Viscous Fluid Dynamics

Yoshiaki NAKAMURA

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Nagoya University

2011 10
October 1, 2011

(Preface)

(vorticity) (shearing

stress)

(laminar ow) (turbulent ow)

(separation)
(Navier-Stokes)

CFD(Computational

Fluid Dynamics)
(Reynolds number)

(eddy)

(turbulence model)
(eddy viscosity)

1995 9

1
1
4

1.1
1.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3
1.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5
1.6
1.7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17
20
22

1.8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1
2.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3
2.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6
7

29
29
35
42
46
53
53
54

3.1
3.2

3.3
3.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60
64

3.5
3.6
3.7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68
71
76

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87
87

4.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2
4.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87
90

4.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

101

5.1
5.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3
5.4
5.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103
106

108
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

i
5.7
5.8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

1.1

(viscosity)

(shearing-stress)
0

(governing equation)

(
(

(Navier-

Stokes equation)

(Boltzmann equation)
(Rareed gas ow)

[]
0

(specular reection)

(diuse reection)

[]

1.1.1

(Newton-Stokes)

()

u
y

(1.1)

u x u/y
(Non-Newtonian uid)

yx

u
x

yx

1.1:

1.1.2

(molecular viscosity)

(1845; George Gabriel Stokes)

kg m/sec2
[] = [ ]/[u/y] =
m2

] /[

]
m/sec
= kg/(m sec)
m

(SI) : N sec/m2 P a sec (P a:)

CGS : poise ()(= g/cm sec)
2

() kg/(m sec)

1.0 103

1.8 105

1.1.

1.1.3

(Sutherland)
(
)3/2 (
)
(T )
T
1 + 110.4 /T

=
=

T
(T + 110.4) /T

(1.2)

T
110.4
Maxwell Rayleigh (dilute gas)

( )

T
=
0
T0
0.5 < < 1

(1.3)

1.1.4

(kinematic viscosity)

[]

[] =

(1.4)

[]
kg/(m sec)
=
= m2 /sec
[]
kg/m3

() kinematics

20
() m2 /s

1.0 106

1.5 105

air ( 15 , 760mmHg)
1 (P a) 1.01325 105 P a = 101.325kP a =

0.101325M P a(= 1013.25 hP a)

1.219 kg/m3

1.788 105 kg/s m

1.467 105 m2 /s

5.76 106 kcal/s m K = 2.42 105 kJ/(s m K)

Cp

0.23990 kcal/(kg K) = 1.004kJ/(kg K)

()

Cv

0.17100 kcal/(kg K) = 0.716kJ/(kg K)

= Cp /Cv

1.4

1.2:

1cal = 4.18605J
(water)

999.6 kg/m3

1.0 103 kg/s m

1.01 106 m2 /s

0.610 J/(s m K) = 0.610 W/m K = 6.10 104 kJ/(s m K)

Cp

4.182 kJ/(kg K)

()

Cv

* kcal/(kg K)

= Cp /Cv

1.

1.2

(stress)ij i, j i = 1, 2, 3, j = 1, 2, 3
x, y, z ij 2 (pressure)p
ij p (isotropy)

11 12 13
p 0
0
11 12 13

(1.5)
21 22 23 = 0 p 0 + 21 22 23

31

32

33

31

32

33

ij = div u ij + 2

1
2

ui
uj
+
xj
xi

)
(1.6)

ij

ij = 1 if i = j,

ij = 0 if i = j

(1.7)

1.2.

u2
u1

u3

1.3:

ij (u1 , u2 , u3 ) (u1 , u2 , u3 )
3 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x1 , x2 , x3 ) x, y, z
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x, y, z) 11 = xx , 12 = xy ,

11

21
31

12

13

22
32

23
33

(
)
1 u1
u2
u1
2
+
divu + 2
x1)
2 x2
x1
(
1 u2
u1
u2
2
+
divu + 2
2 ( x1
x2 )
x2)
(
1 u3
u1
1 u3
u2
2
+
2
+
2 x1
x3
2 x2
x3

(
)
1 u1
u3
+
2 ( x3
x1 )

1 u2
u3
(1.8)
2
+
2 x3
x2

u3
divu + 2
x3
2

1.6 (strain rate) Sij

ij = div u ij + 2 Sij
Sij

Sij =

1
2

ui
uj
+
xj
xi

(1.9)

)
(1.10)

ii = 3div u + 2

ui
= (3 + 2) div u
xi

0 3 (x, y, z
)
(
)
2
ij
= + div u
3
3
(
)
2
+ bulk viscosity
3
0

2
=
3
Stokes (Stokes hypothesis)

(1.11)

1.3

homogeneous

1.3.1

1 (translation)
2 (rotation)
3 extensional strain
4 shear strain
5 (dilatation)

ij xy = yx

xx

ij = yx
zx

xy
yy
zy

xz

yz
zz

(1.12)

ij Sij
(
)
uj
1 ui
+
Sij = ij =
2 xj
xi

(1.13)

Sij ij
(
)
1 ui
uj
ij =

(1.14)
2 xj
xi

ij = ji

(1.15)

1.3.2

u
xx =
| {z x}
x

v
yy =
y
| {z }

xx = Sxx , yy = Syy , zz = Szz

w
zz =
| {z z}
z

(1.16)

1.4.

xx + yy + zz = 0 Sxx + Syy + Szz = 0

(1.17)

dilatation

dilatation = xx + yy + zz =

u v
w
+
+
x y
z

(1.18)

div v = 0

1.3.3

(Shearing-strain rate)

(
)
(
)
(
)
1 v
u
1 w v
1 u w
xy =
+
, yz =
+
, zx =
+
2 x y
2 y
z
2 z
x

(1.19)

xy = Sxy , yz = Syz , zx = Szx

3 (I1 , I2 . I3 )
(x, y, z)

I1

= xx + yy + zz

(1.20)

I2

= xx yy + yy zz + zz xx 2xy 2yz 2zx



 xx xy xz 




=  yx yy yz 


 zx zy zz 

(1.21)

I3

(1.22)

I1

1.4

(Navier-Stokes equations) Navier(Claude Louis Marie

Henri Navier) 1826 (1827 ?) G.G.Stokes 1845

x u(t, x, y, z) u

u(t + t, x + x, y + y, z + z) = u +

u
u
u
u
t +
x +
y +
z
t
x
y
z

(1.23)

x, y, z t

x = u t, y = v t, z = w t

(1.24)

x
y
z

1.4:

1.23

u(t + t, x + x, y + y, z + z) = u +

u
u
u
u
t +
ut +
vt +
wt
t
x
y
z

(1.25)

u u t t 0

u u
u
u
u
u
Du
= lim
=
+u
+v
+w
t0
Dt
t
t
x
y
z
|{z}
|
{z
}

(1.26)

D/Dt substantial derivative

(Lagrange derivative) 1.26) (Euler)

Du
=X+
Dt

Dv
=Y +
Dt

Dw
=Z+
Dt

xx
yx
zx
+
+
x
y
z
xy
yy
zy
+
+
x
y
z
xz
yz
zz
+
+
x
y
z

)
(1.27)
)
(1.28)
)
(1.29)

(X, Y, Z)

Dv
+

=X
Dt

xx

yx
zx

xy
yy
zy

xz

(1.30)

yz
zz

(1.31)

1.4.

t yx

sxx

sxx
t yx

1.5:

z(

xx
yy
zz

div
v

}|
){
u v
w
u
= p +
+
+
+2
x y
z
x
(
)
u v
w
v
= p +
+
+
+ 2
x y
z
y
(
)
u v
w
w
= p +
+
+
+ 2
x y
z
z

(1.32)
(1.33)
(1.34)

Stokes = (2/3)
1.31
(
)
(
)
v
u
1 v
u
xy = yx =
+
= 2
+
= 2 Sxy
x y
2 x y
(
)
(
)
w v
1 w v
yz = zy =
+
= 2
+
= 2 Syz
y
z
2 y
z
(
)
(
)
u w
1 u w
zx = xz =
+
= 2
+
= 2 Szx
z
x
2 z
x

(1.35)
(1.36)
(1.37)

1.271.28
1.29

Du
Dt

Dv
Dt

Dw
Dt

)]
[ (
p

u 2
+
2
div v
x x
x 3
[ (
)]
[ (
)]

u v

w u
+

+
+

+
y
y
x
z
x
z
[ (
)]
p

v
2
Y
+
2
div v
y y
y 3
[ (
)]
[ (
)]

v w

u v
+

+
+

+
z
z
y
x
y
x
[ (
)]
p

w 2
Z
+
2
div v
z
z
z
3
[ (
)]
[ (
)]
w u

v w

+
+

+
+
x
x
z
z
z
y
X

(1.38)

(1.39)

(1.40)

10

x y z
Euler
Leonhard Euler 1757
div v = 0 = const

Du
p
= X
+ 2 u
Dt
x
Dv
p

= Y
+ 2 v
Dt
y
Dw
p

= Z
+ 2 w
Dt
z
2 = (x, y, z)

2 u =

2u 2u 2u
+ 2 + 2
x2
y
z

(1.41)
(1.42)
(1.43)

(1.44)

() (1.41)

1.4.1

2 Langrange
Euler

1)
(t = 0)
t)X
t = 0
u u = u(X,

du/dt

2)
Lagrange (x, y, z)

u u = u (
x, t)

D
=
Dt

t
|{z}

v grad
| {z }

(1.45)

grad =
u v = (u, v, w)

1.4.

11

u=u( X

u=u( X

,0 )

,t

t=t 2
t=t 1

x = X
t=0

1.6:

1.4.2

(continuity equation)

+ div (v ) = 0
t

(1.46)

div =

+
(u) +
(v) +
(w) = 0
t
x
y
z

(1.47)

+u
+v
+w
+ div v = 0
t
x
y
z

(1.48)

+ v grad + div v = 0
t

D
+ div v = 0
Dt

(1.49)

(1.50)

div v = 0

v = 0

div v = 0

2
3

(1.51)

12

1.4.3

(the equation of state)

(thermally perfect gas)

p
= RT,

pv = RT

(1.52)

v = 1 /
R

:
:

specic volume

R0

gas constant

(M :)

R = R0 /M

( (1.61) )

R0 = 8, 314

1.1:

M = 29 R = 287[m2 /s2 K] = 287[J/kg K]

(1.61)
1 kb
Nb = 6.02 1023 mol

kb =

Ro
= 1.38066 1023 J/K
Nb

(1.53)

R0 (1.55)

()

pV = nR0 T

(1.54)

n (the number of moles) R0

R0 = 8.314J/(K mol)

(1.55)

V M
=

M
V

(1.56)

(1.54)

M
= nR0 T

p
nR0
=
T

(1.57)

M (molecular weight)
n M
n=

M
M

(1.58)

1.4.

13

(1.57)

p
M
R0
=

M
M

p
R0
=
T

(1.59)

MKS M g/mol
MKS (kg)

R0
M

R0
M 103

R0 103
M

(1.60)

(1.55)

R=

8314
J
R0
J/(K mol)
=

M 103
kg/mol
M
kg K

(1.61)

8314 1.4.3 R0

()
(
(Temmann equation)

p = p(, ei ) = ( 1)ei pc

(1.62)

ei = 7.15, pc = 300M P a
a

a2 =

(p + pc )

(1.63)

1.4.4

(energy equation)

Dei

+ p div v =
Dt
x
|

(
)
(
)
(
)
T

T
k
+
k
+
k
+
x
y
y
z
z
{z
}

(1.64)

ei k

{( )
)2 } (
)2 (
)2 (
)2
( )2 (
2
u
v
w
v
w v
u w
u
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
= 2
x
y
z
x y
y
z
z
x
(
)2
2 u v
w

+
+
(1.65)
3 x y
z
1.76

= xx

u
u
v
v
+ yx
+ xy
+ yy
x
y
x
y

(1.66)

14
(i, j)

= ij

ui
xj

(1.67)

()

(dissipation)

= [2(211 + 222 + 233 )(223 )2 + (231 )2 + (212 )2 ] + (11 + 22 + 33 )2

(1.68)

ij 1.13
ij = Sij
(1.64) 2

x
(
)
u
u
u
p

+u
+v
=
+
xx +
xy
t
x
y
x x
y

(1.69)

y
(

v
v
v
+u
+v
t
x
y

)
=

+
xy +
yy
y x
y

(1.70)

(1.69) u (1.70) v

)
u2 + v 2
u2 + v 2
u2 + v 2
+u
+v
t
2
x
2
y
2
p
p

= u
v
+ u xx + u xy + v xy + v yy
x
y
x
y
x
y

(1.71)

u2 + v 2

2
u2 + v 2
u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2
+
u +
v = 0
2
t
2
x
2
y

(1.71) (1.72)
(
)
(
)
(
)
u2 + v 2
u2 + v 2
u2 + v 2
+
u +
v
t
2
x
2
y
2
p
p

= u
v
+ u xx + u xy + v xy + v yy
x
y
x
y
x
y

(1.72)

(1.73)

Q = ei + pv

(1.74)

( Q
ei pv v

1.4.

15

{
Q =

(
)
(
)}
T

T
k
+
k
x
y
y

(1.75)

1.74
{
(
)
(
)}
Dei

=
k
+
k
Dt}
x
x
y
y
| {z

(
+ (p)

u v
+
x y

)
+ xx

u
v
v
u
+ yx
+ xy
+ yy
x
y
x
y

(1.76)

1.64

)
u v
u
u
v
v
(p)
+
+ yx
+ xy
+ yy
+ xx
x y
x
y
x
y
v
u
v
u
+ (p + yy )
+ yx
+ xy
= (p + xx )
x
y
y
x
u
v
u
v
= xx
+ yy
+ yx
+ xy
x
y
y
x
v
=

(1.77)

(1.76)

Dei
v
= q +
Dt

(1.78)

q = kT
1.76

Dei

=
Dt

ei
ei
ei
+u
+v
t
x
y

(1.79)
)
(1.80)

ei

ei

+ ei u + ei v = 0
t
x
y

(1.81)

(1.80) (1.76)

ei +
(uei ) +
(vei )
t
x
y

(1.82)

(1.76)

ei +
uei +
vei
t
x
y
)
(
u
u
v
v
u v
+
+ xx
+ yx
+ xy
+ yy
= div (k grad T ) p
x y
x
y
x
y

(1.83)

16

(1.73)
(1.83)
}
}
}
{
{
{
u2 + v 2
u2 + v 2
u2 + v 2
+ ei +
u + uei +
v + vei
t
2
x
2
y
2

= div (k grad T )
pu
pv +
uxx +
uyx +
vxy +
vyy
x
y
x
y
x
y

(
)
{
}
1 2
u2
u + ei + div u
+ uei = div (k grad T ) div pu + div ( u)
t 2
2

(1.84)

(1.85)

(
) (
) (
)
xx xy
u
xx u + xy v
u =

=
yx yy
v
yx u + yy v

()
B a
(
)
b11 a1 + b12 a2
B a = (bji ai ) =
b21 a1 + b22 a2

(1.86)

(1.87)

()
1.85

1 2
u + ei
2

{ ( 2
)
}
u

+ div u
+ h k grad T u = 0
2

(1.88)

h (static enthalpy) ,

h = ei +

(1.89)

total energyet
total enthalpyHt

et + div (uHt k grad T u) = 0

t

(1.90)

p
Ht

(u, v, w, p, , T, ) 7 7
(x, y, z )

1.5.

1.5

17

control volume

(divergence form)

+ div (u) = 0
t

(1.91)

) = f
(u) + div (u u
(1.92)
t

div div = f

u u

u1 u1

u u = u2 u1
u3 u1

u1 u2
u2 u2
u3 u2

u1 u3

u2 u3
u3 u3

[ (
)]
[ (
)
]

1
1

u u + ei
+ div u
u u + ei u + q = f u
t
2
2

(1.93)

(1.94)

1.7:

V (divergence theorem)

div w
dV =
n w
dA
(1.95)
V
A
div T dV =
n T dA
(1.96)
V

A V n
w
T 2

18
A

A4

1.8:

}
{

+ div (u) dV =
dV +
div (u) dV = 0
t
t

(1.97)

dV +
t

n (u) dA = 0

(1.98)

}
{

(u) + div (u u ) dV
fdV = 0
t
V
V

(1.99)

u dV +
t

) dA
n (u u

f dV = 0

(1.100)

{ (
)}
{ (
)
}

1
1

u u + ei
dV +
n u
u u + ei u + q dA =
f udV
2
2
A
V
(1.101)

p

Leibnitz

Leibnitz f

d
f
f (r, t) dV =
dV +
n uA f dA
dt
t
V
A

(1.102)

uA A dA

uA = 0

d
f
f (r, t) dV =
dV
dt
V
V t

(1.103)

1.5.

19

(f /t)
Leibnitz (f )

[
]
d
dV =
n (uA u) dA
dt
V
A

[
]

d
} dA +
u dV =
{n (uA u) u +
f dV
dt
V
A
V

(1.104)

(1.105)

[
(
) ]
{
(
)
}

d
1
1
u q dA

u u + ei dV
=
n (uA u)
u u + ei +
dt
2
2
V
A
+
f udV
(1.106)
v

T = a b a b Tij = ai bj

[] n ij

x
n1
11

=
= y = n
n2 21
z
n3
31

12
22
32

13
n1 11 + n2 21 + n3 31

23 = n1 12 + n2 22 + n3 32 (1.107)
33
n1 13 + n2 23 + n3 33

n n = (n1 , n2 , n3 )

n
=
n

11 12 13
n1
11 n1 + 12 n2 + 13 n3

=
n = 21 22 23 n2 = 21 n1 + 22 n2 + 23 n3

31

32

33

n3

(1.108)

31 n1 + 32 n2 + 33 n3

= ij nj ei ei i

()

uA n (uA u)
uA

20

1.9:

Leibniz

d
d

h()

f (x, ) dx
g()

h()

=
g()

f (x, )
dh()
dg()
dx + f [h(), ]
f [g(), ]

d
d

(1.109)

1.6

1.6.1

[
]
DV
V

=
+ (V ) V = p + 2 V
Dt
t

(1.110)

D/Dt V
(a pesudo-vector

expression
2
( 2)
]
[
V
V
+
V ( V ) = p + 2 V

t
2

(1.111)

(A B) = (A )B + (B )A + A rotB + B rotA

(1.112)

1.6.

21

A = B = V rot rot =

= V
[
( 2)
]
V
V

+
V = p + 2 V
t
2

(1.113)

2 V

2 V

= ( V ) ( V )
= (divV )

1.6.2

(1.114)

(1.113) rot

(V ) = 2
t

(1.115)

= 0

=V

(1.116)

(1.115) 2

(V ) = ( )V (V )

(1.117)

1.115)

( ) V + (V ) = 2
t

(1.118)

)
=
+ (V

Dt
t

(1.119)

1.118

=
Dt

(
) V
| {z }

+2

(1.120)

Helmholtz
0

22

(Helicity)

v
(scalar product)

H=
v
dV

(1.121)

H NS

1.7

(cylindrical coodinates)(r, , z)

(vr , v , vz )

a) (radial direction)
[
]
vr
vr
v vr
vr
v2

+ vr
+
+ vz

t
r
r
z
r
[ 2
]
2
vr
1 vr
1 vr
2 vr
vr
2 v
p
+
+
+
+

=
r
r2
r r
r2 2
z 2
r2
r2
b) (circumferential direction)
[
]
v
v
v v
v
vr v

+ vr
+
+ vz
+
t
r
r
z
r
[ 2
]
1 p
v
1 v
1 2 v
2 v
2 vr
v
=
+
+
+
+
+

r
r2
r r
r2 2
z 2
r2
r2
c) (axial direction)
[
]
vz
vz
v vz
vz

+ vr
+
+ vz
t
r
r
z
[ 2
]
p
vz
1 vz
1 2 vz
2 vz
=
+
+
+ 2
+
z
r2
r r
r 2
z 2

(1.122)

(1.123)

(1.124)

()

(r, , z) (x, r, )

(1.124) z x

=
=

1 v
vz
1
(rvr ) +
+
r r
r
z
vr
vr
1 v
vz
+
+
+
r
r
r
z

(
)
1
=
,
,
r r z

(1.125)

(1.126)

1.7.

23

r 2
(
)
2
1
1 2
2
1

1 2
2
2 = = 2 +
+ 2 2+ 2 =
r
+ 2 2+ 2
r
r r r
z
r r
r
r
z

(1.127)

(vorticity)

= v = rot v

(1.128)

1 vz
v

r
z
vr
vz

z
r
v
1 vr
1
1 vr
v
+

=
(rv )
r
r
r
r r
r

()

()

()

(1.129)

r
1.110

v
1
+ (v ) v = p + 2 v
t

(1.130)

(cylindrical coodinates) (1.122) (1.124)

a)
(
)
vr
v2
1 p
vr
2 v
+ (v ) vr =
+ 2 vr 2 2
t
r
r
r
r

(1.131)

+
+ uz
r
r
z
1.131 D/Dt
(
)
Dvr
v2
1 p
vr
2 v
=
+ 2 vr 2 2
Dt
r
r
r
r
(v ) = ur

(1.132)

(1.133)

D
=
+ (v ) =
+ vr
+
+ vz
Dt
t
t
r
r
z

(1.134)

b)
(
)
vr v
Dv
vr v
1 p
2 vr
v
v
+ (v ) v +
=
+
=
+ 2 v + 2
2
t
r
Dt
r
r
r
r

(1.135)

c) z
Dvz
1 p
vz
+ (v ) vz =
=
+ 2 vz
t
Dt
z

(1.136)

24

ez
O

1.10:

v =0

(1.137)

1
1 v
vz
(rvr ) +
+
=0
r r
r
z

(1.138)

(v ) v

v = vr er + v e + vz ez

(1.139)

er , e , ez r, , z
(1.130)
(
)

(v ) v =
vr
+
+ vz
(vr er + v e + vz ez )
r
r
z
/
/
vr

v vr
v vr
vr

= vr
er + vr2
er +
er +
er +vz
e r + vz vr
er +
r
r
r
r |{z }
z
z
e
r, , z (er , e , ez )
(x, y, z)

er
e
ez
er
er
= 0,
= e ,
= er ,
= 0,
=0
r

z
e er (1.131)
{(v ) v}r = (v ) vr

v2
r

(1.140)

(1.141)

1.7.

25

(1.135)

(
)
1 2
(v ) v = ( v) v +
v
2

(1.142)

2 v = ( v) ( v)

(1.143)

(
)

= v = er
+ e
+ ez
(vr er + v e + vz ez )
r
r
z

(1.144)

1.140

() (1.144)



 er re ez 


1 

=v = 
(1.145)
r  r z 
 vr rv vz 

11

= rr =

22

= =

33

= zz =

12

= r =

13

= rz =

23

= z =

vr
r
1 v
vr
+
r
r
vz
z
(
)
v
1 1 vr v

2 r r
r
(
)
1 vr
vz
+
2 z
r
(
)
1 1 vz
v
+
2 r
z

(1.146)
(1.147)
(1.148)
(1.149)
(1.150)
(1.151)

ij = Sij

ii = 2Sij

(1.152)

1.7.1

[
]
v
v
v v
v
vr v

+ vr
+
+ vz
+
t
r
r
z
r
[ 2
]
v
1 v
1 2 v
2 v
2 vr
v
1 p
+
+
+
+
+

=
r
r2
r r
r2 2
z 2
r2
r2

(1.153)

26

v (swirling ow)

(axisym-

metric) z
0
}
vr = 0 vz = 0
(1.154)

= 0
z = 0
(1.153)

2 v
1 v
v
+
2
2
r
r r
r

v
=
t

( 2
)
rv
v
v
v
= r 2 +

t
r
r
r

(1.156)

{ 3
}

v
2 v
2 v
1 v
v
(rv ) = r 3 +
+

+
t r
r
r2
r2
r r
r2

(1.157)

(1.155)

1
(rv ) =

t |r r{z }

3 v
2 2 v
1 v
v
+
2
+ 3
3
2
r
r r
r r
r

}
(1.158)

z = z

1
1 vr
1
(rv )
=
(rv )
r r
r
r r

(1.159)

(1.158) 1.159)

r 2
(
)

u
u
2 u
1 u
u
=
+
=
+
2
2
r
r r
r
r
r r
r
2
3 u
1 2 u
1 u
1 u
2
=
+
2
2
+ 3 u
2
3
2
r
r
r r
r r
r r
r
3 u
1 2 u
2 u
2
=
+

+
u

r3
r r2
r2 r
r3

(1.160)

1
3 u
2 2 u
1 u
1
2
+
=
+
2
+ 3 u
2
3
r
r r
r
r r2
r r
r

(1.161)

1.1581.158

=
t

2
1
+
r2
r r

)
(1.162)

1.8.

27

=
t

( )( (
))
1

r
r
r
r

(1.163)

(r, t) =

(m+1)

Cm t

m=0

r2
exp
4t

(
Lm

r2

4t

)
(1.164)

Lm Laguerre polynomials

ex dm ( m x )
x e
m! dxm
m = 0 1.159 v
(
(
))
0
r2
v =
1 exp
2r
4t
Lm (x) =

(1.165)

(1.166)

0 = C0 0

1.8

(r, , )
r

v =

1 2
1

1 v
(r vr ) +
(v sin ) +
r2 r
r sin
r sin

(1.167)

vr , v , v r, ,
(

v
v
=
+ vr
+
+
Dt
t
r
r r sin

(1.168)

]
[
]
[
v2 + vr2
p
2vr
2 v
2v cot
2 v
Dvr
2

= Fr
+ vr 2 2

Dt
r
r
r
r
r2
r sin

(1.169)

]
[
[
]
vr v2 v2 cot
1 p
2 vr
v
Dv
2 cos v
2
+
= F
+ v + 2
2 2 2 2
(1.170)

Dt
r
r
r
r sin r sin

28

[
]
[
]
v vr + v v cot
1 p
v
2
vr
2 cos v
Dv

+
= F
+ 2 v 2 2 + 2 2
+ 2 2
Dt
r
r sin
r sin r sin
r sin
(1.171)
2
(
)
(
)
1

1
2
2 = 2
r2
+ 2
sin
+ 2 2
(1.172)
r r
r
r sin

r sin 2

29

2
(external ow) (internal ow)

2.1

2 (x, y) 2

u
u
u
+u
+v
t
x
y
v
v
v
+u
+v
t
x
y

)
=

p
+ 2 u
x

(2.1)

p
+ 2 v
y

(2.2)

2 =

2
2
+ 2
2
x
y

(2.3)

= (/x, /y) =
(u, v) (x, y) p

=0
x

(2.4)

2)

=0
t

(2.5)

(steady ow) 0
(unsteday ow)

u v
+
=0
x y

(2.6)

30

y=h

y=0

2.1:

1) 1

u
=0
x

(2.7)

v
=0
y

(2.8)

v = const.

(2.9)

2.6

v = 0 y y v

2.1.1

(Couette Flow)

M.Couette(19 )
(x )
U
(boundary conditions)

y = 0 u = 0,

y =hu=U

(2.10)

x (2.1)
0=

p
2u
+ 2
x
y

(2.11)

v = 0 y (2.2)

0=

p
y

(2.12)

p y y

p = p(x)

(2.13)

2.1.

31

(2.11)

p
2u
= 2
x
y

(2.14)

x 2.7y

dp
d2 u
= 2 = const.
dx
dy

(2.15)

du
dp
y=
+ C1
dx
dy

(2.16)

(2.15) y

C1 y

dp y 2
= u + C1 y + C2
dx 2
C2 (2.10)

y = 0
C2 = 0
dp h U
y = h C1 =

dx 2
h

(2.17)

(2.18)

C1 , C2 (2.18) (2.17) x u

y
h2
u=U +
h 2

dp

dx

y(
y)
1
h
h

(2.19)

2
dp

= 0
dx

u=

U
y
h

(2.20)

u
U
=
y
h

(2.21)

x Fx = 0

[]

2.1.2

(Poiseuille Flow)

y = b u = 0

(2.22)

32

y=b
y=0
u=u(y)

y=-b

2.2:

(2.22) (2.17) C1 C2

C1 =
0
b2 dp
C2 =
2 dx
(2.17) x u
(
)
)
1
dp ( 2
u=

b y2
()
2
dx
Q u y
(
)
b
dp
2b3
Q=

u dy =
3
dx
b
Q u
{
( y )2 }
3Q
u=
1
4b
b

{
( y )2 }
u = umax 1
b

(2.23)

(2.24)

(2.25)

(2.26)

(2.27)

2.1.3

(Hagen-Poiseuille ow)

2
Hagen 1839

v = 0,

=0

(1.124)
( 2
)
d u 1 du
dp

+
=
2
dr
r dr
dx

(2.28)

(2.29)

2.1.

33

r
R

x
u

2.3:

z x 0

= 0

= R

du
=
dr
u =

0
0

(2.29) (2.30)
(
)
)
1
dp ( 2
u(r) =

R r2
4
dx

(2.30)

(2.31)

dp
= const.
dx

(2.32)

dp
p1 p2
=
(2.33)
dx
l
l p1 p2

r = 0
(
)
R2
dp
umax =

4
dx

(2.34)

u(r) 2r dr

Q =
0

=
=
=

)
1 dp ( 2
R r2 2r dr
4 dx
0
)
[ 2 2
]R
(
R r
r4
1 dp
2

4 dx
2
4 0
(
)
dp
R4

8
dx
R

(2.35)

34

u
=

1
1
Q=
R2
8

(
)
dp

R2
dx

(2.36)

() (2.36) p/x u
u
p/x
1/1.7
Reynolds u
(p/x)
u
(p/x)0.59
(
)

f (Darcy friction factor)

dp
f V 2
=
dx
D 2

(2.37)

p1 R2 p2 R2

(2.38)

w (2R)L

(2.39)

L 2
p1 R2 p2 R2 = w (2R)L

(2.40)

p
2
= w
L
R
p = p1 p2

(2.41)

dp
2
= w
dx
R

(2.42)

2
f V 2
= w
D 2
R

(2.43)

2.37) 2.42)

f=

8w
V 2

(2.44)

2.2.

35

(2.31) r r = R

f=

64
ReD

ReD

ReD =

(2.45)

VD

(2.46)

0.316Re1/4

0.032 + 0.221Re0.237

3 103 Re 105
105 Re 3 106

(2.47)
(2.48)

()

L
L = 0.065 Re D

(2.49)

L = 20 40 D

2.2

(2.50)

()

(r, , z) z t r
(z
( 2
)
(
)

1
1

=
+
=
r
t
r2
r r
r r
r

(2.51)

(1.120)
2 (1.120) () 0

z
=

1 ur
1
(ru )
r r
r

(2.52)

ur

u
u
1
+
=
(ru )
r
r
r r

(2.53)

36

1 uz
u

,
r
z

ur
uz

z
r

(2.54)

Q
QxzW
2.4:

u
[
(
)]
0
r2
u =
1 exp
2r
4t

(2.55)

Oseen(1912) 0 (r )
(circulation)

()

(2.55) p(r)

v dr = 2ru

(2.56)

()

v t

=
t

2 1

r2
r r

()

(2.57) (2.51) 2r r

(2.57)

2.2.

37

(2.57)

= 0 {1 exp( 2 )}

(2.58)

2 =

r2
4t

r
=
2 t

(2.59)

()

() (2.57) 2.3

(2.53) (2.58)
( 2)
0
r
=
exp
4t
4t

(2.60)

Stokes
[
( 2 )]
r
r
=
2r dr = 0 1 exp
4t
0

(2.61)

2.58t 0
0 (r) (vortex lament)

()

2.5:

(2.55) u 2.6
( 2.5) t ( 2.6)
t

38

Circumeferential velocity

3
2.5
2
t=1000

1.5

t=2000
1
t=3000
0.5

t=4000

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Radius r

2.6:

0 = 0
0

u =

0
2r

(2.62)

>

0 :

= 0

= 0

()

diusion
u
( 2
)
u
u
1 u
u
=
+
2
t
r2
r r
r

(2.63)

2.57

u
u
r
2 u
r2

2r
(
)
1

1
=
2
r r
r
2
( 2
)
1
1
1
2
1
=

2
2
2
3
r r
r r
r r
r
2

2 u
1 u
u
+
2
r2
r r
r

=
=
=

1 2
1
1

2
+ 3 3
r r2
r r
r
r
1
1 2
2
2
r(
r
r r )
1 2 1

r r2
r r

(2.64)

2.57

(r, 0) = 0
(0, t) = 0

t=0
t>0

)
(2.65)

2.2.

39

(similarity solution)

= r/ t

2.55 r 4t (solid rotation)

u = r =

0
r
8t

(2.66)

0
2r

(2.67)

() Taylor
(
)
1 r2
v = r exp
2
(
)
1 r2
2
= (2 r ) exp
2

(2.68)
(2.69)

v Taylor r
0

2.2.1

(induced

velocity) (Biot-Savart law)

l l dl dl

x
P (x, y, z) l

up (x, y, z) =

r dl (x )
r3

(2.70)

r dl P

r = x x , r = |r|

(2.71)

I
0 I
r ds

B=
4
r3

(2.72)

(W b/m2 )I s ds
B
0 2.70

0 I =

(2.73)

40

x'

dl Q (

r
P

(x,y,z)

x',y',z'

2.7:

()
2.70vortex method

ri
L
ri (, t)
1 (ri rj ) (rj / )s(|ri rj |, i , j )d
=
t
4 j=1
|ri rj |3

(2.74)

ri , rj i, j
s(y, i , j ) ()

s(y, i , j ) =

1
[1 + 0.413(i2 + j2 )/2y 2 ]3/2

(2.75)

(core)

2.2.2

(angular velocityvorticity)
v

v = r

(2.76)

1
1 ( 2) 1
(rv ) =
r = 2r = 2
r r
r r
r

(2.77)

2
() = 2 ()

(2.78)

2.2.

2.2.3

41

v2
p
=
r
r

(2.79)

(a)

(b)

2.8:

( a

v
v

= r
a2
=
r

r<a

(2.80)

r>a

(2.81)

(2.80) (2.79) r

p
= 2 r
r

p = 2

r2
+ pc
2

(2.82)

2 a4 1
2 r2

(2.83)

(2.81) (2.79) r

1
p
= 2 a4 3
r
r

p=

r p 0
2 r = a() p pc

pc = 2 a2

(2.84)

p
p

r2
2 a2 (0 < r < a)
2
2 a4 1
=
(a < r)
2 r2

= 2

(2.85)
(2.86)

42

2.9:

2.3

U

x (/x = 0)x

u
2u
= 2
t
y

(2.87)

(y) v 0

u/x = 0
u v
+
=0
x y

v
=0 v=0
y

(2.88)

0 v = 0 y v = 0
2.87 u y
u x

t < 0
t 0

: u(t, y) = 0
:
y=0
y

u=U

u0

(2.89)

y
=
2 t

(2.90)

2 t
y

2.90

2.87

2.3.

43
(t, y) = (, )

(, )

= t

2 t

(2.91)

= (t, y)

(2.92)

= (t, y)

(2.93)

t = t(, )

(2.94)

y = y(, )

(2.95)

(t, x) (, ) chain rule

y
2
y 2

=
=
=

+
=
3
=

t
t

2
4 t 2


1
1
+
=
=
y
y
2
2 t
(
)

1
1
1 2

=
=
y y
4 2
2 2

(2.96)
(2.97)
(2.98)

(2.96) (2.98) (2.87) x

u

u = U f ()

(2.99)

U f

f + 2f = 0

(2.100)

()

2.100

(2.89) (, )2.91

=0

f =1
f 0

}
(2.101)

(2.100) 2 2.101

f
2
f () =

e d + 1
2

(2.102)

44

e d =
2

(2.103)

2.102

2.99 u
[
(
)]
]
[

2
y
2
2

u=U 1
erf
e
d = U 1
0

2 t

(2.104)

erf (x) error function

x
2
erf (x) =
ex dx
(2.105)
0

y v

(a)

(b)

2.10:
(vorticity)
2 z z

(= z )
(y, t) =

u
1
v u
=
=

x
y

y
2
t
|{z}

(
)
}
{
{
}
2U
U
y2

exp 2 =
exp
4t

(2.106)

2.90
y = 0 y 0
y
(Cartesian Coodinates)

2.3.

45

2.11:

= rot v = v

(i/x + j/y + k/z) (iu + jv + kw)

(
)
(
)
(
)
w v
u w
v
u
= i

+ j

+ k

y
z
z
x
x y
=

(2.107)

i , j , k x, y, z (unit vector) i i = 0, i j = k,

x =

w v

,
y
z

y =

u w

,
z
x

z =

v
u

x y

(2.108)

(diusion) y

(0, t) =

(y, t) dy

(2.109)

(2.106) y = 0

U
(0, t) =
t

(2.110)

y
)
(

2U
U y2
y
2U y2
4t
4t

e
(y, t) dy =
=
e
dy =
d
=U

2
t
2 t
0
0
0

(2.111)

U
2.1102.111

=U
t

(2.112)

46

2.12:

2.13:

(2.113)

t
2.90

d
1
=
dt
2

(2.114)

(shearing atress)

(
w =

u
y

)
y=0

U 2 ( ) 12

1
=
=
U

t
U 2t
t

(2.115)

w t 2 x

2.4

2 2

2.4.

47

OS

y, v

O(/c)
x, u

b_

2.14: 2

u v
+
=0
x y

(2.116)

x y
( 2
)
u
u
1 p
u 2u
+v
=
+
+
x
y
x
x2
y 2
( 2
)
v
v
1 p
v
2v
u
+v
=
+
+
x
y
y
x2
y 2

(2.117)
(2.118)

x x = x(x 0)

y=0

u = 0, v = 0

(2.119)

uu
, v v

(2.120)

u
, v x y
u
, v

u
= cx,

v = cy

(2.121)

c > 0 c < 0

W = + i = Cz n

(2.122)

n = 2 2 = /n n = 2 = /2
z z = x + iy c = 2C

2 =

2 2
+ 2 =0
x2
y

(2.123)

48

u
=

,
x

v =

(2.124)

2.121

c c
[ ]
u

1
m/s
[c] =
=
=
x
m
s

[]

m2
s

(
ly

ly =

(2.125)

y
y
=y
=
=
ly
/c

(2.126)

x y u v

v = cf ()

u = cxf (),

(2.127)

f 2.127 (2.116)

cxf ()

(2.128)

c
x
f () u, v

u=

,
y

v=

(2.129)

(2.127)

(2.127) u, v

2.121 (x = 0)
x

1
p + v 2 = p0
2

(2.130)

p v p0 p

p
<0
x

(2.131)

2.4.

49

b_

2.15:

3 (favorable pressure

gradient)
(x, y) (, )

(x, y) (, )

(2.132)

= x

c
y
=

(2.133)
(2.134)

(chain rule)

x
2
x2

y
2
y 2

=
x x

( )

2
=
= 2

c
=

=
y y

(
)
c
c
c 2
=
=


2
=

(2.135)
(2.136)
(2.137)
(2.138)

= 1,
x

=0
y

(2.139)

(2.117) x

c2 xf c2 xf f =
2

1 p
+ c2 xf
x

(2.140)

(2.118) y

1 p
ccf f =
c cf
y

(2.141)

50

2.1402.141

uu
= cx,

v v = cy

(2.142)

(2.117) x

c2 x =

1 p
x

(2.143)

p (
(2.141) x

0=

1 2p
xy

(2.144)

p
= const
(2.145)
x

2.143

c2 x =

1 p
x

(2.146)

p p (2.146) (2.140)

f + f f f + 1 = 0
2

(2.147)

() (2.147) Falkner-Skan Falkner-Skan

f + f f + (1 f 2 ) = 0

(2.148)

2m
m+1

(2.149)

m (
2.8

( x )m
ue
=
u0
L

(2.150)

m = 1 (,ue x) = 1

f + f f + 1 f 2 = 0

(2.151)

m = 0( = 0) ue = const
Blasius () m

2.4.

51

m
m+1

~/2

2.16: (Falkner-Scan )

(2.16) ()
(2.147) (2.119)
(2.120) (2.126)(2.127)

y=0
y

=0

: u=0

f = 0

(2.152)

v=0

f =0

(2.153)

: u cx

f 1

(2.154)

(2.147)

f
m

= m
= g
= f g + m2 1

(2.155)

1 (f, m, g)

dy
= F (, y )
d

(2.156)

y F

(f, m, g)t

(2.157)

(F1 , F2 , F3 )

F1

F1 (f, m, g) = m

(2.159)

F2

F2 (f, m, g) = g

(2.160)

F3

F3 (f, m, g) = f g + m2 1

(2.161)

(2.158)

F1 , F2 , F3 f, m, g

f = 0,

m=0

for

=0

(2.162)

m1

for

(2.163)

= 0 g = 0 g
m 1 = 0
g m = 1 (iteration)
Newton

52

Runge-Kutta
four-stage, fourth-order method

dy
= f (x, y)
dx
Runge-Kutta
yn+1 = yn +

)
h( 0
f + 2f 1 + 2f 2 + f 3
6

(2.164)

(2.165)

x x = xn yn x
(xn+1 ) yn+1

f0
f1
f2
f3

1
1
= f (xn + 2 h, yn + 2 hf 0 )
= f (xn + 12 h, yn + 12 hf 1 )

= f (xn + h, yn + hf 2 )
= f (xn , yn )

h = x 2.165 (1, 2, 2, 1) 6
6 1
x < 0 ( x = 0

2.164 (scalar) (y, f ) (

y , f)

yn+1

y
yn

xn

x n+1
h/2

x
h

2.17:

()

2.147 4

53

3.1

0
(boundary layer)
(laminar boundary layer) (turbulent boundary layer)

(Reynolds number)
Re

Re =

UL

U L

1904 (L.Prandtl; ; 1875-1953)

eViQ:rotV=0j

Ew

Qxl

U(x)

iwakej

U(x) F|eVx

3.1:

54
d

Ew

Ew

3.2:

1 u/y y
u = u/y
()
2

(wake)
(total pressure)
(control surface)

(3.1)

1
L
L
L

3.2

(3.2)

3.2.1

U
chord lengthL

3.2.

55

2
U
( )

L/U (

2
U
, L/U

u v
+
=0
x y

U
v
+ =0
L

v U

(3.3)

y v U 1

u
u
u
1 p
+u
+v
=
+
t
x
y
x

2u 2u
+ 2
x2
y

)
(3.4)

U
U
U U
1 p
+ U
+

=
+
L/U
L
L

x
|
{z
}
|
2
U
L

)
U
U
+
L2
2
{z
}
U
2

(3.5)

3.2 2

U
U
2
L2

(3.6)

2
U
U
= 2
L

( )2

=
=
= Re1/2
L
LU
Re
L

(3.7)

Re

Re =

LU

(3.8)

3.7

y x

v
v
v
1 p
+u
+v
=
+
t
x
y
y

2v
2v
+
x2
y 2

56

p=

3.3:

U
L
L
U

+ U

U
L

U UL
1 p
+

=
+
L

U
L
L2

U
L
2

U2
U2
1 p
U
+ + =
+
L L
L L
L L
y

U
U
+ 2
L2 L

)
(3.9)

(3.5) (3.5) /L
(3.5) 1 /L x
y
y y
2
U

1 p

L L
y

(3.10)

y p

2
U

L L

(3.11)

2
U

( )2

(3.12)

y 2
y

p
=0
y

(3.13)

3.2.

57
p :
U :

p(x)

|e V
|eV x

U(x)

3.4:

3.2.2

p(x, ) = p(x, 0)

(3.14)

U
=0
y

(3.15)

U
U
1 p
+U
=
t
x
x

(3.16)

P 3.13
y

P
p
=
x
x

(3.17)

3.16

U
1 p
=
x
x
(

U2
p
+
2

(3.18)

)
=0

1
1 2
p + U 2 = const. = p + U
(3.19)
2
2
constant

U (x) 3.19 p

(3.18) p/x (3.4) u

58

X=X0 X1 X2

3.5:

3.2.3

x (3.4)

u v
+
=0
x y

(3.20)

u
u
u
1 p
2u
+u
+v
=
+ 2
t
x
y
x
y

(3.21)

u v
+
=0
x y

(3.22)

u
u
u
U
2u
+u
+v
=U
+ 2
t
x
y
x
y

(3.23)

y=0
y

u=v=0

(3.24)

U
u = U (x, t)
=0
y

(3.25)

u v
+
=0
x y
u
u
1 p
2u
u
+v
=
+ 2
x
y
x
y

(3.26)
(3.27)

y=0:

u = v = 0,

y:

u = U (x)

(3.28)

(x

x = x0 :

u = u(x0 , y)

y v

(3.29)

3.2.

59

3.6:

3.2.4

(x, y)
3.6 x
y R

x
u
R
u
u
uv
+
u
+v
+
t
R + y x
y
R+y
{
R2
1 u
u
R 1 p
2u 2u
+
+ 2 +

=
2
2
R + y x
y
R + y y
(R + y) x2
(R + y)
2R

v
R
v
R
dR
Ry
dR u
+
2 x
3 x
3 dx v +
3 dx x
(R + y)
(R + y)
(R + y)
(R + y)

}
(3.30)

y
v
R
v
v
u2
+
u
+v

t
R + y x
y R + y
{
2
1 p
v
2R u
1 v
=
+

+
2
2
y
y
(R + y) x R + y y
R2

v
Ry
2v
R
dR
dR v
+
2 x2
2 +
3 dx u +
3 dx x
(R + y)
(R + y)
(R + y)
(R + y)

div u = 0

R u v
v
+
+
=0
R + y x y R + y

}
(3.31)

(3.32)

R (u) (v)
v
+
+
+
=0
t
R + y x
y
R+y

(3.33)

60

d
x

3.7:

RR R

3.303.33 R

3.3

3.3.1

(H. Blasius; 1908Prandtl ph.D )

0

dp
=0
dx

(3.34)

U = U = const

u v
+
x y
u
u
u
+v
x
y

(3.35)
2u
y 2

(3.36)

y=0:

u = v = 0,

y:

u = U

(3.37)

3.3.2

x x y
U (x) u

(y)
u
=
U

(3.38)

3.3.

61

d1

d2
x1

x2

3.8: x u y x

x
2

(3.39)

2 t x

tU = x

(3.40)

(3.40)

x
t
U

(3.41)

(3.38) (3.41)

y
= =y

U
x

(3.42)

xU f ()

(3.43)

f ()

u=

,
y

v=

(3.44)

u, v (, ) (x, y) (, )

U
= x,
=y
x

(3.45)

62

chain rule

u
v

=
=
+
= xU f ()
= U f ()
y
y
y
x

1 U

=
=

=
f () xU f ()
x
x
x
2
x
x

1 U
(f + f )
=
2
x

(3.46)

(3.47)

x, y ,

y
2
y 2

U
=

U
U
U 2
=
=
=
y y


2
=

(3.48)
(3.49)

(3.50)

(3.46) (3.50) (3.36) f

f f + 2f = 0

(3.51)

(1908) Blasius s equation)

()

3.51

3.28 (3.46),(3.47)

y = 0 : u = 0 , v = 0 = 0 : f = 0 , f = 0

(3.52)

y : u = U : f = 1

(3.53)

()

3.3.3

3.51 (2.165)

Blasius

Blasius (3.51) (3.1)

0 u(y)
(3.36) 2 u/ 2 y = 0, 2 u/ 2 = 0
y v y =
0 (3.47)

1 U
(f + f )
v =
2
x

(3.54)

3.1

f + f = 1.72

(3.55)

3.4.

63

3.1:
u
U
=y
f
f =
f
f f
x
U
0.0
0
0
0.3321
0
1.0

0.1656

0.3298

0.3230

0.1642

2.0

0.6500

0.6298

0.2668

0.6095

3.0

1.397

0.8461

0.1614

1.141

4.0

2.306

0.9555

0.0642

1.516

5.0

3.283

0.9915

0.0159

1.674

6.0

4.280

0.9990

0.0024

1.714

7.0

5.279

0.9999

0.0002

1.720

8.0

6.279

1.0000

0.0000

1.721

u/U =f'

u/U ( =f')

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0

3.9:

= 0.86
U
xU

(3.56)

0 x y

() ()
()
1/7 (one-seventh power law)

()

( y )1/7
u
=
U

(3.57)

64

U
x

3.10: y v

U=0.99U

x
0

3.11: 99%

3.4

(Boundary layer thickness)

3.4.1

99%

(
) U 99% = 99

u = 0.99U

(3.58)

3.3.3

5.0

(3.59)

(3.42)

=y

U
=5
x

(3.60)

y 99

99 = 5

x
U

(3.61)

3.4.

65

U
u(y)

3.12:

99 3.42 3.61

Re = 5.0Re1/2
x

(3.62)

Re Rex x

Re =

U
,

Rex =

U x

(3.63)

Re = 0.14Re6/7
x ,

Re = 0.37Re4/5
x

(3.64)

Rex 1 1/2

() 30m/s 5m

3.4.2

(displacement thickness) 1
U u(< U )

U 1 =

(U u)dy

(3.65)

y=0

1 =
y=0

(1

u
)dy
U

(3.66)

66

u
2
0

3.13:

3.3 Blasius
(3.42) (3.46)

x
(1 f )
d
U
y=0

]1
x [
=
f
U
0

(
)
x
=
1 f (1 )
U

(3.67)

1
1 (3.1) 1 = 5

1 = 1.72

x
U

(3.68)

Re1 = 1.72Re1/2
x

(3.69)

(3.61) (3.68) 1 1/3

1
= 0.34

()

(3.70)

1
= 1/8 = 0.13
()
(3.71)

1/7 ( (3.57)) (3.66)

(roughness)

3.4.3

momentum thickness
2

3.4.

67

2
U
2 =

u(U u)dy

(3.72)

y=0

U u

2
= 2

)
u
dy
U
y=0

x
f (1 f )
=
d
U

y=0

= 2

u
U

(3.73)

= 5 Blasius f

= 2 = 0.664

x
U

(3.74)

Re = 0.664Re1/2
x

(3.75)

1/3

3.4.4

1 2 Hshapef actor)

H=

1
1
=
2

(3.76)

H = 2.59
H = 1.4 H = 1.3)

H adverse

pressure gradient

H = 3.5
H = 2.4

68

n
y
U

tw

3.14:

3.5

(skin friction)

3.5.1

shearing stress frictional stress

( )
u
w (x) =
(3.77)
y y=0
y
frictional stress

3.3 Blasius

(
)
U

U f ()
w (x) =
x
=0

U
= U
x

(3.78)
(3.79)

(3.1)

= f (0) = 0.33

(3.80)

3.5.

3.5.2

69

3.79 Cf

w (x)
2
Cf =
=

=
0.66
(3.81)
2
U /2
U x
U x
x Rex ( U x/)

0.66
Cf =
Rex

(3.82)

Cf x

Cf =

0.0576

(3.83)

1/5

Rex

Cf =

0.0576
1/5
Rex

A
,
Rex

A = Rex,cr (Cf,turbulent Cf,laminar )

(3.84)

Rex,cr

3.5.3

Df viscous drag

Df = b

w cos ds

(3.85)

s=0

b l

x s
cos ds = dx
Df

lx

Df = b

lx

w dx = b
s=0

x=0

(3.86)
(

u
y

)
dx

(3.87)

y=0

lx x (

prole drag
0 (dAlembelts paradox)
U

Df (3.87),(3.79)
l
w dx
D = b
x=0

l
U
= b
U
dx
x
x=0

3 l
= 2b U

(3.88)

70

b
x

lx

3.15: 3

s
p

3.16:

2D = 4b

3 l = 1.328b U 3 l
U

(3.89)

Df

Df
3/2

U
l1/2
1/2
1/2
l1/2

3.5.4

CDf

CDf =

2Df
1
2
2 U

(3.90)

2
(1/2)U

S wetted surface area

3.6.

71
-1/5

-2

10

CD

-1/2

CD

= 0.074Re

= 1.328Re

Turbulent

CD

(Plandtl)

Laminar

(Blasius)

-3

transition

10
CDf=

0.455
2.58

( logRl)

-4

10

10

10

10

Re

3.17:

ib_j

Separation

i_j

Stagnation

3.18:

S = 2bl

(3.91)

Df (3.89) (3.90)

1.328
1.328
CDf =
=
U l
Rel

(3.92)

Rel

(3.92) Rel < 5 105 106 Rel

3.6

separation)

adverse pressure gradient(dp/dx > 0)

72
p

>

x
s

_
,kinetic energy

tirecirculated flowj

3.19:

y
u

d :

Ew

( y)

>0

( y)

=0

y=0

y=0

( y)

<0

y=0

3.20:

3.6.1

( )
u
=0
y y=0

(3.93)

y
x

(3.94)

y
x

(3.95)

3.6.2

(3.18) ,

dp
>0
dx

(3.96)

3.6.

73

(3.27) y = 0

2u
y 2

)
=
y=0

dp
dx

(3.97)

(3.27) y

u u
2u
v u
2u
1 2p
3u
+u
+
+v 2 =
+ 3
y x
xy y y
y
xy
y

(3.98)

y 0

u=0, v=0,

u
v
u
2p
=0,
=
=0,
=0
x
y
x
xy

3.98
( 3 )
u
=0
y 3 y=0

(3.99)

(3.100)

u 2 2 u/y 2 0
(3.97)

(adverse pressure gradient)

dp
>0
dx

2u
y 2

)
>0

(3.101)

<0

(3.102)

=0

(3.103)

y=0

(favorable pressure gradient)

(

dp
<0
dx

dp
=0
dx

2u
y 2

2u
y 2

)
y=0

)
y=0

(3.9)

(p/x < 0) 3.21

(p/x > 0) 3.22
3.21 3.22

u
y

dp
= 0 dx
>0

3.22

74

u
0
y 2

X[Y

u
y

u
y 2

z0

3.21:

l
r
N

K_

(inflexion point)

u
y

u
z0 y
2

3.22:

[]

dp/dx > 0

3.23:

3.6.

3.6.3

75

2
3.24

Cp =

p p
= 1 4 sin2
1
2
U

(3.104)

3.24:

subcritical

supercritical :

sub

super

3.25:

3.25
subcritical
supercritical

76

pressure drag
(critical) drag crisis

3.24 ( Cp = 1
Cp = 0

Cp = +1

U
= 2 sin x = 2x 0.333x3 + 0.0167x5 +
U

(3.105)

x ( R x = = x/R, x
)U
= 104 110
(3.105) Hiemenz(1911)

U
= 1.814x 0.271x3 0.0471x5 +
U

(3.106)

= 71.2 1.595U
= 80
Stratford
(
)2
dCp
2
(x xB ) Cp
0.0104
dx
xB Thwaites
)5
x0 (
U
xB x0
dx
Umax
0

(3.107)

(3.108)

x0

xB = 0.8606,

sep = 79.8

(3.109)

sep (seperation)

3.7

DAlembert
5

(aerodynamic force)
(lift) (drag) (side force)
(pitching moment) (rolling moment) (yawing

moment) 3 3
(aerodynamic coecient)

3.7.

3.7.1

77

(lift) (drag)

U

U

3.7.2

CL
CL =
CD
CD =
CM
CM =

L
1
2
2 U S

D
1
2
2 U S

M
1
2
2 U Sl

(3.110)

(3.111)

(3.112)

L D M S l
2
(1/2) U
Cl ( l)

3.7.3

CL CD Reynolds (CL = CL (Re), CD = CD (Re))

(similarity)
M (/)
CL = f (Re, M ) CD = g(Re, M ) CM = h(Re, M )

3.26 CD
CD Re = 103 CD = 1
103 105 CD = 1.2 Re = 3 105
drag crisis
sep

78

[]
f St

St =

fD
U

(3.113)

D U
St = 0.2 []

Re 1 Oseen-Lamb
CD =

8
Re[0.5 + ln(8/Re)]

(3.114)

= 0.577216

CD 1 + 10.0Re2/3

(3.115)

100

10
CD

0.1

10

10
10
R=VD/

10

3.26:

3.27 CD
CD 103 104 CD = 0.4
CD 0.4 Re = 3 105
(drag crisis) CD = 0.09

3.7.

79

100

CD

0.01

10

10
10
R=VD/

10

3.27:

Re 1 (Stokes) D
D = 6RV

(3.116)

R CD

CD =

D
1
2
2 V S

24
Re

(3.117)

Re = 2RV /

Stokes Stokes

v
1 p + v
=K
t

(3.118)

v = 0

(3.119)

p = 0

(3.120)

(3.121)

()

Oseen
[
]
24
3
9
CD =
1 + Re +
Re2 ln Re
Re
16
160

(3.122)

80

Stokes Oseen
Re 1
0 Re 2 105

CD

24
6

+
+ 0.4
Re 1 + Re

(3.123)

3.7.4

3.116

Re 1
Re 1

CDf CDp
CDf CDp

(3.124)

CDf CDp

(induced drag) (trailing vortex)

(parasite drag)
(skin friction drag) (wetted surface)

(pressure drag)
9
(interference drag) 2 (
)

(trim drag)

(prole drag) 2
(cooling drag)
(base drag)
(wave drag)
CFD

2
3.28 Re 104

3.7.

81

(CD = 2.0) (
(2.1) ((1.6)(1.2)
(2.3)(1.2)(1.7)
(1.6)(2.0)
Re = 5 104 CD = 6 103
Re = 106 CD 4.4 103

CD

CD

2.0

1.2

2.1

1.7

1.6

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.3

3.28: 2

3
3 3.29 (
Re 104 (CD = 1.07)
( 60 (0.5) (1.17)(1.4)
CD = 1.2 (0.4)
l/d = 0.5 CD = 1.151.0 0.902 0.854 0.87
2 3 3

3.7.5

(streamlined form) 2
CD = 2.0 CD = 1.1
CD = 0.15

82

1.17

1.07

cube

disk

0.81
1.4

cup

0.5

0.4

60 cone

3.29: 3
2 CD = 1.2 2 : 1
CD = 0.6 4 : 1 CD = 0.35 8 : 1 CD = 0.25
CD = 0.3 2 : 1
CD = 0.2 4 : 1 CD = 0.15 8 : 1 CD = 0.1

3.7.6

L D
L/D

1 induced drag

2 parasite drag

prole dragfrictional drag

pressure drag
(wing section; airfoil) 12%
NACA0012 ( 30% )

Re = 6 106 = 12 CL = 1.0 CD CL = 0
CD = 0.01CL = 0.8 ( 8 )CD = 0.018 CL
CD CL CD
CD

3.7.

83

Cl max

1.0

(stall)

Cl

12

(deg)

3.30: (NACA0012 Re = 6 106 )

(L/D) L/D 7 25

: L/D = 7.5
B747: L/D = 17
B52 L/D = 22
L/D = 30 50
range down

range R (Breguet range

equation)
R=

V L W0
ln
C D W1

(3.125)

W0 () W1 (W1 = W0

Wf )
R

R=

550 Cl
W0
ln
C CD W1

(3.126)

c SFC: Specic Fuel Consumption 1

1 W0 W1 Wf
W1 = W0 Wf
L/D
L/D
(cross range)

L/D
L/D = 1L/D = 4.5

84

(Lift drag ratio) 106 107

FX FX63-167 Re = 106 = 10
CL = 1.6566, CD = 0.0238, CM = 0.1449
CL CD

CD 104

(stall)
3

NACA633 018 ( 18%)

NACA631 012 ( 12%)

NACA64 006 ( 6%)
()

3.7.7

5 4
( 42% 8% )
40% 37% 18%
2
5 3 2
B747 0.8 6107 CD = 0.031
B787 CD = 0.024
CD0 (zero-lift drag coecient)
(biplane) CD0 = 0.0378
B52 CD0 = 0.012

()

P
Vmax 3
CD0 S

(3.127)

P power S

3.7.8

3.7.

85

(ballistic coecient)

CBC =

M
SCD

(3.128)

M S CD
(blu body)
(bullet)

CBC = 0.12 1.0

87

4.1

xEw
T

4.1:

(ei
internal enery

( conduction of heat)
convection of heat
(uT /x + vT /y)
heat through friction

radiation

( 800 C hypersonic ow

heat transfer (condensation) evapolation

4.2

t heatQ

V = xyz (the First Law of Thermodynamics

Q = E + W

dQ
dE
dW
=
+
dt
dt
dt

(4.1)

1 E

(total energy = internal energy + kinetic energy) 2

88

Fourier

1 dQ
T
= q = k
A dt
n

(4.2)

A
n

q
4.2:

A: area
k: thermal conductivity15 C k = 0.0242J/m sec deg

n:
Q:
q: (heat ux

dz

dy

M
z

x
dx
control volume

4.3:

oM

4.2.

89

x
(
)
[
(
)
]
(
)
T
T

T
k
yz + k
+
k
x yz =
k
xyz
x
x
x
x
x
x

(4.3)

, y z t
[
(
)
(
)
(
)]

T
Q = t |{z}
V
k
+
k
+
k
(4.4)
x
x
y
y
z
z
xyz

dEi
dEt

dEt
= V
dt

)
dei
1 d ( 2
+
u + v 2 + w2
dt
2 dt

{
(
)(
)}
u
xx
dWx = dydzt uxx + u +
x
xx +
x
x
x

(uxx )
= V t
x

(4.5)

(4.6)

4.4

dz

xx
dx

xx

dy

xx
x
x

4.4:

}
{

(uxx + vxy + wxz ) +

(uyx + vyy + wyz ) +
(uzx + vzy + wzz )
dW = V t
x
y
z
(4.7)
(normal stress)

xx
yy
zz

2
u
= p div v + 2
3
x
2
v
= p div v + 2
3
y
2
w
= p div v + 2
3
z

(4.8)
(4.9)
(4.10)

90
shearing stress
(
)
u
v
xy = yx =
+
x y
(
)
w v
+
yz = zy =
y
z
(
)
u w
zx = xz =
+
z
x

(4.11)
(4.12)
(4.13)

4.4
4.5
4.74.1
(
)
(
)
(
)
Dei

+ p div v =
k
+
k
+
k
+
Dt
x
x
y
y
z
z

(4.14)

D/Dt
dissipation function
{( )
( )2 (
)2 }
(
)2
2
u
v
w
2 u v
w
= 2
+
+

+
+
x
y
z
3 x y
z
(
)2 (
)2 (
)2
v
u
w v
u w
+
+
+
+
+
+
(4.15)
x y
y
z
z
x
2 2 u2 /l2

u
v
w
u
v
w
u
v
w
xx +
xy +
xz +
yx +
yy +
yz +
zx +
zy +
zz
x
x
x
y
y
y
z
z
z

(4.16)

xx , yy , zz xx , yy , zz p

4.3

Thermodynamic Properties
ei h

dei
dh
h

= Cv dT

( )
p
= Cp dT = Cv dT + d
= Cv dT + d (pv)

p
= ei + = ei + pv

(4.17)
(4.18)
(4.19)

v=

(4.20)

calorically perfect gas

Cv = const

Cp = const

(4.21)

Cp

: Specic heat at constant pressure

(4.22)

Cv

: Specic heat at constant volume

(4.23)

4.3.

91

Cp 1.0 kJ/kg K Cv 0.72 kJ/kg K

R = Cp Cv = Cp /Cv R

Cp = Cv = C

(4.24)

Cp Cv

dei

= C dT

(4.25)

dh

dp
= C dT +
= C dT + vdp

(4.26)

h ei +

p
= ei + pv

(4.27)

(
)
( )
( )
Dei
D
p
Dh
D p
DT
D p

=
h
=

= Cp

Dt
Dt

Dt
Dt
Dt
Dt

(4.28)

4.284.14
( )
Dei
DT
D p

+ p div v = Cp

+ p div v
Dt
Dt
Dt
(
)
DT
1 Dp
p D
= Cp

2
+ p div v
Dt
Dt
Dt
(
)
DT
Dp
1 D
= Cp

+p
+ divv
Dt
Dt
Dt
|
{z
}
0
DT
Dp
= Cp

Dt
Dt

(4.29)

4.14

Dp

DT

=
Cp
Dt
Dt
x

T
k
x

+
y

(
)
(
)
T

T
k
+
k
+
y
z
z

(4.30)

k k

Cp

Dp
DT
=
+ k2 T +
Dt
Dt

(4.31)

divv = 0
divv = 0

92

v =

1 D
Dt

(4.32)

(
)
D

DT

Dt
T p Dt

(4.33)

(the coecient of volume expansion)

(/T )p

(v/T )p
v

(4.34)

v (v = 1/)

v =

DT
Dt

(4.35)

p
= RT

(4.36)

1
T

(4.37)

1 DT
T Dt
p
v =

p v = R

DT
Dt

(4.38)

(4.39)

Cp Cv = R

p v = (Cp Cv )

(4.40)
DT
Dt

(4.41)

4.14

DT
= k2 T +
(4.42)
Dt
k Cp Cv
Cp = Cv
Cp

thermal diusivitya

k
Cp

(4.43)

4.3.

93

Cp

DT
= k2 T
Dt
DT
= a2 T
Dt

(4.44)
(4.45)

(4.45)
(forced convection)

4.3.1

T
T
2T
+v
=a 2
x
y
y

(4.46)

x x y

y =0

T = Tw

y = T

T = T

(4.47)
T
=0
y

(4.48)

Tw T
u

u
u
2u
+v
= 2
x
y
y

(4.49)

T Tw
T Tw

(4.50)

4.48

y=0

=0

(4.51)

y = T

=1

(4.52)

Pohlhausen Blasius (3.42) (3.43)

U
=y
,
= xU f ()
(4.53)
x

94

4.46

P r d
d2
+
f
=0
2
d
2 d

(4.54)

)
(

Pr
f
()d
d
exp

2
0
0
(
)
() =

exp P2r 0 f ()d d

0

(4.55)

4.4

(natural convection)

106

x
Y = -V g

4.5:

x, y, z
(
)
u
u
u
u
+v
+w
=
x
y
z
(
)
v
v
v
+v
+w
=
u
x
y
z
(
)
w
w
w
u
+v
+w
=
x
y
z

p
+ X + 2 u
x
p

+ Y + 2 v
y
p

+ Z + 2 w
z

(4.56)
(4.57)
(4.58)

(body force)
(X, Y, Z)

(X, Y, Z) =
g

(gx , gy , gz )

= (gx , gy , gz )

g (gx , gy , gz ) (x, y, z)

(4.59)
(4.60)

4.4.

95

4.564.58
)
(
u
u
u
u
+v
+w
=
x
y
z
(
)
v
v
v
u
+v
+w
=
x
y
z
(
)
w
w
w
u
+v
+w
=
x
y
z

p
+ gx + 2 u
x
p

+ gy + 2 v
y
p

+ gz + 2 w
z

(4.61)
(4.62)
(4.63)

p T
, p , T

Boussinesq

= (p, T )
(
)
( )

= +
(T T ) +
(p p )
T
p

= (T T ) +
(p p )
c2
| {z
}

(4.64)
coecient of thermal expansion
(
)
1

=
(4.65)
T

p = RT

(4.66)

1
(4.67)
T

= 0.18 103 (1/K)

=

)
=
T

=
= 2
RT
RT
c

(4.68)

/
2
p/ U

= 2
2
U
c

( )

U2
2
=
= M

p
c2

(4.69)

(4.70)

M (M = 0.01)p,

96

)
= =

1
T

(4.71)

/
T /T

=
T
T

)
= 1

(4.72)

w
u v
+
+
=0
x y
z
x, y, z
(
)
u
u
u
u
+v
+w
x
y
z
(
)
v
v
v
u
+v
+w
x
y
z
(
)
w
w
w
u
+v
+w
x
y
z

p
gx + 2 u
x
p
=
gy + 2 v
y
p
=
gz + 2 w
z
=

(4.73)

(4.74)
(4.75)
(4.76)

= T T

(
)
( 2
)
T
T
T
T
2T
2T
Cp u
+v
+w
=k
+
+
+
x
y
z
x2
y 2
z 2

(4.77)

(4.78)

4.74 4.76 p p
x

p
+ gx =
(p gx x) =
x
x
x

(4.79)

p gx = p

(4.80)

y 2

p = p (gx x + gy y)

(4.81)

p = p (gx x + gy y + gz z)

(4.82)

(
)
2
U
u
u
u
U 2 p
U 2
u
+v
+w
=
gT g x +
u
L
x
y
z
L x
L2

(4.83)

4.4.

97

T T
=
T

(4.84)

u
u
u
p
gT L

2
+v
+w
=

gx +
u
2
x
y
z
x
U
LU

(4.85)

gT L3
gT L
=

2
U
2

)2

U L

= Gr

1
Re2

(4.86)

Gr

Gr =

gT L3
2

(4.87)

U L

(4.88)

Re
Re =

4.851/Re

u
u
u
+v
+w
x
y
z
v
v
v
u
+v
+w
x
y
z
w
w
w
+v
+w
u
x
y
z
u

=
=
=

1 2
p
Gr
g +
u

x
Re2 x
Re
p
Gr
1 2

gy +
v
2
y
Re
Re
p
Gr
1 2

g +
w
z
Re2 z
Re

(4.89)
(4.90)
(4.91)

4.78
()

Cp U T
L

(
T
u
+
x

)
=k

T 2
U2
T+

2
L
L2

Cp U T

L
(
)
T
kLT
U
u
+ =
2 T +

2
x
Cp U T L
Cp T L

(4.92)

4.92

(4.93)

2
2

U
1 ( 1)U
M2
U
=

= ( 1)
Cp T L
LU Cp T
Re
RT
Re

M 0

(4.94)

98

2 T

kLT
Cp U T L2

k
k

Cp U L
Cp U L
( )
1
1
1

=
Pr Re
Pe

=
=

(4.95)

P e

P e = P r Re

(4.96)

Re
Gr

= U L/
= gT L3 / 2

Reynolds number
Grashof number

Pr
Ra
Pe

= Cp /k
= Gr Pr
= Pr R e

Prandtl number

Rayleigh number)

(Peclet number)

Ra = Gr P r < 109

Ra = Gr P r 109

(),

()

(4.97)

(heat transfer) (
N u

N u = 0.59Ra1/4
N u = 0.13Ra

104 < Ra < 109

1/3

10 < Ra < 10

12

()
()

(4.98)
(4.99)

()
(N u) x

x
(4.100)
k

N ux =

qw
Tw T

(4.101)

qw
(St: Stanton number)

St =

Cp U

(4.102)

St =

Nu
Re P r

(4.103)

4.4.

99

()

Pr

0.714

20 C

7.03

20 C

10100

20 C

P r

Pr > 1
Pr
=1
Pr < 1

>

=
<

Pr>1

Pr=1

Pr<1

4.6:

101

5
(laminar ow) (turbulent ow)
Re(= U L/)
(turbulent ow)

v(x)

t()

5.1:

() x u

u = u + u

(5.1)

u u

v
w

= v + v
= w + w

p
T

= p + p
= T + T

(5.2)

compressible ow T
}
= +
(5.3)
T = T + T

u=

1
t

t0 +t

u dt

(5.4)

t0

t t

102
u

t0

t 0 +t

5.2:
5.15.4)

u = u + u

(5.5)

u = 0

(5.6)

v = 0,

p = 0,

= 0,

T = 0

(5.7)

u , v , w , p , , T

(5.4)

f g
= f g

f
= f

f +g = f +g

f g

= f g =f g

f /s

f ds

= f /s

=
f ds

(5.8)

s 5.8

[]

(mass-weighted average density-weighted average

) Favre
A
A =

(5.9)

A A
A
A = A + A

(5.10)

A = 0

(5.11)

5.1.

5.1

103

(x
y

Sx

dA :

5.3:
Sx ) ( ( 5.3 )
x, y, z

x : dMx = u u dA

y : dMy = u v dA

z : dMz = u w dA

(5.12)

5.8
x

dMx

= dA u2
= dA (u + u )
= dA (u +
2

(5.13)

u 2 )

2uu = 0

2
uu = 2
u u = 0

(5.14)

y z

dMy

dA (u v + u v )

(5.15)

dMz

dA (u w + u w )

(5.16)

5.1.1

law of action and reaction

momentum)
dA
dA

x xx =

(u u

y xy =
z xz =

(u v
(u w

+
+

u u )

u v )

u w )

(5.17)

104

f
xxf

5.4:

xx
= u u

xy
= u v

= u w
xz

(5.18)

(apparent stress), (Reynolds stress)

Osborne Reynolds 1885 (1895 ?) 2 Sy , Sz

5.1.2

u v u v 2 (correlation)
u v
u v > 0
y

u(y)
u2
y2
y1

v
u1
x

5.5:
y d
u/dy > 0

v > 0 x u1 (eddy)
( 5.5 )u1 < u2 y = y2 x u2

5.1.

105

u1 u1 u2 < 0 u < 0

u v
u v < 0

(5.19)

u v < 0 or

u v > 0

(5.20)

u(y)
u2
y2

y1
u1
x

5.6:
v < 0 x u2 eddy
( 5.6 ) (y = y1 ) u2 u1 > 0

u > 0

u v < 0

(5.21)

u v < 0 or u v > 0

(5.22)

xy = u v > 0

(5.23)

yx =

u
>0
y

(5.24)

106

5.2

u v
w
+
+
=0
x y
z

(
)
u

+
uu +
uv +
uw
t
x
y
z
)
(

v
+
vu +
vv +
vw

t
x
y
z
)
(

w
+
wu +
wv +
ww

t
x
y
z

p
+ 2 u
x
p
=
+ 2 v
y
p
=
+ 2 w
z

(5.25)

(x )

(5.26)

(y )

(5.27)

(z )

(5.28)

5.255.2,

(u + u ) +
(v + v ) +
(w + w ) = 0
x
y
z

(5.29)

5.8

u+
v+
w=0
x
y
z

(5.30)

5.8

u =0
u =
x
x

(5.31)

(5.30) (divergence) 0

5.295.30

u +
v +
w =0
x
y
z

(5.32)

0
5.265.28
x, y, z
(
)
[
]
u
u
u
u
p
u u
u v
u w

+u
+v
+w
=
+ 2 u +
+
+
(5.33)
t
x
y
z
x
x
y
z
(
)
]
[
v
p
v v
v w
v
v
v
u v
2

+u
+v
+w
=
+ v +
+
+
(5.34)
t
x
y
z
y
x
y
z
(
)
]
[
w
p
v w
w w
w
w
w
u w
2

+u
+v
+w
=
+ w +
+
+
(5.35)
t
x
y
z
z
x
y
z

Du
Dt
Dv

Dt
Dw

Dt

(
)
p



+ 2 u +
xx +
yx +
zx
x
x
y
z
(
)
p

=
+ 2 v +
xy
+
yy
+
zy
y
x
y
z
(
)
p

=
+ 2 w +
xz
+
yz
+
zz
z
x
y
z
=

(5.36)
(5.37)
(5.38)

5.2.

107

v = grad p + 2 v + T R
Dt

(5.39)

v = (u, v, w)t t
T R

xx xy
xz
u u

T R = yx yy
yz
= v u

zx

zy

zz

w u

u v
v v
w v

u w

v w
w w

(5.40)

xx
xy
xz

yy
yz

zz

u
= p + 2
u u
x
(
)
u v
=
+
u v
y
x
(
)
u w
=
+
u w
z
x
v
v v
= p + 2
y
(
)
v w
=
+
v w
z
y
w
= p + 2
w w
z

(5.41)
(5.42)
(5.43)
(5.44)
(5.45)
(5.46)

xy = yx xz = zx yz = zy
(eddy viscosity)
(molecular viscosity) u v

+ (
v) = 0
t

(5.47)

v + (
v v + pI T T ) = 0
t
T
T = v v

v, v

(5.48)

(5.49)

108

5.3

5.30
5.33 x

u v
+
x y
u
u
u
+v
x
y

(5.50)
1 p

+
x y

{
}
u
u v

(5.51)

y y
??3.21)

u, v, p u, v, p

(
)
(
)
u

uv
y
y
y
y

(5.52)

(5.53)

l t
(
)
l
t
+
(5.54)
y

l =

u
,
y

t = u v

(5.55)

5.505.51
closure problem (
)

Tollmien-Schlichting instability
2 (TS ) Re = Ue / < 420 (Ue
) Ue
TS TS

5.4

(J.Boussinesq, 1897)

t = u v = t

du
dy

(5.56)

5.4.

109

t (apparent viscosity, virtual viscosity, eddy viscosity)

t

2
ij = 2t Sij kij
3

(5.57)

Sij k (turbulent kinetic energy)

(
)
1 u
u
j
i
1
Sij =
+
, k = (u2 + v 2 + w2 )
(5.58)
2 xj
xi
2
5.57

5.4.1

(5.50),

(5.51)
[
]
u
u
1 p

u
u
+v
=
+
( + t )
x
y
x y
y
u v
+
= 0
x y

5.4.2

(5.59)
(5.60)

t (Prandtls mixing-length

theory) L.Prandtl 1925

Prandtl (kinetic theory of gases)

u = u(y), v = 0, w = 0

(5.61)

y = y1 l (eddy) y1
y1
( )
du
u1 = u(y1 ) u(y1 l)
l
(5.62)
dy y1
y1 + l y1 y1

(
u2 = u(y1 + l) u(y1 )

du
dy

)
l
y1

(5.63)

110
(5.62) (5.63) y1
( )
1
du

|u | = (|u1 | + |u2 |) =
l
2
dy y1

(5.64)

control volumey

u () .
(
|v | = const|u | = const

du
dy

)
l

(5.65)

y1

(5.20) (5.22) u v

u v < 0

(5.66)

u v = c|u | |v |

(5.67)

c 0 < c < 1 (correlation coecient)

u v
|u ||v |

(5.68)

1
(5.64) (5.65) (5.67)

(
u v = c const l2

du
dy

)2

l l
( )2
du
2

u v = l
dy

(5.69)

(5.70)

t =

u v

)2
du
= l
dy
  1

 du
du
= l2  
dy dy
2

(5.71)

(shear stress)

du/dy < 0
(Boussinesq) (5.56) (5.71)

 
 du 
t = l2  
dy

(5.72)

t (5.72) l
.
()

(gas kinetic theory)

= cm

(5.73)

5.4.

111

m (mean free path) c = 1/3

2
c c T 1/2 T 1/2 m 1/
m

m =

1
1
=
2d2 (/m)
2d2 n

(5.74)

d (eective diameter) 0 , 1atm

d = 3.7 1010 m m 1 n

n = 2.68699 1025 m3 (5.74)

m = 6.12 108 m
m (Kolmogorov) (length scale)

m
M

1/4

ReL

(5.75)

ReL = uL/ , M = u/a L

(eddy) integral

scale)
Kolmogorov

Kolmogorov
(
=

)1/4
(5.76)

2Sij Sij
Sij
Sij =

1
2

ui
uj
+
xj
xi

(5.77)
)
(5.78)

(Taylor microscale)

u
= 15
x

)2
15

u2
2

(5.79)

Taylor(1935)

k 3/2
,
L

k u2

(5.80)

1/2
ReL
(L)1/3
L
ReL
ReL =

k 1/2 L

(5.81)

(5.82)

112

(eddy) L

4/3
ReL
L

(5.83)

(ReL )

(5.84)

Re

Re =

u
k 1/2
=

(5.85)

eddy)

1 integral length scale)

2 inertial subrange eddies;

3 (Kolmogorov microscale)
()

(5.72) du/dy = 0 t = 0
. du/dy = 0

0 . (wake) (free turbulent)

5.7

5.7:
t

t = 1 b(umax umin )

(5.86)

b (half-value width) b (umax umin )/2

umin

t = t

u
du
= 1 b(umax umin )
y
dy

(5.87)

5.5.

5.5

113

multi-layer model

the law of the wall

u+ = f (y + ),

,
u

u+ =

y+ =

u y

(5.88)

u
u
30
u

/ u
20
(C)
10
(B)

(A)
0

10

10

30

10

y+ =

10

u y

5.8:

5.5.1

(viscous sublayer)

u v

y+ =

u y
5

u =

(5.89)

(5.90)

u+

u y
u

=
= y+
u

(5.91)

u y

u y
1
(5.92)

114
()

0 < y + < 10 (streak)

(burst)
()

5.5.2

(buer layer)

y + = 12

5 < y+ =

u y
< 30 40

(5.93)

total =

uv
= w
y

(5.94)

l
(
[ u y ])

l = y 1 exp
A

(5.95)

van Driest (damping function)

A

A = 26

(5.96)

y +

(u y )
u

=f
= f (y + )
u

(5.97)

u+ = u/u = C1 + C2 ln y + + C3 (ln y + )2 + C4 (ln y + )3

(5.98)

C1 = 4.19, C2 = 5.75, C3 = 5.11, C4 = 0.767

(5.99)

(tting formula)
[
]
(u+ )2
(u+ )3
y + = u+ + exp(C) exp(u+ ) 1 u+

(5.100)
2
6
= 0.41, C = 5.0 von Karman Theodore von Karman

5.6.

5.5.3

115

(logarithmic law region)

(30 40) < y + < O(103 ) or

y < (0.1 0.2)

(5.101)

total u v

(5.102)

u
(u v )1/2

y
y

(5.103)

u
1
= ln(u y/) + C
u

(5.104)

0.41,

C = 5.2 or 5.0

(5.105)

(, C) Nikuradse(1930) (0.40,5.5) Coles(1955) (0.41,5.0)

1) 2) 3)
(inner region)

5.6

Cebecci-Smith Baldwin-Lomax k

5.6.1

Cebecci-Smith

Cebecci-Smith (CS 1974)

l = yD
D van Driest
[
( yu )]

D = 1 exp
A

u =

w /

(5.106)

(5.107)

(5.108)

t,in

t,in =

{ [
( yu )]}2 du
t

= y 1 exp

A
dy

(5.109)

116

= 0.4,

A = 26

(5.110)

t,out

t,out = 2 Ue 1

(5.111)

2 2 = 0.017Ue
0.4 < y < 1.2
Klebano

= [1 + 5.5(y/)6 ]1

(5.112)

= 1 = 0

y/ = 1.4
t,in t,out yk
t,in = t,out

at

y = yk

(5.113)

yk

= t,in

0 < y < yk

(5.114)

= t,in

yk < y

(5.115)

history eects
history eects

5.6.2

Baldwin-Lomax

Cebeci-Smith Cebeci-Smith
Baldwin-Lomax (1978) BL

()
CS
BL

BL CS
F

F (y) = y||D

(5.116)

=
v /x u
/y D van Driest
(5.107))

5.6.

117

BL ymax to
ymax 5.116 F y

ti

= l2 ||, l = yD

to

= KCcp ymax Fwake

for
for

y yc
y > yc

(5.117)
(5.118)

y yc to = ti
Prandtl-van Driest Ccp Baldwin Lomax
Ccp = 1.6 Karman 0.42K Clauser 0.0168
Klebano

(
y ) = 1/[1 + 5.5(
y )6 ]

(5.119)

5.118y = Ckleb y/ymax Ckleb 0.3

CS BL BL

to Fwake

Fwake = min(Fmax , Cwk u2dif f /Fmax )

(5.120)

Fmax 5.116 Cwk 0.25 udif f

(udif = umax umin ) l(= yD)
ymax
CS BL

5.6.3

k k

(turbulent kinetic energy)

u2 + v 2 + w2
(5.121)
2
u , v , w x, y, z
(dissipation rate) k/ (eddy) life time
k=

k
t = C

k2

(5.122)

C = 0.09
k
(
)
(
)
Dk
1
t k
t Ui
Uj Ui
=
+
+

Dt
xj k xj
xj
xi xj

(
)
(
)
D
1
t
C1 t Ui
Uj Ui
2
=
+
+
C2
Dt
xj xj
k xj
xi xj
k

(5.123)

(5.124)

118

C = 0.09, C1 = 1.45, C2 = 1.9, k = 1.0, = 1.3

(5.125)

()

uj

ui
ij
=
xj
xj

(5.126)

ui

uj ui

ui
xj

ij
xj
ui ij
ui
ij
xj
xj

= ui
=

(5.127)

uj

u
i

ij
=
xj
xj

(5.128)

u
i

uj u
i

u
i
xj

ij
xj
u
i
ij
u
i

ij
xj
xj

= u
i
=

(5.129)

ij =
pij + 2Sij ui ui

(5.130)

(5.127)
(5.129) k = ui ui /2

5.7

(wake), (jet), (mixing layer)

(similarity) x
x

Us b(half-value width) x
x (power)

Us xm ,

b xn ,

Rb xl

(5.131)

5.7.

119

l = m + n Rb Rt

Rb =

Us b
,

RT =

Us b
T

(5.132)

Us

5.9:

5.10:
(m, n, l) 5.1

RT

-1/2

1/2

12.5

-2/3

1/3

-1/3

14.1

17.3

-1/2

1/2

25.7

-1

32

5.1:

()

(eddy) L x

1
,
xn

L x1n/2

(5.133)

120

5.11:
n 1 ()

5.8

(transition)

(Orr-Sommerfeld equation)

)
i (
22 + 4
(5.134)
Re
() y C = /
(parallel ow)
(U C)( 2 ) U =

U = U (y),

V = 0,

W =0

(5.135)

u=u
exp[i(x + z t)]

(5.136)

k x z

u=u
exp[i(k x t)]

(5.137)