs as coordinates of points in the zy-plane. They areshown in Figure 1.5. We cannot help hut be struck with the uotion that these points appear to be collinear; that is, they all appear to lie on a straight line, This is not a coincidence of this exanaple, It is always true. We state ‘this in the following theorem. Figure 15 ‘Theorem 1.1 Solution pairs of a linear equation always lie on a straight Hine.Example 115 Example 1.16 SECTION 1.3 a ‘The (straight) line that contains all solution pairs of a linear equation is called the ‘graph of the equation; the near equation is called the equation of the line. Every solution pair of a Tinear equation gives a point on the line. Conversely, the coordinates of every point on the line give a solution pair to the equation. The graph is a geometric ‘visualization of solutions of the equation. ‘To draw a line, it is enough to know two points on the line, We illustrate this in the following example. Find any two solutions of the linear equation 4z — Sy — 7. Plot the points in the zy-plane, and join them by a straight line. Find a third solution, plot it and see if it also falls on the ne. Show that the ordered pair (2,—1) is not a solution of the equation. Plot the point to show that it is not on the line, Solution If we set 7 =0 in the equation, we obtain ~by=7 2 yamR ‘Hence, one eolution is (0, 7/6). If we set 1 = 0, we obtain a second solution (7/4,0). These are shown in Figure 1.6, and we have joined them by a straight line, If we set 2 = 3, we obtain This solution (3,1) is also shown in Figure 1.6 and appears to be on the line joining the other two solutions, When we substitute « = 2 and y = ~1 Into the left side of the equation, ‘wo obtain 4(2) —6(—1) = 13 7, Hence, (2,1) is not a solution pair for the oquation. As a result, the point (2, —1) does not We on the line in Figure 1.6.6 ‘To find two solutions of the equation 42—Sy = 7 in Example 1.15, we first set = 0 and solved for y= —7/5. We were finding a very important colution of the equation graphically It is the point where the line crosses the y-axis (since all points om the yraxls have 2- coordinate equal to 0). The value y = —7/6 is called the pintercept of the Hue, Similarly, when we set y 0, we found x = 7/4; it is called the a-intercept of the line. The tine can ‘then be drawn by joining these two points. We recommend this technique for drawing lines in goneral; it works whenever A, B, and C in equation 14 ate all nonzero, Here is another example, ‘Draw the line Aer — y= 24. » Solution We find the 2-intercept by setting y = 0 and solving for x = 6. For the intercept, we set x = 0 and get y = 24/7, So ‘Phe resulting points aro joined in Figuro 1.7.8 * esulting points aro joined in Figure Saary Figure 1.7, When one of A, B, and C in equation 14 is equal to zer0, we take a slightly different spproach in drawing the line. ‘Case 1 — Lines whose equations can be expressed in the form 2 = C (B = 0) Such fines are vertical, For example, the linos = 1 and «= 4 are shown in Figure 1.8. Every point on the vertical line 2 = I has a-coordinate equal to 1, We have shown two such points,42 Example 1.17 Draw the lines with equations (a) 3r= 2 (b) 2y = SECTION 1.3 Case 2 — Lines whose equations can be expressed in the form y = C (A=0) Such Tines are horizontal. For example, the lines y = 2 and y = —1 are shown in Figure 1.9. ‘Every point on the horizontal line y = 2 has y-coordinate equal to 2. We have shown two such points. Case 3 — Lines whose equations can be expressed in the form y~ ma where m is a number (C=) Such ines pass through the origin. It is then a matter of finding a second point on the Hine to join to the origin, ‘This ean always be done by specifying a value for @ (say w = 1) and finding y. For example, the lines y= 2r and y = —3e are shown in Figure 1.10. » on 4 Hs T+? 3 Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10 5 (0) 304 2y=0. Solution (a) When we write x = 2/8, we have a vertical line crossing the a-axis at 2 = 2/3 (Figure 1.11). 5p {b) When we write y y = —82/2, we seo that a second =~ 5/2, wo have a horizontal line crossing the ypaxis at y = {Figure 1.12). {¢) This line passes through the origin. When we w point is (1,.-3/2) (Figure 113).< ’ ed ’ ad sa © carey Figure 1.14 Figure 112 Figure 1.13 So far in this section we have drawn « line, given its equation. Tn many applications, we ‘will be given a picture of a ling, or information about it, and will need to find the equation of the Tine. ‘To do this we introduce a quantity called slope. ‘The slope of the line through the points (21, 91) and (w2,u2) in Figure 1.14 is defined as the quotient wom man" as) ‘The difference yp — 41 is called the rise because it represents the vertical distance between, the points, and 22-21 the run, the horizontal distance betwean the points. It cau be shown, using similar triangles, that m is independent of the two points chosen on the line; that is, 10 matter which two points we choose on the line to evaluate m, the result is always the ‘arne. ‘The four numbers 24, 2, 91, and ty vary, but the ratio (yo ~ 91)/(za — as) remains unchanged. A horizontal line (Figure 1.14) has slope zero (since tr — #4 = 0), whereas the slope of 2 vertical line is undefined (since 2p ~ 7, x20). In Figure 1.14c, line , which leans to the right, has positive slope, and line f2, which leans to the left, has negative slope. The larger tho slope (either posttively or negatively), the steeper the line