AN END USER'S GUIDE TO PUMP VIBRATION William D. Marscher, PE. ‘Mechanical Solutions, Ine. 11 Apollo Drive Whippany NJ 07981 wdin@mechsol.com Abstract: Plant O&M personnel recognize that excessive vibration can damage equipment, and enforce maximum vibration standards which they insist be applied during machinery commissioning as well as during the machine's later use in the production process. Plant maintenance personnel, OEM service personnel, and third party machinery diagnostic consultants also make use of vibration, whether exces oF not, as a telltale concerning whether the machine is operating properly, and how much operational time can be anticipated before some sort of repair will be required. This paper will discuss low vibration leads to faihure in pumps and their drivers, and how specific vibration levels at key frequencies relate to doterioration rates within the pump. Attendees will learn how to read and interpret a vibration spectrum and ‘other plots such as time-traces and orbits. Acceptable limits of vibration at 1x running speed, 2x, vane pass, gear mesh, bearing ball pass, and impeller vane pass frequencies will be described based on experience as well as the internal construction and physics of centrifugal pumps. ‘The best instrumentation or combinations of instrumentation to diagnose common probleins will be discussed. The use of impact "bump" tests and their mode shapes, as well as Operating Deflection Shapes (ODS) will be shown by example. The author will provide strategies and straight-forward approaches for "prognosis, ie. determining remaining useful life of a pump by proper interpretation of available vibration information together with a basic knowledge of pump components, A variety of interesting case histories and representative problems! solutions will be presented, from pumping applications in refineries, power plants, chemical plants, and water/ wastewater facilities Key Words: Case histories; Centrifugal pumps; Diagnostics; Instrumentation; Pump vibration ‘troubleshooting; Vibration analysis; Vibration testing; Vibration criteria Introduction: When failures occur in pumps and their associated systems, they generally fall into one of four categories: fracture, fatigue, rubbing wear, or leakage, Fracture occurs due to excessive loading, for example from higher than expected pressure, or nozzle loading beyond recommended levels. Fatigue requires that the imposed loads be oscillating so that stresses cyclically surpass the endurance limit of the cracking materia Fatigue in pump components is most commonly caused by excess vibration, which in turn is eaused by the rotor being out of balance, by the presence of too great « misalignment between the pump and driver shaft centerlines, by excessive vane pass pressure pulsetions, or by large motion amplified by a natural frequency Rubbing wear and scal leakage imply that the rotor and stator are not positioned relative to each other within design tolerances. This can happen dynamically, and ia such a case excess vibration is generally the cause. When the wear or leakage is ata single clock position in the casing, unacceptable amounts of nozzle loading and either resulting or independent pump’ driver misalignment are likely causes, In high energy pumps (especially hydrocracking and boiler feed pumps), another possibility for rubbing at one location on the stator (or for and axial rub or a thrust bearing wipe) is too rapid a change in temperature, which can ‘cause a mis-match in the length and fit of each component, since these change with temperature. Fortunately, there are certain approaches and procedures that can be followed which minimize the chance for encountering such problems, or which help to determine how to solve such problems if they occur, as 129will be diseussed in this tutorial, Vibration Evaluation: Prediction or troubleshooting of vibration and other unsteady mechanical considerations should include evaluation of: rotordynamie behavior, including eritical speeds, forced response, and stability torsional critical speeds and oscillating stress, including start-up’ shut-down transients piping and nozzle load-induced unsteady stress and misaligament-causing distortion fatigue of high stress components due to oscillating torque, thrust, and radial load bearing and seal steady and dynamic behavior lubrication system operation during normal operation and trip coast-downs effects of operating range on vibration acoustic (e.g, trumpet-like) resonances in combined pumps and systems ‘The problem vibrations most commonly discussed in the literature are lateral shaft vibrations, i.e, rotor dynamic motion perpendicular to the pump axis. However, problem vibrations also can occur in the pump stationary structure, especially in vertical pumps. In addition to lateral vibration, vibration can occur in the axial direction, or can involve torsion (twisting) Pump Operating Point Influence on Vibrati ‘Try to operate close to its Best Efficiency Point (“BEP"). Contrary 1o intuition, centrifugal pumps inerease in vibration as they are throttled back, unless the throttling is accomplished by changing the speed, for example with a VED. Operation well below the BEP at any given speed, just like operation well above that point, causes a mismatch between the fluid velocity angles and the vane angles in the impeller, or in the diffuser vanes or volute tongues of the various stages. This may lead to airfoil stalling, and form strong, vortices (miniature tornadoes) that can severely shake the entire rotor system, or lead to fatigue. The rotor impeller steady side-loading and shaking that occurs at flows below the onset of suction or discharge recirculation (see Fraser in the Bibliography) leads to the possibility of rubs, and can damage bearings. Some plants buy equipment that has more capacity than is needed, to allow for future production expansion, but in doing so ensure years of unreliable performance of potentially reliable machinery. The result of this is shown by typical example in Fig. 1. Although operation below BEP is permissible and even necessary in certain applications, never run a pump for extended periods at flows below the “minimum continuous flow” provided by the manufacturer, below which pulsations and vibration can undergo a step increase STALL PULSATIONS, VIBRATION DESIGN FLOW POINT Figure 1: Effect on Vibration on Of-BEP Operation 130Pump Suetion Design Influence on Vibratio Both the mechanical connection of the suction flange, as well as the hydraulic design upstream of the pump impeller, significantly affect pump vibration, Avoid unrestrained expansion joints (piping “flexible joints”) at large nozzles. However, the primary hydraulic issue is that sufficient suction static pressure be present to avoid cavitation, This means more than merely having sufficient net positive suction head available (NPSHA) to satisfy the 3% iead drop NPSHR (NPSH Required) published by the manufacturer. AtNPSHA a5 much as 3x the NPSHR, high frequency cavitation (sometimes inaudible) can cause serious «erosion of the suction side of impeller vanes or wear ring exits, and can lead to increased vibration at low frequencies and sometimes at vane pass. Besides having a suction pressure which is just plain too low, if the pump is operated too far away from its best efficiency point (BEP), the angle of attack of incoming flow ‘the rotating impeller vane can be different than anticipated by the pump designer at that pump speed, and ‘vane stalling can occur at either the suction or discharge, leading to suction or discharge recircuatio respectively. Such internal flow recirculation can cause cavitation on the pressure-side of vanes, and can cause tomado-like eddies that rotate with the impeller, but ata somewhat slower speed, exciting rotor critical speeds at unexpected subsynchronous frequencies, significantly increasing vibration. Balance Imbalance isthe most common cause of excessive vibration in machinery (Fesponsible for roughly half of all eases), followed closely by misalignment. Balance is typically though of as static (involves the center- ofmass being off-center so that the principal axis of mass distribution is sill parallel to the rotational centerline) and dynamic (the principal mass axis makes an angle with the rotational axis). For axially short components (c.g a thrust washer) the difference between these two can be neglected, and only single plane static balancing is required. For components greater in length that 1/6 their diameter, dynamic imbalance should be assumed, and atleast two plane balancing is required. For rotors operating above their second ctitical speed (umusual for pumps), even two plane balance may not be enough, and some form of a-speed ‘modal balancing (ie. balancing material removal that takes into account te elosest natural frequency mode shape) may be required. Imbalance shows up with a frequency of exactly Ix running speed. This is because the heavy side of the rotor is rotating at exactly rotating speed, and so forces vibration movement at exactly this frequency. ‘Typically, this also results ina circular sha orbit, although the orbit may be oval if the rotor is highly loaded within a journal bearing. Pump/ Driver Alignment [Next to imbalance, misalignment is the most common cause of vibration problems in rotating machinery. Misalignment is usually distinguished by two forms: offset, and angular. Offéet is the amount thatthe two centerlines are “ofiset” from each other (Le. the distance between the centerlines when extended to be next, to cach other), Angular is the differential crossing angle that the two shaft conterlines make when projected into each other, when viewed from first the top, and then in a separate evaluation from the side, In general, misalignment is @ combination of both offset and angular misalignment. Sometimes a rotor must be offset when cold and not running in order (o be aligned when running and hot. When misalignment is @ problem, it typically causes primarily 2x running speed, because of the highly elliptical orbit that it forces the shaft to rman in on the misaligned side, Sometimes the misalignment Joad can cause higher harmonics (i.e. rotor speed integer multiples, especially 3x), and may even decrease vibration, because it loads the rotor unnaturally hard against its bearing shell. Alternately, misalignment may actually cause increased 1x vibration, by lifting the rotor out of its gravity-loaded "bearing pocket”, to result in the bearing running relatively unloaded (this can also cause shaft instability, as discussed later). However, Figure 6, provided Iter in these notes, shows a typical orbit and FFT speetrum for misalignment, in which 2x running speed ‘the dominant effect. This is often accompanied by relatively large axial motion, algo at 2x, because the ‘coupling experiences a non-linear “crimp” twice per revolution, Natural Freqnency: ‘An important concept isthe "natural frequency", the number of cycles per minute thatthe rotor or structure will vibrate at if it is "rapped, like a tuning fork, Pump rotors and casings have many natural frequencies, some of which are generally in or clase to the operating speed range. The vibrating patterns which result ‘when a natural frequency is close to the running speed or some other strong force's frequency is known as & 131"mode shape", Each natural frequency has a different mode shape associated with it, and where this shape moves the most is generally the best place to try a “fix” such asa brace or an added mass. Ifthe excitation force frequency and the natural frequency are within @ few percent of each other, this causes “resonance” In resonance, the vibration energy trom the last "ht" ofthe force has come full cycle, and is re-stored up when the next hit takes place. The vibration inthe next cycle will then include movement due to both hits. The vibration motion keeps being amplified until its large motion uses up more energy than the amount of energy that is being supplied by each hit. Unfortunately, the motion at this point is generally quite large Resonanee: Violation of vibration specifications is « common problem, particulary in variable speed systems where there is more likelihood ofan excitation force’s frequency equaling & natural frequency, illustrated in Fig, 2. To avoid resonance, the natural frequencies of the rotor and bearing housings should be well separated from the frequencies that “ball dribbling” type forces will occur at, which tend to be Ix running speed (typical of imbalance), 2x running speed (typical of misalignment), or atthe number of impellor Vanes time running speed (so-called “vane pass” vibrations as the impeller vanes move past a volute tongue or diffuser vane “cut-wate"). In practic, the vibration amplification (often called “Q” as shown in Fig. 2) due to resonance is usually between a factor of two and twenty five higher than it would be ifthe force eausing the vibration was steady instead of oscillating. Q depends on the amount of energy absorption, called "damping", which takes place between hits, tn an automobile body, this damping is provided by the shock absorbers. In a pump, i is provided mostly by the bearings and the liquid trapper between the rotor and stator in the “annular seals like the balance piston In the case of a resonance, modal impact testing is a very effective and proven method of quickly finding the reason for the resonance, so that it can be fixed permanently. Typical fixes include selective bracing, ot alternately adding mass to areas of maximum vibrational movement. Modal “bump” testing is best done while the machine is operating, so that the bearings and seals are “charged” and supporting the rotor in a ‘manner typical of the pump’s operating condition. Try to ensure that your manufacturer or any third party consultant that you hire has the capability for performing these “bump” tests while the pump is operating, "RFP_OR SIGNATURE, PLOT: VIBRATION VS. SPEED (OR VS. FREQUENC) LOW DAMPING Saal HIGH DAMPING s SPEED OR if FREQUENCY STATIONARY, MOVEMENT DUE To ‘oRrTicaL SHC Tibainien” "SPEDE aTURAL, FREQUENCY" VIBRATION "MAGNIFICATION FACTOR" QPS Figure 2: Illustration of Natural Frequency Resonance, and the Effect of Damping 132Rotordynamic Evaluation: Rotor dynamics requires a more specialized computer program than structural dynamics, sinee it must include effects such as: 1. three dimensional stiffness and damping at bearings, impellers, and seals as a function of speed and load, 2. impeller and thrust halance device fluid excitation forces, and 3. gyroscopic effects. However, several university and commercial groups have developed rotordynamies programs. The programs available include various calculation routines for the bearing and annular seal (e.g, wear ring and balance drum) stiffness and damping coefficients, critical speed calculations, and forced response and rotor stability calculations, which include the effects of bearing and seal damping and "cross- coupled stiffness" ( ie. reaction force perpendicular to the motion ), Effects on Rotordynamic Natural Frequency of Fluid “Added Mass": ‘The fluid surrounding the rotor adds inertia to the rotor in three ways: the fluid tapped in the impeller passages adds mass directly, the fluid displaced by the presence of the impellers and shaft material adds its ‘mass directly due to the rotor system, since as the rotor vibrates within the fluid it must displace this mass, and the fluid in close clearances must accelerate much faster than the rotor vibration acceleration t0 preserve continuity, and hence potentially adds mass many times its displaced mass ( the so-called Stokes Effect. ) Effects on Rotordynamie Natural Frequency of Annular Seal “Lomakin Effect”: Annular seals (e.g. wear rings and balance drums) in pumps can greatly affect dynamics by chenging the rotor support stifftess and therefore the rotor natural frequencies, thereby either avoiding or inducing possible resonance between strong forcing frequencies al one and two times the running speed and one of the lower natural frequencies. The stiffness and damping of an annular seal is provided in small part by the squeeze-film and hydrodynamic wedge effects well known to journal bearing designers. However, because of the high ratio of axial to circumferential flow rates in annular liquid seals relative to bearings, large forces can develop in the annular clearance space due to the circumferentially varying Bernoulli pressure lop induced as rotor eccentricity develops. This is known as Lomakin Effect, and is the largest stiffness and damping force generating mechanism within pump annular seals, ‘The Lomakin Effect depends directly on the pressure drop across the seal, which for constant system flow resistence results in a variation of the Lomakin support stiffness with roughly the square of the running speed. The case of roughly constant system head results in only a small variation of Lomakin Effect with pump speed, however. ‘The other important parameters aro annular sealing. cavity length, diameter, and clearance. Fluid properties are of secondary importance unless very high viscosity liquids are involved Swirl of the fluid, however, can cause a significant drop in Lomakin Effect, or increase the etoss-coupling that accompanies it, which in principle can cause rotordynamic instability if the cross-coupling reactive force exceeds the damping reactive force (as evaluated by a properly set up rotordynamics computer program), ‘The clearance effect isthe strongest geometrival influence, with Lomakin Effect roughly proportional to the reciprocal of its square. The physical reason for the strong influence of clearance is that it gives the opportunity for the circumferential pressure distribution, which is behind the Lomakin Effect, to diminish through circumferential flow. Any annular seal cavity which includes grooving has the same effect as increased clearance, to some degree. Deep grooves are worse than shallow ones in this regard, Rotor Torsional Analysis: Lateral rotor dynamics caa often be analyzed without including other pumping system components such as the driver, pump casing, pedestal, foundation, or piping, However, torsional vibration of the pump shaft and all (ypes of vibration of the pump stationary structure are system-dependent, because the vibration natural 133frequencies and mode shapes will change depending on the mass, stiffness, and damping of components other than those included within the pump itself ‘Although torsional vibration problems are not commen in pumps unless driven by motors excited by high- harmonic VED's, or driven by reciprocating engines, complex pumpidriver trains have potential for torsional vibration problems. This can be checked by calculation of the first several torsional critical speeds and of the forced vibration response of the system duc (0 excitations during start-up transients, sieady running, tip, and motor control transients. ‘The forced response should be in terms of the sum of the stationary plus oscillating shear stress in the most highly stressed element of the drivetrain, usually the ‘minimum shaft diameter Generally, calculation of the first wo torsional modes is sufficient to cover the expected forcing frequency range. To accomplish this, the pump assembly must be modeled in terms of atleast three bodies: the p rotor, the coupling hubs (including any spacer), and the driver rotor. If a flexible coupling (e.g. a disc coupling) is used, the coupling stiffness will be on the same order as the shaft stffnesses, and must be included in the analysis. Good estimates of coupling torsional stiffness, which is usually relatively independent of speed or steady torque, are listed in the coupling catalog data, Often a range of stiffness for a given size is available. Ifa gear box is involved, each gear must be separately accounted for in terms of both inertia and zear ratio. Ifthe pump or driver rotor is not at least several times as stiff torsionally the shaft connecting the rotor to the coupling, then the individual shaft lengths and internal impellers should be included in dhe model. It is unusual for industrial pumps to require ths last step, however. Methods of manually calculating the first several torsional natural frequencies are given in Ble\ However, torsional calculations for pumps should include the effects of system damping. To determine the shaft stresses with sufficient accuracy, a numerical procedure should be used, such as Holzer’s Method, the ‘Transfer Matrix Method, or Finite Element Analysis (FEA). ‘The lowest torsional mode is the one most commonly excited in pump/driver systems, and most of the ‘motion in this mode occurs in the pump shaft. In this situation, the primary damping is from energy expended by the pump impellers when they operate at slightly higher and lower instantaneous rotating speeds due to the vibratory torsional motion, A rough estimate of the amount of this damping is the relationship: Damping = 2*(Rated Torque) *(Evaluated Frequency)/Rated Speed) 2 To determine the frequencies at which large values of vibratory excitation torque are expected, and the value of the torque occurring at each of these frequencies, the pump torque at any given speed and capacity ccan be multiplied by a "per unit" factor "p.u.". ‘The p.u. factor at important frequencies can be obtained from motor and control manufacturers for a specific system, and is typically about 0.01 to 0.05 of the steady ‘operating torque at the condition of interest, peak-to-peak. The most important torsional excitation frequencies from the motor is the number of poles times the motor slip frequency (for induction motors) rotating speed times the number of motor poles, and also the rotating speed itself. Unsteady hydraulic torque from the pump is also present ata frequency equal to the running speed times the number of impeller vanes and at an intensity equal to the delivery torque divided by the number of impeller vanes, and typically has a maximum value in the 0.01 to 0.0 range as well, with the higher values being more typical of off BEP operation and/ or impellers with less than 4 vanes. Particular care should be taken with systems involving variable speed or variable frequency drives (VFD), Bosides sweeping the excitation frequencies through a large excursion and therefore inereasing the chances of a resonant encounter, older VFD controllers provide new excitations at various "eontrol pulse" multiples of the motor running speed, commonly at 6X or 12X, and often at whole-fraction sub-multiptes as well. The controls manufacturer can predict these frequencies and their associated p.u. factors. 134Judgment on the acceptability of the assembly's torsional vibration characteristics should he based on Whether the forced response shaft stresses are below the fatigue limit by a sufflcient factor of safety, at all ‘operating conditions, The minimum recommended factor of safety is 2, for @ carefully analyzed rotor system. Rotordynamie Stability: Rotordynamic stability refers to phenomena whereby the rotor and its system of reactive support forces are. able to become self excited, leading to potentially catastrophic vibration levels even if the active, stable excitation forces are quite low. A key factor in the occurrence of rotordynamic instability is cross-coupled stiffness, Cross-coupled stifiness originates due to the way fluid films build up hydrodynamically in bearings and other close running clearances. The hydrodynamic film has tie beneficial effect of tending to push the rotor back to its centered position- this is how a typical fluid film (journal) bearing works However, in addition to this, a cross-coupling force vector acts in direction perpendicular to the motion, ‘and directly opposite to the vector from fluid damping. Therefore many people think of cross-coupled stiffness as negative damping. The action of cross-coupling is very important to stability, in that if the cross-coupling force vector becomes greater than the damping vector, vibration causes reaction forces that lead to ever more vibration, in a feedback fashion, increasing orbit size until either a severe rub, oF the feedback stops because of the large motion. Shaft part-speed whirl is a forced response at a fiequency below the first non-critically damped shaft bending natural frequency. It is driven by a fluid excitation force, such thatthe static pressure field wich causes the force is rotating at some speed below running speed. The Muid rotational speed becomes the ‘whic! speed. The most common eause of whit is fluid rotation around the impeller front or back shrouds, ‘or in journal bearing clearances. Such fiuid rotation is typically about 45 percent of rumning speed, because te fiuid is stationary at the stator wall, and rotating atthe rotor velocity at the rotor surface, such that a roughly half speed “Couette flow" distribution is established in the running clearance. The pressure distribution which drives this whirl is generally skewed such thatthe cross- coupled component isin the same direction as the whirling motion, and potentially strong. If somehow clearance is decreased on one side of the gap, due fo eccentricity for example the resulting cross-coupled foree increases further. If the ‘uid whit fequency increases as speed increases until the whit] i at a rotor pooely damped critical speed, the phasing of the cross-coupled force application versus the reaction to it becomes unstable (force leads to deflection Teads fo more force), and the “shaft whit!” then becomes known as “shaft whip", which is very destructive, quickly wearing away tight design clearances needed to seal the internal pump cavities ‘The characteristics of shait whip are that once it starts, all self-excitation occurs at the bending natural frequency of the shaft, so the vibration response frequency "locks on" to the natural frequency. Since whip begins when whirl is close to half the running speed, and is equal to the shaft natural frequency, the normal Ix running speed frequency spectrum and roughly circular shaft orbit now show a strong component at about 45 percent of running speed, which fa the orbit shows up as a loop reflecting orbit pulsation every other revolution, A typical observation in this situation is the "lock on" of vibration onto the natural frequency, causing vibration at speeds above whip initiation to deviate from the whirl's constant percentage of running speed. Parametric Resonance & Fractional Frequencies: Certain types of nonlinear vibration response have been found common in turbomachinery rotors when the interact with the stationary parts of the casing. ‘They generally fall into the category of parametric resonance, and are beyond the scope of this discussion, They can result in large vibration in spite of relatively low driving force, Typically, such resonances are caused by bearing support looseness or a rub at, 2 bearing, seal or other running clearance, The symptoms are a pulsating orbit, with a large amount of vibration at exact whole fractions of running speed, such as 1/2, 1/4, ete ‘Test Methods- FFT Spectrum Analysis: Vibration amplitude vs. frequency FFT spectrum or “signature” analysis can determine the frequencies which are most strongly excited, suggesting possible root causes to someone familiar with the vibration characteristics of the pump internal components and the systems to which the pump is attached, Following 135signature analysis, experimental modal analysis (EMA) has proven its ability to quickly solve vibration problems by separately determining the excitation forces and the natural frequencies ofthe pump system, ‘The speeds at which pump vibrations are at their maximum and, based on experience, are severe enough to cause reliability problems are called “critical speeds". Pump critical speeds ate commonly determined by “waterfall plotting” a 3-D plot of vibration amplitude vs. frequency spectra vs. time during acceleration or deceleration between the static and operating conditions, as shown by example in Figure 3 for a boiler feed pump operated over a range of speeds at a low (discharge throttled) flow rate, For pumps, such a plot can be in significant error because the values of the stiffness k of the annular seals during start-up and shut- down transients may differ greatly from their values during steady operating conditions of interest, due primarily to the Lomakin Effeet, ‘The analytical counterpart of the cascade plot is the Campbell Diagram, which plots vibration excitation frequeney vs. running speed. Since the strongest vibration excitations in pumps usually occur at integer multiples of the running speed, these (Ix, 2x, and vane pass) are plotted on the diagram as diagonal lines ‘emanating from the plot origin. Likewise, roughly horizontal lines are plotted forthe first several calculated rotor natural frequencies, Intersections of excitation and natural frequency curves are marked by circles of radius equal to 10% of the frequency at which the intersection occurs. If any part of any circle lies between two vertical lines which represent the minimum and maximum running speeds, then @ resonance is predicted, requiring steps to shift the problem natural frequency, increase its damping until i is critically damped, or eliminate the exciting force. SHAFT VIBS (8) 5x secs 27% RADIAL RUNNING SPEED Fe § te “TE : 5 7 aif 8 g : i y ‘ : i ' Figure 3: Waterfall or “Cascade” Plot of Of BEP Vibrations vs. Speed Test Methods- Impulse (“Bump”) Testing: In modal response impact testing or shaker testing to determine natural frequencies, 2 convenient plot to present the results is log vibration vs. frequency combined with phase angle vs. frequency. This plot Identifies and verifies the value of natural frequencies and shows their amplification factor. Another useful plot is a Nyquist plot, which conveys similar information, but in terms of a polar plot where vibration level is the radial vector, and phase is the angle. In the latter plot, natural frequencies plot as near citcles, and closely spaced modes are more easily identified and separated using the Nyquist plo. Experimental Modal Analysis (EMA) is @ method of vibration testing in which @ known force (constant at all frequencies within the test range) is put into a pump, and the pump's vibration response exclusively due 136to this force is observed and analyzed, EMA can determine the vibration characteristics of pumps either on the test stand or in the field, The actual natural frequencies of combined casing, piping, and supporting structure can be obtained, and if special data collection procedures are used, EMA can also determine the rotor natural frequencies at the pump operating conditions, ‘The main tools required to do EMA are a two channel FFT frequency analyzer, a PC with special software, 4 set of vibration response probes such as accelerometers or proximity probes, and an impact hammer designed to spread its force over a frequency range which covers the test range, as if the results of a uumber ‘of shaker tests were combined. The impact hammer has an accelerometer in its head which is calibrated to indicate the force being applied. During an EMA test, the signal from the hammer input force accelerometer is sent to one channel of the spectrum analyzer, and the signal from the vibration response probe is sent to the second channel. Dividing, at each frequency, the second channel by the first channel gives the "frequency response function” (FRF) of the pump and its attached system, The peaks of the FRE are the non-crtieally damped natural frequencies, and the width and height of the peaks indicate the damping of each natural frequency, and how sensitive vibration at the test location is to forces which occur in the Vicinity of the hammer impact at frequencies near a given natural frequency. ‘A variation of EMA has been developed by Marscher to accurately determine natural frequencies without shutting down the pump, and within the time and operational constraints of actual field tests. This technique is known as Time Averaged Pulse (TAP), and is described in the references. The TAP method statistically reorganizes the data obtained from Modal Analysis in order 10 reliably determine structural natural frequencies and mode shapes, resonating force locations and frequencies, and rotor ritical speeds while the pump is operating at the problem condition. TAP then uses classical modal analysis processing techniques to produce an animated model of each natural frequency’s vibration pattern, and to make predictions about the effectiveness of proposed design changes, such as stiffer bearings, new piping Supports, or a thicker baseplate. The method may be applied to machines at any operating speed and load. EMA can sort through a complicated modal test data base consisting of FRF plots of response vibrations at ‘any locations due to hitting at a chosen location representative of where a significant exciting force might operate, The result of this sorting is accurate prediction of the frequency and damping of each natural frequency within the range of the test, and moving "cartoons" of the natural frequency vibration "mode shape". In some EMA computer programs, this information can be used to automatically predict the best locations for added masses, dampers, or stiffeners to solve the vibration problem associated with a given mode. Similar cartoons can also be made of the operational vibration taken at many locations and directions, and is then known as a Operating Deflection Shape (ODS). ‘The ODS is extremely useful as a troubleshooting tool, since issues such as soft foot, loose components, and zones of excessive flexibility become instantly obvious, so fixes can be proposed Vibration Troubleshooting: Figures 4 and 5 show typical failure modes and associated frequencies in a representative pump style, ‘The point of these figures is not to be all inclusive of pump problems, but to show major issues, and how the problem relates to the resulting vibration, Figure 6 shows how FFT spectra and x-y “orbits” (motion of the shaft centerline at probe locations) can be used to determine what problems may be occutring, based on vibration level, and what their severity likely is. 137Caviavon, erosion Rubbing Wear Terslonal: Axa sewinst Sa atitonses sakes staa / Comecters : Touma er Figure 4: Horizontal Pump Symptoms of Typical Hydraulic or Mechanical Problems Infot or Discharge "Blade Pass” Pressure Puisations _Prassure Pulsations Due to BlaceNane interactions, oF ce )_Possible Recioulation & Stall r = Torsional Possible Ol Pulsations Flim instgbives Misalignment Dua to Pedestal I Distortion or Piping Nozzle ‘Swid or “Loads _ Rens our CO ‘Skew-Mounting of Large Diameter nce Drum a ‘Solamic Seo eee Ree —Eectalon Figure 5: Typical Frequencies Associated with Pump Failure Modes 138oreIt: on SPECTRUM: gam COMMON CAUSES. 3 LSS i REMARE ETENTION 3 SRenetsiad br Soke annie EMECTS 9 aaa agape a) Shar panaue Figure 6; Misalignment Example of Shaft Orbit and FFT Spectrum ‘Case History: Vertieal Pump with Hollow Drive Shaft/ Gear Box Drive A major U.S. petroleum refinery had a serious gear box failure problem, coupled witha severe high pitched noise in violetion of OSHA standards, in some service water pumps. These pumps were driven at variable speed by a steam turbine though a right angle 1:1 gear box and hollow drive shafting. Many experts from the pump, turbine, and gear manufacturers, and from independent consulting firms had tried unsuccessfully to use vibration signature testing (and sometimes FEA analysis) to understand and cure the problem over the several years since installation. Replacement of the gear boxes with some carefully built to more stringent tolerances had no effect, 11 was suspected thatthe problem involved a torsional critical speed, ‘excited by gear-meshing frequency. However, torsional testing performed by one of the author's found that all rotor system torsionat natural frequencies were close to their predicted values, and were not near the unit's single operating speed Impact modal testing was performed on all exposed stationary as well as rotating components, using the cumulative tithe averaging method referenced in the discussion above. None of the results indicated the presence of any natural frequencies close to the excited gear meshing frequency, until the four foot long hollow drive shait was impact tested while it was operating, The surprising test results showed that the hollow shaft, when under torque, had a “bell-mode” almost exactly at the gear meshing frequency. The ‘mode shape of the excited natural frequency, as shown in Figure 7, was such that the hollow shaft ovalized with very little damping, causing the shaft length to oscillate as the cross-section cyclically avi Subsequent analysis showed that the unexpected axial movement was through the “Poisson effect”, which states that as you strain a component in one direction, it automatically deflects at the same time in the perpendicular direction. The driving force was shown by further testing to be the combined torsional and axial foad from the bullpinion gear meshing. The drive shaft was filled with grease to damp out this mediate fell a factor of ten, and all gear box problems ceased. Nat re Shak 7 Se Note Figure 7 139Conclusion: Issues such as procedures for checking acceptability of vibration can seem deceptively simple. In reality, it takes experience to reach the correct conclusion relative to the many inter-related issues associated with choosing and operating a centrifugal pump. ‘© Analyze machinery “up front”, before installation, and preferably before purchase, If you do not have an in-house group to do this, hire a third party consultant, or make it part of the bidding process that the manufacturer must perform such analysis for you in a credible manner, However, there are many “ballpark” checks and simple analyses that you, as a non- specialist, can do for yoursel. Be very careful about the size of the pump you buy versus what you truly need for your process and its pumping system. Do not but significantly over-sized pumps that then must ‘spend much of the time operating at part load In the case of rotordynamics, alignment monitoring, and natural frequency resonance testing, the use of computerized tools are much more likely to result in the correct conclusions than manual” techniques, Bibliography: 1 2 10. i 2 1B. M4 15, 16, AGOSTINELLI, A., NOBLES, D., MOCKRIDGE, C.R,, An Experimental Investigation of Radial Trust in Centrifugal Pumps, J. Engr. for Power, Trans ASME, v.82, 1960 ALLAIRE, P.E. etal, Dynamics of Short Eccentric Plain Seals with High Axial Reynolds Number, J. Spacecraft ALAA, v.15, 6, €. 1978 API 610, 10th Ed., Amer, Pet Inst, Washington D.C.,¢. 2004 API 684, Tutorial on API Standard Paragraphs Concerning Rotor Dynamics and Balancing, Amer. Pet, Inst, Washington D.C, 1996 BAXTER, RLL., BERNHARD, D.L,, Vibration Tolerances for Industry. ASME 67-PET-14, 1967 BLACK, HF, Effects of Fluid-Filled Clearance Spaces on Centrifugal Pump Vibrations. 8th Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M Univ., ©. 1979 BLAKE, M. New Vibration Standards, Hydrocarbon Proc. and Petr. Refining, Jan, 1964 BLEVINS, R.D., Formulas for Natural Frequency and Mode Shape, Robert Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar Fla, c. 1984 CHILDS, D,, Finite Length Solutions for Rotordynamic Coefficients of Turbulent Annular Seal, ASME/ASLE Lubrication Conf, ASME Paper 82-LUB-12, Oct. 1982. ESHLEMAN, R.L, "The Role of Sum and Difference Frequencies in Rotating Machinery Fault Diagnosis," The Institution of Mechanical Engineers, C272/80, Second Intemational Conference, Vibrations in Rotating Machinery (1980). EWINS, D.., Modal Testing: Theory and Practice, Research Studies Press, Wiley NY, e. 1984 FRASER, WH., Centrifugal Pump Hydraulic Performance and Diagnostics, Pump Handbook, MeGra-Hill, 1985 HVANSI Standards, 2000 Ed., The Hydraulic Instiute, Parsippany NI, c.2000 KOVATS, A., Vibration of Vertical Paps, ASME Journal of Engineering for Power, April 1962 MAKAY, E,, SZAMODY, 0,, Recommended Design Guidelines for Feedwater Pumps in Large Power Generating Units, EPRI Rpt CS-1512, Sept 1980 MARSCHER, W.D., The Effect of Fluid Forces at Various Operation Concitions on the Vibrations of Vertical Turbine Pumps, Proc. IMechE, Radial Loads and Axial Tarusts on Pumps, Feb 51986 MARSCHER, W.D., Determination of Pump Critical Speeds During Operation Using Modal Analysis, Proc ASME {986 WAM Symp. on Troubleshooting Methods, Anaheim Cal, Dec 1986 MARSCHER, W., The Relationship Between Pump Rotor System Tribology and Appropriate Vibration Specifications for Centrifugal Pumps, Proc IMechE 3rd European Congress on Fluid Machinery forthe Oil and Petrochemical Industries, The Hague, Netherlands, May 1987 MARSCHER, W., Analysis and Test of Multistage Purp Wet Crtieal Speeds, ASLE/ASME Joint Tribology Cont, Ft Lauderdale, Oct. 1989. MARSCHER, W., The Effect of Variable Frequency Drives on Vibration Problems in Vertical Pumps, Proc. Water & Wastewater Conference, Barcelona, Spain, April 1990 140