Ch03 PDF

Turbine Blades
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 3.1 Turbine blades for jet engines, manufactured by three different methods: (a) conventionally cast; (b)
directionally solidified, with columnar grains, as can be seen from the vertical streaks; and (c) single crystal.
Although more expensive, single-crystal blades have properties at high temperatures that are superior to those of
other blades. Source: Courtesy of United Technologies Pratt and Whitney.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Common Crystal Structures

FIGURE 3.2
The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal
structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single
crystal with many unit cells. Common bcc metals include
chromium, titanium, and tungsten. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
a
a
a
R
a
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with
many unit cells. Common fcc metals include aluminum,
copper, gold and silver.Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
2R
(c)
a
a
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 3.4 The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal

structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit
cells. Common hcp metals include zinc, magnesium and
cobalt. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
(a)
(b)

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Plastic Deformation in Crystals

b
Atomic
planes
Shear stress
Shear
stress
Twinning
plane
Slip plane
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.5 Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile load. The highlighted grid of atoms emphasizes the motion
that occurs within the lattice.(a) Deformation by slip. The b/a ratio influences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause
slip. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the direction of pulling. (b) Deformation by twinning, involving generation
of a twin around a line of symmetry subjected to shear. Note that the tensile load results in a shear stress in the plane
illustrated.
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Shear Stress at Atomic Scale
max
T
1
Shear stress:
2x
= max sin
b
T
b
FIGURE 3.6 Variation of shear stress in moving a plane of atoms

over another plane.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Leads to:
G
max =
2
Slib Bands in a Single Crystal

Single crystal
(grain)
Approximately 1000
atomic diameters
Grain
boundaries
Slip lines approximately

100 atomic
diameters
~10,000
atomic
diameters
She
stre ar
ss
Slip band

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines and slip bands in a

single crystal subjected to a shear stress. A slip band consists of a
number of slip planes. The crystal at the center of the upper
drawing is an individual grain surrounded by other grains.
Normal Stress in a Single Crystal

!
Work:
!max
Tensile
stress
a
x
"
2
max
Work =
Leads to:
Distance
between atoms
FIGURE 3.8 Variation of cohesive

stress as a function of distance between
a row of atoms.
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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
max =
E E
a
10
Crystal Defects
Self-interstitial atom
Vacancy
Interstitial
impurity atom
Substitutional
impurity atom
FIGURE 3.9 Various defects in a singlecrystal lattice. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
Screw
dislocation
FIGURE 3.10 (a) Edge dislocation, a linear

defect at the edge of an extra plane of
atoms. (b) Screw dislocation, a helical
defect in a three-dimensional lattice of
atoms. Screw dislocations are so named
because the atomic planes form a spiral
ramp.
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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(a)
(b)
Movement of Edge Dislocation
Slip plane
FIGURE 3.11 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress.
Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals is much lower than that predicted by
atomic theory.

Kalpakjian Schmid
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Grains During Solidification
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 3.12 Schematic illustration of the various stages during solidification of molten metal. Each small square
represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal. Note that the crystallographic
orientation of each site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal,
showing individual grains and grain boundaries. Note the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each
other. Source: After W. Rosenhain.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Tensile Stress in Polycrystalline Material

Tensile stress
Stress
Average stress

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FIGURE 3.13 Variation of tensile stress across a plane

of polycrystalline metal specimen subjected to tension.
Note that the strength exhibited by each grain depends
on its orientation.
Grain Sizes
ASTM No.
Grains/mm2
Grains/mm3
-3
1
0.7
0
8
16
3
64
360
5
256
2,900
7
1,024
23,000
9
4,096
185,000
12
32,800
4,200,000
ASTM Grain Size Number:
Hall-Petch Equation:

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TABLE 3.1 Grain sizes.
N = 2n1
Y = Yi + kd 1/2
Embrittlement & Plastic Deformation

Unwetted
Wetting agent
100% Pb
80% Pb
-20% Bi
Stress
20% Pb
-80% Bi
100% Bi
Strain
FIGURE 3.14 Embrittlement of copper by lead

and bismuth at 350C (660F). Embrittlement has
important effects on the strength, ductility, and
toughness of materials. Source: After W. Rostoker.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.15 Plastic deformation of idealized (equiaxed)

grains in a specimen subjected to compression, such as is
done in rolling or forging of metals: (a) before
deformation; and (b) after deformation. Note the
alignment of grain boundaries along a horizontal
direction.
Crack Due to Bulging

Top view
Rolling
direction
Crack
Sheet
Side view
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.16 (a) Illustration of a crack in sheet metal subjected to bulging, such as by pushing a steel
ball against the sheet. Note the orientation of the crack with respect to the rolling direction of the
sheet. This material is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack (vertical dark line at the center)
developed in a bulge test. Source: Courtesy of J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology.

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Recovery, Recrystallization and

Grain Growth
Residual
stresses
Strength,
hardness,
ductility
FIGURE 3.17 Schematic illustration of the effects of
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth on
mechanical properties and shape and size of grains.
Note the formation of small new grains during
recrystallization. Source: After G. Sachs.
Strength
Hardness
Cold-worked
and recovered
New grains
Grain
size
Recovery

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Ductility
Recrystallization
Temperature
Grain
growth
Increasing
temperature
Constant reduction
Time
Strength and hardness
Strength and hardness
Recrystallization
FIGURE 3.18 Variation of strength
and hardness with recrystallization
temperature, time, and prior cold
work. Note that the more a metal is
cold worked, the less time it takes to
recrystallize, because of the higher
stored energy from cold working due
to increased dislocation density.
Increasing
reduction
Constant temperature
(a)
Time
(b)
FIGURE 3.19 The effect of prior cold work on the recrystallized grain size of
alpha brass. Below a critical elongation (strain), typically 5%, no
recrystallization occurs.

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Recrystallized grain size (mm)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
10
20
30
Elongation (%)
40
Surface Roughness; Homologous Temperature
Process
Cold working
Warm working
Hot working
FIGURE 3.20 Surface roughness on the cylindrical
surface of an aluminum specimen subjected to
compression. Source: A. Mulc and S. Kalpakjian.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
T /Tm
< 0.3
0.3 to 0.5
> 0.6
TABLE 3.2 Homologous Temperature Ranges for

Various Processes.
Failure
Barreling
Cracks
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 3.21 Schematic illustration of types of failure

in materials: (a) necking and fracture of ductile
materials; (b) buckling of ductile materials under a
compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in
compression; (d) cracking on the barreled surface of
ductile materials in compression. (See also Fig. 6.1b)

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 3.22 Schematic illustration of the types of

fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline
metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals (see
also Fig. 3.5a); (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in
polycrystalline metals (see also Fig. 2.2); (d) complete
ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100%
reduction of area.
Ductile Fracture Surface
FIGURE 3.23 Surface of ductile fracture in low-carbon steel, showing dimples. Fracture
is usually initiated at impurities, inclusions, or preexisting voids in the metal. Source: K.H. Habig and D. Klaffke. Photo courtesy of BAM, Berlin, Germany.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Sequence in Necking and Fracture
Shear
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fibrous
(e)
FIGURE 3.24 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of necking;
(b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) rest
of cross-section begins to fail at the periphery by shearing; (e) final fracture surfaces, known as cup-(top
fracture surface) and-cone (bottom surface) fracture.

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Effect of Inclusions
Voids
Void
Strong direction
Matrix
or
Inclusion
Soft inclusion
(a) Before deformation
Hard inclusion
Weak direction
Hard inclusion
of deformed metal
(b) After deformation
FIGURE 3.25 Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and their
effect on void formation in plastic deformation. Note that hard inclusions, because they do
not comply with the overall deformation of the ductile matrix, can cause voids.

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Transition Temperature & Strain Aging
300
Transition
temperature
Temperature
True stress (MPa)
150
126 hr 50
4 hr
30 min
15 min
40
250
200
30
psi x 103
Ductility, toughness
350
20
100
a
0
FIGURE 3.26
Schematic illustration of
transition temperature. Note the narrow
temperature range across which the behavior
of the metal undergoes a major transition.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
d
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
True strain, !
FIGURE 3.27 Strain aging and its effect on the shape of the
true-stress-true-strain curve for 0.03% C rimmed steel at
60C (140F). Source: A.S. Keh and W.C. Leslie.
Brittle and Intergranular Fracture
FIGURE 3.28 Typical fracture surface of steel that

has failed in a brittle manner. The fracture path is
transgranular (through the grains). Compare this
surface with the ductile fracture surface shown in
Fig. 3.23. Source: Courtesy of Packer Engineering.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.29 Intergranular fracture, at two different

magnifications. Grains and grain boundaries are clearly
visible in this micrograph. The fracture path is along the
grain boundaries. Source: Courtesy of Packer Engineering.
Fracture Mode & Surface
Mode I
Mode III
Mode II
FIGURE 3.30 Three modes of fracture. Mode I has

been studied extensively, because it is the most
commonly observed in engineering structures and
components. Mode II is rare. Mode III is the tearing
process; examples include opening a pop-top can,
tearing a piece of paper, and cutting materials with a
pair of scissors.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.31 Typical fatigue fracture surface on metals, showing

beach marks. Most components in machines and engines fail by
fatigue and not by excessive static loading. Source: Courtesy of
Packer Engineering.
Fatigue
MPa
Reduction in fatigue strength (%)
10
Roug
h
20
1000
1300
483
turnin
30
40
As
c
as
50
70
Al 7050-T7651
Ti-6Al-4V
414
60
Shot peened
345
50
276
40
207
Polished
Machined
138
ksi
800
Fine polishing
Polishing
Grinding
Fine turning
Stress amplitude, S (MPa)
500
30
20
60
70
104
50
100
150
Ultimate tensile strength (psi x 103)
200
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, N
108
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 3.32 Reduction in fatigue strength of cast steels subjected to various surface-finishing operations. (a) Effect of
surface roughness. Note that the reduction is greater as the surface roughness and strength of the steel increase. Source:
After J.E. Shigley and L.D. Mitchell. (b) Effect of residual stress, as developed by shot peening (see Section 4.5.1). Source:
After B.J. Hamrock, S.R. Schmid and B.O. Jacobson.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Physical Properties of Materials

METAL
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys
Beryllium
Columbium (niobium)
Copper
Copper alloys
Gold
Iron
Steels
Lead
Lead alloys
Magnesium
Magnesium alloys
Molybdenum alloys
Nickel
Nickel alloys
Silicon
Silver
Tantalum alloys
Titanium
Titanium alloys
Tungsten
NONMETALLIC
Ceramics
Glasses
Graphite
Plastics
Wood
Coefficient
of Thermal
Expansion
(m/m C)
Density
(kg/m3 )
Melting Point
( C)
Specific Heat
(J/kg K)
Thermal
Conductivity
(W/m K)
2700
2630-2820
1854
8580
8970
7470-8940
19300
7860
6920-9130
11,350
8850-11,350
1745
1770-1780
10,210
8910
7750-8850
2330
10,500
16,600
4510
4430-4700
19,290
660
476-654
1278
2468
1082
885-1260
1063
1537
1371-1532
327
182-326
650
610-621
2610
1453
1110-1454
1423
961
2996
1668
1549-1649
3410
900
880-920
1884
272
385
337-435
129
460
448-502
130
126-188
1025
1046
276
440
381-544
712
235
142
519
502-544
138
222
121-239
146
52
393
29-234
317
74
15-52
35
24-46
154
75-138
142
92
12-63
148
429
54
17
8-12
166
23.6
23.0-23.6
8.5
7.1
16.5
16.5-20
19.3
11.5
11.7-17.3
29.4
27.1-31.1
26.0
26.0
5.1
13.3
12.7-18.4
7.63
19.3
6.5
8.35
8.1-9.5
4.5
2300-5500
2400-2700
1900-2200
900-2000
400-700
580-1540
110-330
750-950
500-850
840
1000-2000
2400-2800
10-17
0.6-1.7
5-10
0.1-0.4
0.1-0.4
5.5-13.5
4.6-70
7.86
72-200
2-60

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
TABLE 3.3 Physical Properties of Various

Materials at Room Temperature.
Effect of Carbon on Steel Properties

Low
carbon
Medium
carbon
High
carbon
Normalized
Annealed
800
Tensile strength
140
100
120
600
80
Yield strength
400
60
40
200
% elongation
20
0.2
0.4
0.6
Carbon (%)
0.8

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
0
1.0
100
80
60
40
Izod impact energy (Nm)
Impact
energy
Elongation (%)
Yield and tensile strength (MPa)
1000
FIGURE 3.33 Effect of carbon content on

the mechanical properties of carbon steel.
Annealed Stainless Steels

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
550-620
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
240-260
Elongation
(%)
50-53
304
565-620
(S30400)
240-290
55-60
316
550-590
(S31600)
210-290
55-60
410
480-520
(S41000)
240-310
25-35
416
480-520
(S41600)
275
20-30
AISI
(UNS)
303
(S30300)
Characteristics and Typical

Applications
Screw-machine products, shafts, valves, bolts,
bushings, and nuts; aircraft fittings; rivets;
screws; studs.
Chemical and food-processing equipment, brewing equipment, cryogenic vessels, gutters, downspouts, and flashings.
High corrosion resistance and high creep strength.
Chemical and pulp-handling equipment, photographic equipment, brandy vats, fertilizer parts,
ketchup-cooking kettles, and yeast tubs.
Machine parts, pump shafts, bolts, bushings, coal
chutes, cutlery, fishing tackle, hardware, jet engine parts, mining machinery, rifle barrels, screws,
and valves.
Aircraft fittings, bolts, nuts, fire extinguisher inserts, rivets, and screws.
TABLE 3.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications

of Annealed Stainless

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Tool & Die Materials

Type
High speed
Hot work
Cold work
Shock resisting
Mold steels
Special purpose
Water hardening
AISI
M (molybdenum base)
T (tungsten base)
H1 to H19 (chromium base)
H20 to H39 (tungsten base)
H40 to H59 (molybdenum base)
D (high carbon, high chromium)
A (medium alloy, air hardening)
O (oil hardening)
S
P1 to P19 (low carbon)
P20 to P39 (others)
L (low alloy)
F (carbon-tungsten)
W
TABLE 3.5 Basic Types of Tool and Die Steels.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Process
Die casting
Powder metallurgy
Punches
Dies
Molds for plastic and rubber
Hot forging
Hot extrusion
Cold heading
Cold extrusion
Punches
Dies
Coining
Drawing
Wire
Shapes
Bar and tubing
Rolls
Rolling
Thread rolling
Shear spinning
Sheet metals
Shearing
Cold
Hot
Pressworking
Deep drawing
Machining
Material
H13, P20
A2, S7, D2, D3, M2
WC, D2, M2
S1, O1, A2, D2, 6F5, 6F6, P6, P20, P21, H13
6F2, 6G, H11, H12
H11, H12, H13
W1, W2, M1, M2, D2, WC
A2, D2, M2, M4
O1, W1, A2, D2
52100, W1, O1, A2, D2, D3, D4, H11, H12, H13
WC, diamond
WC, D2, M2
WC, W1, D2
Cast iron, cast steel, forged steel, WC
A2, D2, M2
A2, D2, D3
D2, A2, A9, S2, S5, S7

H11, H12, H13
Zinc alloys, 4140 steel, cast iron, epoxy composites, A2, D2, O1
W1, O1, cast iron, A2, D2
Carbides, high-speed steels, ceramics, diamond, cubic boron nitride
TABLE 3.5 Typical Tool and Die Materials for Various Processes.
Non-Ferrous Alloys in Aircraft Engine

Ti alloy fan
Ti or Al alloy
low-pressure compressor
Ti or Ni alloy
high-pressure
compressor
Ni alloy
Ni alloy
high-pressure low-pressure
turbine
turbine
Ni alloy
combustion
chamber
Turbine
blades
Ni alloy
Turbine
exhaust case
Ni alloy
Accessory section
Al alloy or Fe alloy
Inlet case Al alloy
FIGURE 3.34 Cross-section of a jet engine (PW2037) showing various components and
the alloys used in making them. Source: Courtesy of United Aircraft Pratt & Whitney.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Aluminum Alloys
Alloy (UNS)
1100 (A91100)
1100
1350 (A91350)
1350
2024 (A92024)
2024
3003 (A93003)
3003
5052 (A95052)
5052
6061 (A96061)
6061
7075 (A97075)
7075
8090
Temper
O
H14
O
H19
O
T4
O
H14
O
H34
O
T6
O
T6
T8X
Ultimate Tensile
Strength (MPa)
90
125
85
185
190
470
110
150
190
260
125
310
230
570
480
Yield Strength
(MPa)
35
120
30
165
75
325
40
145
90
215
55
275
105
500
400
Elongation
in 50 mm (%)
35-45
9-20
23
1.5
20-22
19-20
30-40
8-16
25-30
10-14
25-30
12-17
16-17
11
4-5
TABLE 3.7 Properties of Various Aluminum Alloys at Room Temperature

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Wrought Aluminum Alloys

Alloy
1100
Corrosion
Resistance
A
2014
Characteristics
Machinability
D-C
Weldability
A
C-B
C-B
3003
D-C
5054
D-C
6061
D-C
7005
B-D
8090
A-B
B-D
Typical Applications
Sheet-metal work, spun hollow parts, tinstock.
Heavy-duty forgings, plate and extrusions for
aircraft structural components, wheels.
Cooking utensils, chemical equipment, pressure vessels, sheet-metal work, builders hardware, storage tanks.
Welded structures, pressure vessels, tube for
marine uses.
Trucks, canoes, furniture, structural applications.
Extruded structural members, large heat exchangers, tennis racquets, softball bats.
Aircraft frames, helicopter structural components.
From A (excellent) to D (poor).
TABLE 3.8 Manufacturing Properties and Typical Applications of Wrought Aluminum Alloys.

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Magnesium Alloys
Alloy
AZ31B
Composition (%)
Al Zn Mn Zr
3.0 1.0 0.2
AZ80A
8.5 0.5 0.2
HK31A
0.7
ZK60A
5.7
0.55
HK31A also contains 3%Th.
Condition
F
H24
T5
H24
T5
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
260
290
380
255
365
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
200
220
380
255
365
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
15
15
7
8
11
TABLE 3.9 Properties and Typical Forms of Various Wrought Magnesium Alloys.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Typical Forms
Extrusions
Sheet and plates
Extrusions and forgings
Sheet and plates
Extrusions and forgings
Copper & Brass

Type and
UNS
Number
Oxygen-free
electronic
(C10100)
Red brass,
(C23000)
Low Brass,
(C24000)
Free-cutting
brass
(C36000)
Naval brass
(C46400 to
C46700)
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
220-450
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
70-365
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
55-4
85.0 Cu
15.0 Zn
270-72
70-435
55-3
80.0 Cu
20.0 Zn
61.5 Cu,
3.0 Pb,
35.5 Zn
60.0 Cu,
39.25 Zn,
0.75 Sn
300-850
80-450
55-3
340-470
125-310
53-18
380-610
170-455
50-17
Nominal
Composition
(%)
99.99 Cu
Bus bars, waveguides, hollow conductors,
lead in wires, coaxial cables and tubes,
microwave tubes, rectifiers.
Weather stripping, conduit, sockets,
fasteners, fire extinguishers, condenser and
heat-exchanger tubing.
Battery caps, bellows, musical instruments,
clock dials, flexible hose.
Gears, pinions, automatic high-speed
screw-machine parts
Aircraft turnbuckle barrels, balls, bolts,
marine hardware, valve stems, condenser
plates.
TABLE 3.10 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Wrought Copper and Brasses.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Wrought Bronzes
Type and
UNS
Number
Architectural
bronze
(C38500)
Phosphor
bronze, 5% A
(C51000)
Free-cutting
phosphor
bronze
(C54400)
Low-silicon
bronze, B
(C65100)
Nickelsilver, 65-18
(C74500)
Nominal
Composition
(%)
57.0 Cu,
3.0 Pb,
40.0 Zn
95.0 Cu,
5.0 Sn,
trace P
88.0 Cu,
4.0 Pb,
4.0 Zn,
4.0 Sn
98.5 Cu,
1.5 Si
65.0 Cu,
17.0 Zn,
18.0 Ni
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
415
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
140
(as extruded)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
30
325-960
130-550
64-2
300-520
130-435
50-15
275-655
100-475
55-11
390-710
170-620
45-3
Architectural extrusions, storefronts,
thresholds, trim, butts, hinges.
Bellows, clutch disks, cotter pins,
diaphragms, fasteners, wire brushes,
chemical hardware, textile machinery.
Bearings, bushings, gears, pinions, shafts,
thrust washers, valve parts.
Hydraulic pressure lines, bolts, marine
hardware, electrical conduits, heatexchanger tubing.
Rivets, screws, zippers, camera parts,
base for silver plate, nameplates,
etching stock.
TABLE 3.11 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Wrought Bronzes.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Nickel Alloys
Principal
Alloying
Elements
(%)
None
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
380-550
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
100-275
elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
60-40
Duranickel 301
(age hardened)
Monel R-405
(hot rolled)
Monel K-500
(age hardened)
Inconel 600
(annealed)
4.4 Al,
0.6 Ti
30 Cu
1300
900
28
525
230
35
29 Cu,
3Al
15 Cr,
8 Fe
1050
750
20
640
210
48
Hastelloy C-4
(solution treated
and quenched)
16 Cr,
15 Mo
785
400
54
Alloy
(Condition)
Nickel 200
(annealed)
Chemical- and food-processing
industry, aerospace equipment,
electronic parts.
Springs, plastics-extrusion
equipment, molds for glass.
Screw-machine products, watermeter parts.
Pump shafts, valve stems, springs.
Gas-turbine parts, heat-treating
equipment, electronic parts,
nuclear reactors.
High-temperature stability,
resistance to stress-corrosion
cracking.
TABLE 3.12 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Nickel Alloys (All Alloy Names are Trade Names).

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Nickel-Base Superalloys
Alloy
Astroloy
Condition
Wrought
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
770
Hastelloy X
IN-100
IN-102
Inconel 625
Wrought
Cast
Wrought
Wrought
255
885
215
285
180
695
200
275
50
6
110
125
Inconel 718
MAR-M 200
MAR-M 432
Rene 41
Udimet 700
Waspaloy
Wrought
Cast
Cast
Wrought
Wrought
Wrought
340
840
730
620
690
525
330
760
605
550
635
515
88
4
8
19
27
35
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
690
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
25
Forgings for high-temperature
applications.
Jet-engine sheet parts.
Jet-engine blades and wheels.
Superheater and jet-engine parts.
Aircraft engines and structures,
chemical-processing equipment.
Jet-engine and rocket parts.
Jet-engine blades.
Integrally cast turbine wheels.
Jet-engine parts.
Jet-engine parts.
Jet-engine parts.
TABLE 3.13 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870C (1600F)
(All Alloy Names Are Trade Names)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Titanium Alloys
UNS
R50250
Condition
Annealed
Temp
( C)
25
300
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
330
150
5 Al, 2.5 Sn
R54520
Annealed
6 Al, 4V
R56400
Annealed
25
300
25
300
425
550
25
300
25
425
860
565
1000
725
670
530
1175
980
1275
1100
Nominal
Composition (%)
99.5 Ti
13 V, 11 Cr,
3Al
R58010
Solution
+ age
Solution
+ age
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
240
95
Elongation
(%)
30
32
810
450
925
650
570
430
1100
900
1210
830
16
18
14
14
18
35
10
10
8
12
Airframes; chemical, desalination,
and marine parts; plate-type heat
exchangers.
Aircraft-engine compressor blades
and ducting; steam-turbine blades.
Rocket motor cases; blades and
disks for aircraft turbines and
compressors; orthopedic
implants; structural forgings;
fasteners.
High-strength fasteners; aerospace
components; honeycomb panels.
TABLE 3.14 Properties and Typical Applications of Wrought Titanium Alloys.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

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Turbine Blades

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Common Crystal Structures

FIGURE 3.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure:

FIGURE 3.4 The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Plastic Deformation in Crystals

Shear Stress at Atomic Scale

FIGURE 3.6 Variation of shear stress in moving a plane of atoms

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Slib Bands in a Single Crystal

Slip lines approximately

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 3.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines and slip bands in a

Normal Stress in a Single Crystal

FIGURE 3.8 Variation of cohesive

FIGURE 3.10 (a) Edge dislocation, a linear

Movement of Edge Dislocation

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Grains During Solidification

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Tensile Stress in Polycrystalline Material

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 3.13 Variation of tensile stress across a plane

ASTM Grain Size Number:

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 3.1 Grain sizes.

Embrittlement & Plastic Deformation

FIGURE 3.14 Embrittlement of copper by lead

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 3.15 Plastic deformation of idealized (equiaxed)

Crack Due to Bulging

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Recovery, Recrystallization and

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Strength and hardness

Strength and hardness

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Recrystallized grain size (mm)

Surface Roughness; Homologous Temperature

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 3.2 Homologous Temperature Ranges for

FIGURE 3.21 Schematic illustration of types of failure

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 3.22 Schematic illustration of the types of

Ductile Fracture Surface

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Sequence in Necking and Fracture

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

(b) After deformation

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Transition Temperature & Strain Aging

True stress (MPa)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Brittle and Intergranular Fracture

FIGURE 3.28 Typical fracture surface of steel that

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 3.29 Intergranular fracture, at two different

Fracture Mode & Surface

FIGURE 3.30 Three modes of fracture. Mode I has

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 3.31 Typical fatigue fracture surface on metals, showing

Reduction in fatigue strength (%)