Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 by
John B. Conway
updated on January, 7th 2013
2 Last
PREFACE
Most of the exercises I solved were assigned homeworks in the graduate courses Math 713 and Math 714
Complex Analysis I and II at the University of Wisconsin Milwaukee taught by Professor Dashan Fan
in Fall 2008 and Spring 2009.
The solutions manual is intented for all students taking a graduate level Complex Analysis course. Students
can check their answers to homework problems assigned from the excellent book Functions of One Complex Variable I, Second Edition by John B. Conway. Furthermore students can prepare for quizzes, tests,
exams and final exams by solving additional exercises and check their results. Maybe students even study
for preliminary exams for their doctoral studies.
However, I have to warn you not to copy straight of this book and turn in your homework, because this
would violate the purpose of homeworks. Of course, that is up to you.
I strongly encourage you to send me solutions that are still missing to kleefeld@tu-cottbus.de (LATEXpreferred
but not mandatory) in order to complete this solutions manual. Think about the contribution you will give
to other students.
If you find typing errors or mathematical mistakes pop an email to kleefeld@tu-cottbus.de. The recent
version of this solutions manual can be found at
http://www.math.tu-cottbus.de/INSTITUT/kleefeld/Files/Solution.html.
The goal of this project is to give solutions to all of the 452 exercises.
CONTRIBUTION
Contents
1 The Complex Number System
1.1 The real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 The field of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 The complex plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Polar representation and roots of complex numbers
1.5 Lines and half planes in the complex plane . . . . .
1.6 The extended plane and its spherical representation
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
1
5
5
7
7
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
9
9
12
13
15
17
20
21
21
24
31
Complex Integration
4.1 Riemann-Stieltjes integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Power series representation of analytic functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Zeros of an analytic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 The index of a closed curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Cauchys Theorem and Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 The homotopic version of Cauchys Theorem and simple connectivity
4.7 Counting zeros; the Open Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 Goursats Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
42
42
48
58
60
61
63
66
67
Singularities
5.1 Classification of singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 The Argument Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
68
75
82
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
84
84
86
88
90
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
93
93
97
100
103
106
110
112
120
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Runges Theorem
123
8.1 Runges Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.2 Simple connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.3 Mittag-Lefflers Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
10 Harmonic Functions
10.1 Basic properties of harmonic functions . . .
10.2 Harmonic functions on a disk . . . . . . . .
10.3 Subharmonic and superharmonic functions .
10.4 The Dirichlet Problem . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Greens Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
130
130
131
132
132
133
134
135
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
137
137
141
144
148
148
11 Entire Functions
151
11.1 Jensens Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
11.2 The genus and order of an entire function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
11.3 Hadamard Factorization Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
12 The Range of an Analytic Function
12.1 Blochs Theorem . . . . . . . .
12.2 The Little Picard Theorem . . .
12.3 Schottkys Theorem . . . . . . .
12.4 The Great Picard Theorem . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
161
161
162
162
162
Chapter 1
1 + i 3
1 za
3 3 + 5i
;
;
(a R); z ;
;
z z+a
7i + 1
2
!
1 i 3 n 1 + i n
; i ;
2
2
!
1
z
!
1
Im
z
Re
for
2 n 8.
x
Re(z)
=
2
+y
|z|2
y
Im(z)
= 2
= 2
2
x +y
|z|
=
x2
b)
Re
Im
z a
z+a
z a
z+a
=
=
|z|2 a2
x2 + y2 a2
= 2
2
2
+ y + 2ax + a
|z| + 2aRe(z) + a2
2ya
2Im(z)a
= 2
2
2
2
x + y + 2xa + a
|z| + 2aRe(z) + a2
x2
c)
Re z3 = x3 3xy2 = Re(z)3 3Re(z)Im(z)2
Im z3 = 3x2 y y3 = 3Re(z)2 Im(z) Im(z)3
1
d)
!
3 + 5i
Re
7i + 1
!
3 + 5i
Im
7i + 1
19
25
8
=
25
=
e)
f)
1 + i 3 3
Re
1 + i 3 3
Im
g)
1 i 3 6
Re
1 i 3 6
Im
Re (in )
Im (in )
0,
1,
1,
0,
1,
1,
= 1
= 0
= 1
= 0
n is odd
n {4k : k Z}
n {2 + 4k : k Z}
n is even
n {1 + 4k : k Z}
n {3 + 4k : k Z}
h)
Re
Im
1+i
1+i
!n !
0,
2 ,
1,
2
2 ,
0,
2 ,
1,
1,
2 ,
0,
2 ,
1,
22 ,
0,
!n !
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7
n=8
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7
n=8
Exercise 2. Find the absolute value and conjugate of each of the following:
3i
i
2 + i; 3; (2 + i)(4 + 3i);
; (1 + i)6 ; i17 .
;
i
+
3
2 + 3i
Solution. It is easy to calculate:
a)
z = 2 + i,
|z| =
5,
z = 2 i
b)
z = 3,
|z| = 3,
c)
|z| = 5 5,
3i
z=
,
2 + 3i
|z| =
1
110,
11
e)
z=
1
3
i
=
+ i,
i + 3 10 10
z = 3
|z| =
z = 5 10i
3+i
z =
2 3i
1
10,
10
z =
3
1
i
10 10
f)
z = (1 + i)6 = 8i,
|z| = 8,
z = 8i
g)
i17 = i,
|z| = 1,
z = i
|z + w|2
= |z|2 + 2Re(zw)
+ |w|2 .
2
= |z| 2Re(zw)
+ |w|2 .
+ |z w|2 = 2 |z|2 + |w|2 .
= zz + zw + wz + ww
= (z + w)(z + w) = (z + w)(z + w)
2
2
2
= |z| + |w| + zw + zw = |z| + |w|2 + zw + zw
zw + zw
= |z|2 + |w|2 + zw + zw = |z|2 + |w|2 + 2
2
= |z|2 + |w|2 + 2Re(zw)
= |z|2 + 2Re(zw)
+ |w|2 .
|z w|2
= zz zw wz + ww
= (z w)(z w) = (z w)(z w)
2
2
2
= |z| + |w| zw zw = |z| + |w|2 zw zw
zw + zw
= |z|2 + |w|2 zw zw = |z|2 + |w|2 2
2
= |z|2 + |w|2 2Re(zw)
= |z|2 2Re(zw)
+ |w|2 .
|z + w|2 + |z w|2
= |z|2 + Re(zw)
+ |w|2 + |z|2 Re(zw)
+ |w|2
= |z|2 + |w|2 + |z|2 + |w|2 = 2|z|2 + 2|w|2 = 2 |z|2 + |w|2 .
Exercise 6. Let R(z) be a rational function of z. Show that R(z) = R(z) if all the coefficients in R(z) are real.
Solution. Let R(z) be a rational function of z, that is
R(z) =
an zn + an1 zn1 + . . . a0
bm zm + bm1 zm1 + . . . b0
where n, m are nonnegative integers. Let all coefficients of R(z) be real, that is
a0 , a1 , . . . , an , b0 , b1 , . . . , bm R.
Then
R(z) =
=
an zn + an1 zn1 + . . . a0
an zn + an1 zn1 + . . . a0
=
m
m1
bm z + bm1 z
+ . . . b0 bm zm + bm1 zm1 + . . . b0
an zn + an1 zn1 + . . . a0
bm zm + bm1 zm1 + . . . b0
4
an zn + an1 zn1 + . . . a0
= R(z).
bm zm + bm1 zm1 + . . . b0
= ||z w + w| |w||
||z w| + |w| |w||
= ||z w||
= |z w|
Notice that |z| and |w| is the distance from z and w, respectively, to the origin while |z w| is the distance
between z and w. Considering the construction of the implied triangle, in order to guarantee equality, it is
necessary and sufficient that
||z| |w|| = |z w|
(|z| |w|)2 = |z w|2
|z||w| = Re(zw)
|zw|
= Re(zw)
w
w,
we get zw
w
w
= |w|2
z
w
0 if w , 0. If
Exercise 2. Show that equality occurs in (3.3) if and only if zk /zl 0 for any integers k and l, 1 k, l n,
for which zl , 0.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. Let a R and c > 0 be fixed. Describe the set of points z satisfying
|z a| |z + a| = 2c
for every possible choice of a and c. Now let a be any complex number and, using a rotation of the plane,
describe the locus of points satisfying the above equation.
Solution. Not available.
z5 = cis(
5 = 3
3 )
5
3 + 3i
z = 12 cos
+ 2k
+ i sin
2
!
+ 2k
.
2
z1 = 12 cos 7
=
+
i
sin
i
6
6
2
2 .
So, in rectangular form, the second roots of z are given by
4
108
2 ,
12
2
4
4
12
and 108
,
2
2 .
Exercise 3. A primitive nth root of unity is a complex number a such that 1, a, a2 , ..., an1 are distinct nth
roots of unity. Show that if a and b are primitive nth and mth roots of unity, respectively, then ab is a kth root
of unity for some integer k. What is the smallest value of k? What can be said if a and b are nonprimitive
roots of unity?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Use the binomial equation
(a + b)n =
n
X
k=0
where
n
k
!
n nk k
a b,
k
n!
,
k!(n k)!
and compare the real and imaginary parts of each side of de Moivres formula to obtain the formulas:
!
!
n
n
cos n = cosn
cosn2 sin2 +
cosn4 sin4 . . .
2
4
!
!
n
n
cosn3 sin3 + . . .
cosn1 sin
sin n =
3
1
Solution. Not available.
n1
Exercise 5. Let z = cis 2
= 0.
n for an integer n 2. Show that 1 + z + . . . + z
P
Solution. The summation of the finite geometric sequence 1, z, z2 , . . . , zn1 can be calculated as nj=1 z j1 =
n
zn 1
2
n
th
n
=
.
We
want
to
show
that
z
is
an
n
root
of
unity.
So,
using
de
Moivres
formula,
z
=
cis
z1
n
n
z 1
11
2
2
n1
cis n n = cis(2) = 1. It follows that 1 + z + z + ... + z = z1 = z1 = 0 as required.
Exercise 6. Show that (t) = cis t is a group homomorphism of the additive group R onto the multiplicative
group T = {z : |z| = 1}.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 7. If z C and Re(zn ) 0 for every positive integer n, show that z is a non-negative real number.
Solution. Let n be an arbitrary but fixed positive integer and let z C and Re(zn ) 0. Since zn =
rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)), we have
Re(zn ) = rn cos(n) 0.
If z = 0, then we are done, since r = 0 and Re(zn ) = 0. Therefore, assume z , 0, then r > 0. Thus
Re(zn ) = rn cos(n) 0
implies cos(n) 0 for all n. This implies = 0 as we will show next. Clearly, < [/2, 3/2]. If
(k + 1)
k
which is impossible since cos(n) 0. Similarly, we can derive a contradiction if we assume (3/2, 2).
Then 2 /k < 2 /(k + 1) for some k {2, 3, . . .}.
!
2y
|z|2 1
2x
.
,
,
(z) =
|z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1
(z1 ) = (0, 0, 1).
7
!
)
2x
x2 1
|x
R
S
,
0,
x2 + 1
x2 + 1
corresponds to the real axes in C. That means the unit circle x2 + z2 = 1 lying in the xzplane corresponds
to the real axes in C.
If z is on the imaginary axes, then z = iy which implies |z|2 = y2 . Thus
!
2y y2 1
(z) = 0, 2
.
,
y + 1 y2 + 1
Therefore the set
0,
!
)
2y y2 1
|y
R
S
,
y2 + 1 y2 + 1
corresponds to the imaginary axes in C. That means the unit circle y2 + z2 = 1 lying in the yzplane
corresponds to the imaginary axes in C.
Exercise 4. Let be a circle lying in S . Then there is a unique plane P in R3 such that P S = . Recall
from analytic geometry that
P = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 1 + x2 2 + x3 3 = l}
where (1 , 2 , 3 ) is a vector orthogonal to P and l is some real number. It can be assumed that 21 +22 +23 =
1. Use this information to show that if contains the point N then its projection on C is a straight line.
Otherwise, projects onto a circle in C.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Let Z and Z 0 be points on S corresponding to z and z0 respectively. Let W be the point on S
corresponding to z + z0 . Find the coordinates of W in terms of the coordinates of Z and Z 0 .
Solution. Not available.
8
Chapter 2
S
Let z A and set z = 1|z|
zA B(z, z ) is open also. A
2 , then B(z, z ) A is open and therefore A =
cannot be closed, otherwise A and C A were both closed and open sets yet C is connected.
|Imz|
2 ,
For any real x and any > 0 the point x + i 2 B(x, ) but x + i 2 C R. Thus B is not open.
(c) C := {z C : zn = 1 for some integer n 1}
Claim: C is neither closed nor open.
C is not open because if zn = 1 then z = rcis() with r = 1 and any -ball around z would contain an
element z0 := (1 + 4 )cis().
To show that C cannot be closed, note that for qp Q with p Z and q N the number z :=
cis qp 2 C since
zq = cis(p2) = cos(p2) + i sin(p2) = 1.
Now fix x R Q and let {xn }n be a rational sequence that converges to x. Let m be any natural
number. Now zm = 1 implies that sin(mx2) = 0 which in turn means that mx Z contradicting the
choice x R Q. We have constructed a sequence of elements of C that converges to a point that is
not element of C. Hence C is not closed.
9
The set cannot be open by the argument given in 2.1) and it is not closed because zn := 1
sequence in D that converges to a point outside of D.
1
n
is a
This set E is not open by the observation in 2.1) and it is closed because its complement is open: If
) is contained in the complement of E, if z is imaginary then
z , E and z real, then B(z, min{|x|,|x1|}
2
B(z, |Imy|
)
is
completely
contained
in
the
complement of E.
2
Exercise 3. If (X, d) is any metric space show that every open ball is, in fact, an open set. Also, show that
every closed ball is a closed set.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Give the details of the proof of (1.9c).
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Prove Proposition 1.11.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 6. Prove that a set G X is open if and only if X G is closed.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 7. Show that (C , d) where d is given (I. 6.7) and (I. 6.8) is a metric space.
0
|
Solution. To show (C , d) with d(z, z0 ) = [(1+|z|22|zz
for z, z0 C and d(z, ) = (1+|z|22 )1/2 , z C is a
)(1+|z0 |2 )]1/2
metric space.
i) d(z, z0 ) 0.
0
|
0 for all z, z0 C (the denominator is always positive).
Since |zz0 | 0, we have d(z, z0 ) = [(1+|z|22|zz
)(1+|z0 |2 )]1/2
Obviously, d(z, ) = (1+|z|22 )1/2 0 for all z C.
ii) d(z, z0 ) = 0 iff z = z0 .
0
|
We have 2|z z0 | = 0 iff z = z0 . Therefore, d(z, z0 ) = [(1+|z|22|zz
= 0 iff z = z0 . d(, ) =
)(1+|z0 |2 )]1/2
2
limz (1+|z|2 )1/2 = 0. Thus, d(, 0) = 0 iff z = .
iii) d(z, z0 ) = d(z0 , z).
0
0
|
z|
2
0
0
We have d(z, z0 ) = [(1+|z|22|zz
= [(1+|z0 |2|z
2 )(1+|z|2 )]1/2 = d(z , z) for all z, z C. Also d(z, ) = (1+|z|2 )1/2 =
)(1+|z0 |2 )]1/2
0
d(, z) by the symmetry of d(z, z ) in general.
iv) d(z, z0 ) d(z, x) + d(x, z0 ).
We have
2|z z0 |
[(1 + |z|2 )(1 + |z0 |2 )]1/2
2|z x|
2|x z0 |
+
[(1 + |z|2 )(1 + |x|2 )]1/2 [(1 + |x|2 )(1 + |z0 |2 )]1/2
= d(z, x) + d(x, z0 )
d(z, z0 ) =
(2.1)
(2.2)
which is true by Exercise 4 part 2 on page 3. Thus, dividing (2.2) by (1 + |x|2 )1/2 yields
|z z0 |(1 + |x|2 )1/2 |z x|(1 + |z0 |2 )1/2 + |x z0 |(1 + |z|2 )1/2 .
Multiplying this by
(1 +
gives the assertion above.
|x|2 )1/2 (1
2
+ |z0 |2 )1/2 (1 + |z|2 )1/2
Exercise 8. Let (X, d) be a metric space and Y X. Suppose G X is open; show that G Y is open in
(Y, d). Conversely, show that if G1 Y is open in (Y, d), there is an open set G X such that G1 = G Y.
Solution. Set G1 = G Y, let G be open in (X, d) and Y X. In order to show that G1 is open in (Y, d),
pick an arbitrary point p G1 . Then p G and since G is open, there exists an > 0 such that
BX (p; ) G.
But then
BY (p; ) = BX (p; ) Y G Y = G1
which proves that p is an interior point of G1 in the metric d. Thus G1 is open in Y (Proposition 1.13a).
Let G1 be an open set in Y. Then, for every p G1 , there exists an ball
BY (p : ) G1 .
11
Thus
G1 =
BY (p; ).
pG1
BY (p; ) =
pG1
where G =
pG1
[
pG1
[
BX (p; ) Y = G Y
BX (p; ) Y =
pG1
BX (p; ) is open in (X, d). (Proposition 1.9c since each BX (p; ) is open).
2.2 Connectedness
Exercise 1. The purpose of this exercise is to show that a connected subset of R is an interval.
(a) Show that a set A R is an interval iff for any two points a and b in A with a < b, the interval
[a, b] A.
(b) Use part (a) to show that if a set A R is connected then it is an interval.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 2. Show that the sets S and T in the proof of Theorem 2.3 are open.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. Which of the following subsets X of C are connected; nif X is not connected,
what are its
o
components: (a) X = {z : |z| 1} {z : |z 2| < 1}. (b) X = [0, 1) 1 + n1 : n 1 . (c) X = C (A B)
where A = [0, ) and B = {z = r cis : r = , 0 }?
Solution. a) Define X = {z : |z| 1} {z : |z 2| < 1} := A B. It suffices to show that X is path-connected.
Obviously A is path-connected and B is path-connected. Next, we will show that X is path-connected.
Recall that a space is path-connected if for any two points x and y there exists a continuous function f from
the interval [0, 1] to X with f (0) = x and f (1) = y (this function f is called the path from x to y).
Let x A and y B and define the function f (t) : [0, 1] X by
(1 3t)x + 3tRe(x),
0 t 31
f (t) =
(2 3t)Re(x) + (3t 1)Re(y), 31 < t 32
2
(3 3t)Re(y) + (3t 2)y,
3 < t 1.
12
This function is obviously continuous, since f (1/3) = limt 1 f (t) = limt 1 + f (t) = Re(x) X and
3
3
f (2/3) = limt 2 f (t) = limt 2 + f (t) = Re(y) X. In addition, we have f (0) = x and f (1) = y. Therefore
3
3
X is path-connected and hence X is connected.
b) There is no way to connect {2} and { 23 }. Therefore X is not connected. The components are [0, 1), {2},
{ 23 }, { 34 }, . . ., {1 + 1n }.
c) X is not connected, since there is no way to connect (2, 1) and (1, 2). The k th component is given by
C {A B} where
A = [2k 2, 2k)
and
B = {z = r cis : r = , 2k 2 < 2k},
k {1, 2, 3, . . .}.
is connected.
Exercise 5. Show that if F X is closed and connected then for every pair of points a, b in F and each
> 0 there are points z0 , z1 , . . . , zn in F with z0 = a, zn = b and d(zk1 , zk ) < for 1 k n. Is the
hypothesis that F be closed needed? If F is a set which satisfies this property then F is not necessarily
connected, even if F is closed. Give an example to illustrate this.
Solution. Not available.
intersect A in a point different from x. In particular, for every integer n there is a point xn in B(x; n1 ) A.
Thus d(x, xn ) < 1n which implies xn x (see Proof of Proposition 3.2). Then x A0 , so x A A0 .
: To show A A0 A . Let x A A0 . If x A, then x A (A A ). Now, assume x A0 but not
in A. Then there exists {xn } A with limn xn = x. It follows, > 0 B(x; ) A , since {xn } A. By
Proposition 1.13f we get x A .
Exercise 2. Furnish the details of the proof of Proposition 3.8.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. Show that diam A = diam A .
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Let zn , z be points in C and let d be the metric on C . Show that |zn z| 0 if and only if
d(zn , z) 0. Also show that if |zn | then {zn } is Cauchy in C . (Must {zn } converge in C ?)
Solution. First assume that |zn z| 0, then
2
d(zn , z) = p
|zn z| 0
(1 + |zn |2 )(1 + |z|2 )
p
since the denominator (1 + |zn |2 )(1 + |z|2 ) 1 is bounded below away from 0. To see the converse, let
d(zn , z) 0 or equivalently d2 (zn , z) 0. We need to show that if zn z in the d-norm, then |zn | 9
because otherwise the denominator grows without bounds. In fact we will show that if |zn | , then
d(zn , z) 9 0 for any z C. Then
4 |zn |2 zn z zn z + |z|2
d2 (zn , z) =
1 + |zn |2 1 + |z|2
4 |zn |2 2Re(zn z) + |z|2
=
1 + |z|2 |zn |2 + 1 + |z|2
2
n z)
4 1 2Re(z
+ |z|z|n |2
|zn |2
=
if |zn | , 0
2
1 + |z|2 + 1+|z|
|zn |2
4
in particular if |zn | , d(zn , z) 1+|z|
2 , 0. This shows that the denominator remains bounded as
d(zn , z) 0 and therefore the numerator 2|zn z| 0. Hence convergence in d-normpimplies convergence
in ||-norm for numbers zn , z C. Next assume that |zn | . Then clearly also 1 + |zn |2 and
therefore d(zn , ) = 2 2 0. The last thing to show is that if zn in (C , d), also |zn | . But
p1+|zn |
d(zn , ) 0 implies 1 + |zn |2 which is equivalent to |zn | .
Solution. Let {xn } be a convergent sequence with limit x. That is, given > 0 N such that d(xn , x) <
n > N and d(x, xm ) < 2 if m > N. Thus
d(xn , xm ) d(xn , x) + d(x, xm ) <
and therefore {xn } is a Cauchy sequence.
14
+ = ,
2 2
n, m N
2
if
0, 1 x 0
fn (x) =
nx, 0 < x n1 .
1
1,
n < x 1
It is obvious that the limit function f is discontinuous. Hence, the metric space (X, d) is not complete.
Example 2: Let X = (0, 1] with metric d(x, y) = |x y|, x, y X. The sequence { n1 } is Cauchy, but converges
to 0, which is not in the space. Thus, the metric space is not complete.
Example 3: Let X = Q, the rationals, with metric d(x, y) = |x y|, x,
y X. The sequence defined by x1 = 1,
xn+1 = x2n + x1n is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers. The limit 2 is not a rational number. Therefore,
the metric space is not complete.
Exercise 7. Put a metric d on R such that |xn x| 0 if and only if d(xn , x) 0, but that {xn } is a Cauchy
sequence in (R, d) when |xn | . (Hint: Take inspiration from C .)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 8. Suppose {xn } is a Cauchy sequence and {xnk } is a subsequence that is convergent. Show that
{xn } must be convergent.
Solution. Since {xnk } is convergent, there is a x such that xnk x as k . We have to show that xn x
as n x. Let > 0. Then we have N N such that d(xn , xm ) < 2 n, m N since {xn } is Cauchy and
M N such that d(xnk , x) < 2 nk M since xnk x as k . Now, fix nk0 > M + N, then
d(xn , x) d(xn , xnk0 ) + d(xnk0 , x) <
+ = ,
2 2
n N.
2.4 Compactness
Exercise 1. Finish the proof of Proposition 4.4.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 2. Let p = (p1 , . . . , pn ) and q = (q1 , . . . , qn ) be points in Rn with pk < qk for each k. Let
R = [p1 , q1 ] . . . [pn , qn ] and show that
12
n
X
2
diam R = d(p, q) = (qk pk ) .
k=1
Solution. By definition
15
i = 1, . . . , n.
(2.3)
v
t
n
X
(yi xi )2
i=1
v
t n
X
i=1
Note that we get equality if for example xi = pi and yi = qi for all i = 1, . . . , n. Thus the maximum distance
is obtained, so
v
t n
X
diam(R) = sup d(x, y) =
(qi pi )2 = d(p, q).
xR,yR
i=1
Exercise 3. Let F = [a1 , b1 ] . . . [an , bn ] R and let > 0; use Exercise 2 to show that there are
S
rectangles R1 , . . . , Rm such that F = m
k=1 Rk and diam Rk < for each k. If xk Rk then it follows that
Rk B(xk ; ).
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Show that the union of a finite number of compact sets is compact.
S
Solution. Let K = ni=1 Ki be a finite union of compact sets. Let {G } be an open cover of K, that is
[
K
G .
ki
[
Gi, j
j=1
n
[
j=1
Ki
ki
n [
[
Gi, j
i=1 j=1
Solution. Let (X, d) be a given metric space and let S X be totally bounded. Let > 0. Since S is totally
bounded, we have by Theorem 4.9 d) p. 22 that there exist a finite number of points x1 , . . . , xn S such that
S
n
[
B(xk ; /2).
k=1
n
[
B(xk ; ).
k=1
2.5 Continuity
Exercise 1. Prove Proposition 5.2.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 2. Show that if f and g are uniformly continuous (Lipschitz) functions from X into C then so is
f + g.
Solution. The distance in C is (x, y) = |x y|. The distance in X is d(x, y). Let f : X C be Lipschitz,
that is, there is a constant M > 0 such that
( f (x), f (y)) = | f (x) f (y)| Md(x, y),
x, y X
x, y X.
We have
( f (x) + g(x), f (y) + g(y))
x, y X,
17
whenever d(x, y) < 1 and d(x, y) < 2 , that is, whenever d(x, y) < min(1 , 2 ). So, choosing = 1 + 2 and
= min(1 , 2 ), we have shown that
> 0 > 0 such that ( f (x), f (y)) = | f (x) f (y)| < whenever d(x, y) < .
Thus f + g is uniformly continuous.
Exercise 3. We say that f : X C is bounded if there is a constant M > 0 with | f (x)| M for all x in X.
Show that if f and g are bounded uniformly continuous (Lipschitz) functions from X into C then so is f g.
Solution. Let f be bounded, that is, there exists a constant M1 > 0 with | f (x)| < M1 for all x X and let g
be bounded, that is, there exists a constant M2 > 0 with |g(x)| < M2 for all x X. Obviously f g is bounded,
because
| f (x)g(x)| | f (x)| |g(x)| M1 M2
x X.
So, there exists a constant M = M1 M2 with
| f (x)g(x)| M
x X.
Let f be Lipschitz, that is, there exists a constant N1 > 0 such that
( f (x), f (y)) N1 d(x, y)
x, y X
and let g be Lipschitz, that is, there exists a constant N2 > 0 such that
(g(x), g(y)) N1 d(x, y)
x, y X.
Now,
( f (x)g(x), f (y)g(y)) = | f (x)g(x) f (y)g(y)| =
= | f (x)g(x) f (x)g(y) + f (x)g(y) f (y)g(y)|
x, y X.
x, y X,
x X
x X
1 > 0 1 > 0 such that ( f (x), f (y)) = | f (x) f (y)| < 1 whenever d(x, y) < 1
2 > 0 2 > 0 such that ( f (x), f (y)) = | f (x) f (y)| < 2 whenever d(x, y) < 2 .
18
It remains to verify that f g is uniformly continuous, since we have already shown that f g is bounded. We
have
( f (x)g(x), f (y)g(y))
= | f (x)g(x) f (y)g(y)| =
M1 2 + M2 1 ,
whenever d(x, y) < min(1 , 2 ). So choosing = M1 2 + M2 1 and = min(1 , 2 ), we have > 0 > 0
such that
| f (x)g(x) f (y)g(y)| <
whenever d(x, y) < . Thus, f g is uniformly continuous and bounded.
Exercise 4. Is the composition of two uniformly continuous (Lipschitz) functions again uniformly continuous (Lipschitz)?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Suppose f : X is uniformly continuous; show that if {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in X then
{ f (xn )} is a Cauchy sequence in . Is this still true if we only assume that f is continuous? (Prove or give
a counterexample.)
Solution. Assume f : X is uniformly continuous, that is, for every > 0 there exists > 0 such that
( f (x), f (y)) < if d(x, y) < . If {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in X, we have, for every 1 > 0 there exists
N N such that d(xn , xm ) < 1 for all n, m N. But then, by the uniform continuity, we have that
( f (xn ), f (xm )) <
n, m N
1
x
cannot be
Exercise 6. Recall the definition of a dense set (1.14). Suppose that is a complete metric space and that
f : (D, d) (; ) is uniformly continuous, where D is dense in (X, d). Use Exercise 5 to show that there
is a uniformly continuous function g : X with g(x) = f (x) for every x in D.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 7. Let G be an open subset of C and let P be a polygon in G from a to b. Use Theorems 5.15
and 5.17 to show that there is a polygon Q G from a to b which is composed of line segments which are
parallel to either the real or imaginary axes.
19
is an open cover of X. Since X is by assumption compact (it is also sequentially compact as stated in
Theorem 4.9 p. 22), we can use Lebesgues Covering Lemma 4.8 p. 21 to obtain a > 0 such that x X
implies that B(x, ) B(z; z ) for some z X. More precisely, x, y B(z; z ) and therefore
( f (x), f (z)) ( f (x), f (z)) + ( f (z), f (y)) <
+ =
2 2
20
Chapter 3
Since this holds for any r > lim supn an and s > lim supn bn , we have
lim sup(an + bn ) lim sup an + lim sup bn .
n
Let r < lim inf n an (we know there are only finitely many by definition) and let s < lim inf n (same
here, there are only finitely many by definition). Then r + s < an + bn for all but finitely many ns. This
however, implies that
r + s lim inf (an + bn ).
n
Since this holds for any r < lim inf n an and s < lim inf n bn , we have
lim inf (an + bn ) lim inf an + lim inf bn .
n
Exercise 4. Show that lim inf an lim sup an for any sequence in R.
21
Solution. Let m = lim inf n an and bn = inf{an , an+1 , . . .}. Let M = lim supn an . Take any s > M.
Then, by definition of the lim supn an = M, we obtain that an < s for infinitely many ns which implies
that bn < s for all n and hence lim supn bn = m < s. This holds for all s > M. But the infimum of all
these ss is M. Therefore m M which is
lim inf an lim sup an .
n
Exercise 5. If {an } is a convergent sequence in R and a = lim an , show that a = lim inf an = lim sup an .
Solution. Suppose that {an } is a convergent sequence in R with limit a = limn an . Then by definition, we
have: > 0 N > 0 such that n N, we have |an a| , that is a an a + . This means that all
but finitely many an s are a + and a . This shows that
a lim inf an a +
|n
{z }
=:m
and
a lim sup an a + .
|n
{z }
=:M
a m M a + .
Hence,
0 M m 2.
we obtain
lim inf an = lim sup an = a.
n
Exercise 6. Find the radius of convergence for each of the following power series: (a)
P
P n n
P n!
n2 n
(b)
n=0 a z , a C; (c)
n=0 k z , k an integer , 0; (d)
n=0 z .
P n n P
n
k
Solution. a) We have n=0 a z = k=0 bk z with bk = a , a C. We also have,
lim sup |bk |1/k = lim sup |ak |1/k = lim sup |a| = |a|.
k
Therefore, R = 1/|a|, so
|a| ,
R=
a,0
.
a=0
0, |a| > 1
= lim 2n+1 =
1, |a| = 1 .
n |a|
, |a| < 1
22
n=0
an zn , a C;
So
d) We can write
n=0
zn! =
Thus,
k=0
1
1k ,
=
R=
|k| 1k ,
ak zk where
0,
2,
ak =
1,
0,
k > 0, k integer
.
k < 0, k integer
k=0
k=1
k = n!, n N, n > 1
otherwise
X
(1)n
n=1
zn(n+1)
is 1, and discuss convergence for z = 1, 1, and i. (Hint: The nth coefficient of this series is not (1)n /n.)
Solution. Rewrite the power series in standard form, then
n
(1)
(1)n n(n+1) X k
n
z
=
ak z with ak =
0
n
n=1
n=1
if n N s.t. k = n(n + 1)
.
else
To find the radius of convergence we use the root criterion and therefore need the estimates
1 n(n+1) n n n
for n N.
1
The first inequality is immediate from the fact that n 1 and hence n n(n+1) 1. For the second inequality
note that
n nn+1
1
1
n n(n+1) n n
n(n+1)
n nn
n(n+1)
(1)n
|=
n
1
1
n
n(n+1)
and
r
n(n+1)
(1)n
|=
n
23
1
1
n .
n
n
n(n+1)
n
n 1, thus
1
R
= lim sup
an = 1, i.e. R = 1.
n(n+1)
P (1)n
If z = 1 the series reduces to
n=1 n which converges with the Leibniz Criterion.
If z = 1 we note that the exponents n(n + 1) are always even integers and therefore the series is the
same as in the previous case of z = 1.
Now let z = i. The expression in(n+1) will always be real, so if the series converges at z = i, it converges
to a real number. We also note that formally
n
n if n mod 4 {2, 3}
n=1
n=1
Define the partial sums S k :=
Pk
n=0 ck .
b)
c)
d)
Relation b) is obvious and so are the upper bound c1 = 1 and the non-negativity constraint. We remark that
{S 4k+l }k1 , l {0, 1, 2, 3} describe bounded and monotone subsequences that converge to some point. Now
that |cn | & 0 the difference between S 4k+l and S 4k+m , l, m 0, 1, 2, 3 tends to zero, i.e. all subsequences
converge to the same limit. Therefore the power series converges also in the case of z = i.
h0
f (z + h) f (z)
,
h
hC
=
=
zz zz + hz + zh + hh zz
|z + h|2 |z|2 (z + h)(z + h)
=
=
h
h
h
h
z + h + z =: D.
h
If the limit of D exists, it may be found by letting the point h = (x, y) approach the origin (0,0) in the complex
plane C in any manner.
1.) Take the path along the real axes, that is y = 0. Then h = h and thus
D = z + h + z
h
= z + h + z
h
24
h
= z h z
h
to a. Since lim bnk = b, lim ank bnk = ab. Hence, {ank bnk } is a subsequence of an bn that converges to ab. So
ab
k
lim sup an bn .
n
Now, let a = lim sup an = . Then there exists a subsequence {ank } of {an } such that lim ank = a > 0.
k
And, since lim bn > 0, lim ank bnk = . Hence lim sup an bn = . In this second case, lim sup an bn
n
b lim sup an .
n
In both cases, we have established that ab lim sup an bn . Now, since for all n N, an > 0 and bn > 0,
n
1
1
= . Applying the inequality we have established replacing bn with
n bn
b
with an bn :
consider lim
1
bn
and an replaced
1
1
(an bn ) lim sup an bn .
bn
b n
Rearranging,
lim sup an bn b lim sup an .
n
Now, consider the case where we drop the positivity requirement. Let bn = 0, 12 , 0, 13 , 0, 14 , . . . and
note 0 = b = lim bn < . Also let an = 0, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4 . . . and note lim sup an = a = 0. In this case,
n
ab = 0 , 1 = lim sup an bn .
n
25
Exercise 4. Show that (cos z)0 = sin z and (sin z)0 = cos z.
Solution. We have by definition
(cos z)0 =
and similarly
!0 i
1 iz
1 iz
e + eiz =
eiz eiz =
e eiz = sin z
2
2
2i
!0
1
1 iz
i iz
iz
(sin z) =
e e
=
e + eiz =
eiz + eiz = cos z.
2i
2i
2
0
{z : ez = 1} = {(1 + 2k) i} ,
{z : cos z = 0} =
and
{z : sin z = 0} = {k}
where k Z.
Exercise 7. Prove formulas for cos(z + w) and sin(z + w).
Solution. We have
cos(z) =
sin(z) =
26
eiz + eiz
2
eiz eiz
.
2i
! )
1
+k ,
2
2
2
2i
2i
1 iz iw
1
e e + eiz eiw + eiz eiw + eiz eiw
4
4
1 iz iw 1 iz iw
e e + e e
2
2
1 iz iw
e e + eiz eiw
2
cos(z + w).
sin z
cos z ;
Solution. Since both sin z and cos z are analytic in the entire complex plane, it follows from the discussion
sin z
in the text following Definition 2.3 that tan z = cos
z is analytic wherever cos z , 0. Now, cos z = 0 implies
Exercise 9. Suppose that zn , z G = C {z : z 0} and zn = rn ein , z = rei where < , n < . Prove
that if zn z then n and rn r.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 10. Prove the following generalization of Proposition 2.20. Let G and be open in C and suppose
f and h are functions defined on G, g : C and suppose that f (G) . Suppose that g and h are
analytic, g0 () , 0 for any , that f is continuous, h is one-one, and that they satisfy h(z) = g( f (z)) for z in
G. Show that f is analytic. Give a formula for f 0 (z).
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 11. Suppose that f : G C is a branch of the logarithm and that n is an integer. Prove that
zn = exp(n f (z)) for all z in G.
27
Solution. Let f (z) be a branch of the logarithm so that e f (z) = z. Let n Z and consider en f (z) . In the
following cases we shall apply several of the properties of the complex exponential function developed in
the discussion on page 38 in the text.
CASE 1: Assume n > 0. Then we note that
en f (z) = e f (z)+ f (z)++ f (z) (n times)
= e f (z) e f (z) e f (z) (n times)
n
= e f (z)
= xn .
1
1
= zn ,
=
em f (z) zm
Exercise 12. Show that the real part of the function z 2 is always positive.
Solution. We know that we can write z = rei , 0, < < and Log(z) = ln(r) + i. Thus
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ i sin
.
z 2 = eLogz 2 = e 2 Logz = e 2 (lnr+i) = e 2 lnr e 2 i = e 2 lnr cos
2
2
Hence,
Re(z) = e 2 lnr cos
1
2
> 0,
1
> 0 since < < . Thus, the real part of the function z 2 is always positive.
Exercise 13. Let G = C {z R : z 0} and let n be a positive integer. Find all analytic functions
f : G C such that z = ( f (z))n for all z G.
Solution. Let Log(z) be the principal branch, then log(z) = Log(z) + 2ki for some k Z. Thus, we can
write
f (z) = z1/n = elog(z)/n = e(Log(z)+2ki)/n = eLog(z)/n e2ki/n .
We know that the latter factor are the n-th roots of unity and depend only on k and n. They correspond to
the n distinct powers of the expression = e2i/n . Therefore, the branches of z1/n on the set U are given by
f (z) = k eLog(z)/n ,
where k = 0, . . . , n 1 and therefore they are all constant multiples of each other.
Exercise 14. Suppose f : G C is analytic and that G is connected. Show that if f (z) is real for all z in
G then f is constant.
Solution. First of all, we can write f : G C as
f (z) = u(z) + iv(z)
28
u
v
= .
y
x
and
(3.1)
v(z) 0
1 z.
Solution. Let z = x + iy and let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). By assumption f is analytic and therefore
u and v have continuous partial derivatives. In addition the Cauchy-Riemann Equations u x = vy and
uy = v x are satisfied. Since f (z) = f ( x), we have f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) where u (x, y) = u(x, y)
and v (x, y) = v(x, y). Hence, we have ux (x, y) = u x (x, y) = vy (x, y), uy (x, y) = uy (x, y) = v x (x, y),
vx (x, y) = v x (x, y) and vy (x, y) = vy (x, y) and therefore ux = vy and uy = vx so f is analytic.
Exercise 20. Let z1 , z2 , . . . , zn be complex numbers such that Re zk > 0 and Re(zl . . . zk ) > 0 for 1 k n.
Show that log(z1 . . . zn ) = log z1 + . . . + log zn , where log z is the principal branch of the logarithm. If the
restrictions on the zk are removed, does the formula remain valid?
Solution. Let z1 , . . . , zn C such that Re(z j ) > 0 and Re(z1 z j ) > 0 for 1 j n. The proof will be
by induction. Consider first the case where n = 2. Let z1 , z2 C as above. Then 2 < arg z1 < 2 , 2 <
arg z2 < 2 and 2 < arg(z1 z2 ) < 2 . But note arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 implies that < arg z1 + arg z2 < .
Now, recall
log(z1 z2 ) = ln |z1 z2 | + i arg(z1 z2 )
= ln |z1 | + ln |z2 | + i arg(z1 ) + i arg(z2 )
= log(z1 ) + log(z2 )
Hence, this is true for all n such that zi , 1 i n, satisfy the restrictions.
If the restriction on the zk are removed, does the formula remain valid? Consider the complex numbers
z1 = 1 + 2i, z2 = 2 + i. Then z1 z2 = 0 5i. Clearly, z1 , z2 , and z1 z2 do not meet the restrictions as stated
above. Now,
log(z1 ) = ln |z1 | + i arg z1
3
3
Thus log z1 + log z2 = ln 5 + ln 5 + i( 3
2 ) = ln 5 + i( 2 ), but note that 2 < (, ) and log(z1 z2 ) =
ln 5 + i( 2 ). Thus log z1 + log z2 , log(z1 z2 ) where log z is the principal branch of the logarithm. Hence,
the formula is invalid.
Exercise 21. Prove that there is no branch of the logarithm defined on G = C {0}. (Hint: Suppose such a
branch exists and compare this with the principal branch.)
Solution. Define the subset G of G by G = C {z R : z 0}. We use the notation Log for the principal
that is
part of the log on G,
Log(z) = log |z| + i arg(z)
Since f is analytic in G, it is continuous at 1. But we can check that this is not the case, thus
where z G.
we have derived a contradiction
30
If 0 < r < 1 is fixed, then r(cos(y) + i sin(y)) describes a circle with radius r without the point (r, 0)
centered at (0, 0).
Since r varies between 0 and 1, we get that the image is a solid circle with radius 1, where the boundary
does not belong to it, the negative x-axis does not belong to it and the origin does not belong to is.
Exercise 2. Do exercise 1 for the set {z : |Im z| < /2}.
Solution. We have
< y < }.
2
2
The image of {z = x + iy : x R, 2 < y < 2 } under the exponential function is given by
{z : |Im z| < /2} = {z = x + iy : x R,
31
Exercise 6. Evaluate the following cross ratios: (a) (7 + i, 1, 0, ) (b) (2, 1 i, 1, 1 + i) (c) (0, 1, i, 1) (d)
(i 1, , 1 + i, 0).
Solution. We have
S (z) =
S (z) =
S (z) =
z z3 z2 z3
/
, if z2 , z3 , z4 C
z z4 z2 z4
z z3
, if z2 =
z z4
z z3
, if z4 = .
z2 z3
(3.2)
(3.3)
(3.4)
a) By (3.4) we get
(7 + i, 1, 0, ) =
b) By (3.2) we get
(2, 1 i, 1, 1 + i) =
7+i0
= 7 + i.
10
1i1
1
i
2
1+i
1+i
21
/
=
/
=
=2
=2
= 1 + i.
2 1 i 1 i 1 i 1 i 2i 1 i
(1 i)(i + 1)
2
c) By (3.2) we get
(0, 1, i, 1) =
0i 1i
1i
2 1+i
2
/
= i/
= i
= i (1 + i) = i i2 = 1 i.
0+1 1+1
2
1i1+i
2
d) By (3.3) we get
(i 1, , 1 + i, 0) =
Exercise 7. If T z =
az+b
cz+d ,
2 i + 1 2
i11i
=
=
(i + 1) = 1 + i.
i10
i 1 i + 1 2
az+b
cz+d
db
ac ,
dz b
cz + a
db
ac ,
z3 = ba and
az + b
. Assume T (R ) = R . Then let z0 R such that T z0 = 0. Observe that this
cz + d
b
b
implies az0 = b, so R and r1 R as well. Likewise, if z R such that T z = , then
a
a
Solution. Let T z =
32
r2
d
R . Now let z1 R such that T z1 = 1. Then
c
az1 + b
=1
cz1 + d
az1 + b = cz1 + d
c d b
=
z1 1
a
a a
z1 z1 r2 r1
+
=0
c
a
a
c
z1 + r1 z1 + r2
=
c
a
z1 + r1
c
= R .
z1 + r2 a
Let r3 =
d d c
c
. Then = = r2 r3 R . Thus
a
a c a
Tz =
z+ b
az + b
z + r1
= c ad =
cz + d
r
z
3 + r2 r3
az + a
az+b
cz+d ,
find necessary and sufficient conditions that T () = where is the unit circle
az + b az + b
(az + b)(az + b)
= 1
=1
cz + d cz + d
(cz + d)(cz + d)
+ dd
azaz + baz + azb + bb = czcz + dc z + dcz
+ z(ba + dc ) dd = 0.
zz(aa cc) + z(ab cd)
ba dc
= 0
aa cc
= 1
and
bb dd = 1
33
which is equivalent to |a|2 |c|2 = 1 and 1 = |d|2 |b|2 . Hence, we have the two conditions
ab cd = 0
and
2
2
2
2
Insert this into |c| + |d| = |a| + |b| yields
||2 |b|2 +
and therefore we can take || = 1. Then
T (z) =
|a|2
= |a|2 + |b|2 ,
||2
or
T (z) =
where || = 1
az + b
,
+ a
bz
where || = 1.
Take = ei , then
az + b
,
+ a
bz
This mapping transforms |z| = 1 into |T (z)| = 1.
T (z) = ei
for some .
Exercise 10. Let D = {z : |z| < 1} and find all Mbius transformations T such that T (D) = D.
Solution. Take an D = {z : |z| < 1} such that T () = 0. Its symmetric point with respect to the unit
circle is
1
=
since
R2
z a =
z a
(see page 51) with a = 0 and R = 1 (the unit circle). Therefore T ( ) = . Thus T looks like
z
z
1
T (z) = K
where K is a constant. (It is easy to check that T () = 0 and T ( ) = T ( 1 ) = ). Finally, we are going to
choose the constant K in such a way that |T (z0 )| = 1 where z0 = ei . We have
T (z0 ) = K
ei
e
i 1
and therefore
ei ei
ei ei
|ei |
= |K|.
1 = |T (z0 )| = |K| i
= |K|
= |K|
ei ei
|e
1|
|ei | | ei |
z
,
z
1
Exercise 11. Show that the definition of symmetry (3.17) does not depend on the choice of points z2 , z3 , z4 .
That is, show that if 2 , 3 , 4 are also in then equation (3.18) is satisfied iff (z , 2 , 3 , 4 ) = (z, 2 , 3 , 4 ).
(Hint: Use Exercise 8.)
Solution. Let be a circle in C containing points z2 , z3 , z4 , w2 , w3 , and w4 , with all zi distinct and all wi
distinct. Let z C and consider z , as defined in the text and established by the points zi . We know that
(z , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = (z, z2 , z3 , z4 )
Recall that the above left-hand cross-ratio implies a unique Mbius transformation T for which T z2 = 1,
T z3 = 0, and T z4 = . By Proposition 3.10, T maps to R . In fact, the definition of symmetry may be
rewritten as
T z = T z.
or
z = T 1 T z
(3.5)
=
=
.
z1
z2
z1 z2
z1 z2
With the assumption 0 < |zi | < 1, i = 1, 2 the factor z1 z2 1, is always nonzero and we conclude that z1 = z2 ;
hence f (z) is injective.
The range of the function is C {z C | < z [1, 1] and Im z = 0}. To see this, write z = rei in polar
coordinates and let f (z) = w = a + ib, a, b R.
!
"
!
!
#
1
1
1
1
1
f (z) = f (rei ) =
rei + ei =
r+
cos + i r
sin .
2
r
2
r
r
35
For the real and imaginary part of w the following equations must hold
a = 21 r + 1r cos
b = 21 r 1r sin .
(3.7)
If f (z) = w has imaginary part b = 0 then sin = 0 and |cos | = 1. Therefore points of the form
a + ib, a [1, 1], b = 0 cannot be in the range of f . For all other points the equations (3.7) can be solved
for r and uniquely (after restricting the argument to [, )).
Given any value of r (0, 1), the graph of f (rei ) as a function of looks like an ellipse. In fact from
2
2
a
b
formulas (3.7) we see that 1 (r+
+
= 1.
1
1
)
(1 1 )
2
If we fix the argument and let r vary in (0, 1) it follows from from equation (3.7) that the graph of f (rei )
is a hyperbola and it degenerates to rays if z is purely real or imaginary. In the case {(2k + 1) | k Z}
the graph of f in dependence on r is on the imaginary axis and for {2k | k Z} the graph of f (rei ) is
2 2
either (, 1) or (1, ). If cos , 0 and sin , 0 then cosa sinb = 1.
Exercise 14. Suppose that one circle is contained inside another and that they are tangent at the point a.
Let G be the region between the two circles and map G conformally onto the open unit disk. (Hint: first try
(z a)1 .)
Solution. Using the hint, define the Mbius transformation T (z) = (z a)1 which sends the region G
between two lines. Afterward applying a rotation followed by a translation, it is possible to send this region
to any region bounded by two parallel lines we want. Hence, choose S (z) = cz + d where |c| = 1 such that
.
S (T (G)) = x + iy : 0 < y <
2
Applying the exponential function to this region yields the right half plane
exp(S (T (G))) = {x + iy : x > 0}.
Finally, the Mbius transformation
z1
z+1
maps the right half plane onto the unit disk (see page 53). Hence the function f defined by R(exp(S (T (z))))
maps G onto D and is the desired conformal mapping ( f is a composition of conformal mappings). Doing
some simplifications, we obtain
c
e za +d 1
f (z) = c +d
e za + 1
where the constants c and d will depend on the circle location.
R(z) =
Exercise 15. Can you map the open unit disk conformally onto {z : 0 < |z| < 1}?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 16. Map G = C {z : 1 z 1} onto the open unit disk by an analytic function f . Can f be
one-one?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 17. Let G be a region and suppose that f : G C is analytic such that f (G) is a subset of a
circle. Show that f is constant.
36
y a
x
yb
arctan
dt
=
arctan
2
2
x
x
x + (y t)
(f) Interpret part (e) geometrically and show that for Re z > 0, h(z) is the angle depicted in the figure.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 20. Let S z = az+b
cz+d and T z =
that = a, = b, = c, = d.
z+
z+ ,
z + az + b (az + b) (az + b)
=
=
=
= S (z).
z + cz + d (cz + d) (cz + d)
Thus, S = T .
: Let S = T , that is S (z) = T (z). Then S (0) = T (0), S (1) = T (1) and S () = T () which is equivalent
37
to
b
d
a+b
c+d
a
c
= 1 b = 1 d, = 1
+
+
= 3 a = 3 c, = 3 .
=
=
=
(3.8)
(3.9)
(3.10)
3 c + 1 d 3 + 1
=
c+d
+
3 c + 1 d + 3 c + 1 d = 3 c + 1 c + 3 d + 1 d
1 d + 3 c 1 c 3 d = 0
1 (d c) 3 (d c) = 0
(1 3 )(d c) = 0.
Thus, either 1 3 = 0 or d c = 0.
If 1 3 = 0, then from (3.8) and (3.9), we get 3 = ac = db = 1 which implies ad bc = 0 a contradiction
(Not possible, otherwise we do not have a Mbius transformation).
Thus, d c = 0 dc = c = d := , , 0 or
= c
= d.
(3.11)
(3.12)
= =
= b.
d
d d
Insert (3.11) and (3.12) into (3.10) to obtain
a
a
= =
= a.
c
c c
Therefore, we have
= a, = b, = c, = d.
Exercise 21. Let T be a Mbius transformation with fixed points z1 and z2 . If S is a Mbius transformation
show that S 1 T S has fixed points S 1 z1 , and S 1 z2 .
Solution. To show
S 1 T S (S 1 z1 ) = S 1 z1 .
We have
S 1 T S (S 1 z1 ) = S 1 T S S 1 z1 = S 1 T z1 = S 1 z1 ,
where the first step follows by the associativity of compositions, the second step since S S 1 = id and the
last step by T z1 = z1 since z1 is a fixed point of T .
To show
S 1 T S (S 1 z2 ) = S 1 z2 .
38
We have
S 1 T S (S 1 z2 ) = S 1 T S S 1 z2 = S 1 T z2 = S 1 z2 ,
where the first step follows by the associativity of compositions, the second step since S S 1 = id and the
last step by T z2 = z2 since z2 is a fixed point of T .
Note that S 1 T S is a well defined Mbius transformation, since S and T are Mbius transformation. The
composition of Mbius transformation is a Mbius transformation.
Exercise 22. (a) Show that a Mbius transformation has 0 and as its only fixed points iff it is a dilation,
but not the identity.
(b) Show that a Mbius transformation has as its only fixed point iff it is a translation, but not the identity.
Solution.
a) Let M be a Mbius transformation with exactly two fixed points, at 0 and . We know that
Mz =
az + b
cz + d
b
with a, b, c, d C. We know that M(0) = 0 so = 0, whence we conclude that b = 0. But we also
d
a
az
know that M() = so = , meaning c = 0. Thus Mz =
= z for some C. Since both
c
d
b and c were 0, we know that both a and d are nonzero so is likewise nonzero and finite. Suppose
by way of contradiction that = 1. Then for any z C , Mz = z and M has infinitely many fixed
points, a contradiction. Thus , 1 and M is a (complex) dilation not equal to the identity.
On the other hand, assume M is a dilation not equal to the identity. In this case, we are free to express
M as Mz = z with , 1. It is clear from this representation that M has fixed points at 0 and and,
of course, at no other points.
b) Let M be a Mbius transformation with exactly one fixed point at . Again, we know that
Mz =
az + b
cz + d
and we can see that c = 0 as before. This time, however, we also examine the lack of a second fixed
point. Recall that if z is a fixed point of M, then z satisfies cz2 + (d a)z b = 0, which in the case
b
. We note that b , 0 because 0 is not a fixed point
of c = 0 reduces to (d a)z b = 0 or z =
da
of M. Suppose that d , a. In such a case, there is a finite value of z that is a fixed point of M, a
contradiction. Thus, it must be the case that d = a and
b
Mz = z + .
d
Thus M is a translation.
Now assume M is a translation. Then we can express M as Mz = z + . Here, in the convention of
the text, we have a = 1, b = , c = 0, and d = 1. The fixed points z of M satisfy cz2 + (d a)z b = 0,
but no finite z satisfies this equation for the given coefficients. Clearly, however, M has as a fixed
point, so is the only fixed point of M.
Exercise 23. Show that a Mbius transformation T satisfies T (0) = and T () = 0 iff T z = az1 for
some a in C.
Solution. Not available.
39
Exercise 24. Let T be a Mbius transformation, T , the identity. Show that a Mbius transformation S
commutes with T if S and T have the same fixed points. (Hint: Use Exercises 21 and 22.)
Solution. Let T and S have the same fixed points. To show T S = S T , T , id.
? : Suppose T and S have two fixed points, say z1 and z2 . Let M be a Mbius transformation with M(z1 ) = 0
and M(z2 ) = . Then
MS M 1 (0) = MS M 1 Mz1 = MS z1 = Mz1 = 0
and
MS M 1 () = MS M 1 Mz2 = MS z2 = Mz2 = .
Thus MS M 1 is a dilation by exercise 22 a) since MS M 1 has 0 and as its only fixed points. Similar,
we obtain MT M 1 (0) = 0 and MT M 1 () = and therefore is also a dilation. It is easy to check that
dilations commute (define C(z) = az, a > 0 and D(z) = bz, b > 0, then CD(z) = abz = baz = DC(z)), thus
(MT M 1 )(MS M 1 ) = (MS M 1 )(MT M 1 )
MT S M 1 = MS T M 1
T S = S T.
? : Suppose T and S have one fixed points, say z. Let M be a Mbius transformation with M(z) = . Then
MS M 1 () = MS M 1 Mz = MS z = Mz = .
Thus MS M 1 is a translation by exercise 22 b) since MS M 1 has as its only fixed point. Similar, we
obtain MT M 1 () = and therefore is also a translation. It is easy to check that translations commute
(define C(z) = z + 1 and D(z) = z + b, b > 0, then CD(z) = z + a + b = z + b + a = DC(z)), thus
(MT M 1 )(MS M 1 ) = (MS M 1 )(MT M 1 )
MT S M 1 = MS T M 1
T S = S T.
Exercise 25. Find all the abelian subgroups of the group of Mbius transformations.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 26. 26. (a) Let GL2 (C) = all invertible 2 2 matrices with entries
in C and let M be the group
!
a b
of Mbius transformations. Define : GL2 (C) M by
= az+b
cz+d . Show that is a group
c d
homomorphism of GL2 (C) onto M. Find the kernel of .
(b) Let S L2 (C) be the subgroup of GL2 (C) consisting of all matrices of determinant 1. Show that the image
of S L2 (C) under is all of M. What part of the kernel of is in S L2 (C)?
Solution. a) We have to check that if
A=
a b
c d
and
B=
a b
c d
then (AB) = (A) (B). A simple calculation shows that this is true. To find the kernel of the group
2
homomorphism we have to find all z such that az+b
cz+d = z. This is equivalent to az + b = cz + dz and by
comparing coefficients we obtain b = c = 0 and a = d. Therefore, the kernel is given by N = ker() = {I :
C }. Note that the kernel is a normal subgroup of GL2 (C).
b) Restricting to S L2 (C) still yields a surjective map since for any matrix A GL2 (C) both A and
1
A have the same image and the modification matrix M has by construction
the modification M = det
A
determinant 1. The kernel of the restriction is simply N S L2 (C) = {I}.
40
z
z +
and let
!#1/2
"
1+z
f (z) = exp
i
log
i
1z
41
Chapter 4
Complex Integration
4.1 Riemann-Stieltjes integrals
Exercise 1. Let : [a, b] R be non decreasing. Show that is of bounded variation and V() =
(b) (a).
Solution. Let : [a, b] R be a monotone, non-decreasing function. For a given partition of [a, b],
{a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tm = b}, for all n N, (tn ) (tn1 ). Therefore, |(tn ) (tn1 )| = (tn ) (tn1 ) 0.
Let P = {a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tm = b}, any partition of [a, b]. Then,
m
X
n=1
|(tn ) (tn1 )| = [(tm ) (tm1 )] + [(tm1 ) (tm2 )] + . . . + [(t2 ) (t1 )] + [(t1 ) (t0 )]
= [(b) (tm1 )] + [(tm1 ) (tm2 )] + . . . + [(t2 ) (t1 )] + [(t1 ) (a)]
= (b) (a)
Since (a), (b) R, (b) (a) < . It follows that is of bounded variation for any partition P. And
also v(; P) = sup{v(; P) : P a partition of [a, b]} = V() = (b) (a).
Exercise 2. Prove Proposition 1.2.
Solution. Let : [a, b] C be of bounded variation.
(a) If P and Q are partitions of [a, b] and P Q then v(; P) v(; Q).
Proof will be by induction. Let P = {a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tm = b}. Suppose Q = P {x}, where tk < x < tk+1 .
Then,
X
v(; P) =
|(ti ) (ti1 )| + |(tk+1 ) (tk )|
i,k+1
i,k+1
= v(; Q)
Now consider the general case on the number of elements of Q \ P. The smallest partition set for Q \ P
contains the trivial partition composed of {a, b}. Using the case defined above, we have v(; Q) v(; P)
v(; Q \ P) |(b) (a)|, whenever P Q.
(b) If : [a, b] C is also of bounded variation and , C, then + is of bounded variation and
42
V( + ) ||V() + ||V().
Let P = {a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tm = b} be a partition. Since and are of bounded variation for [a, b] R,
m
X
|(tk ) (tk1 )| M and
there exists constants M > 0 and M > 0, respectively, such that v(; P) =
v(; P) =
m
X
k=1
k=1
v( + ; P) =
=
m
X
k=1
m
X
k=1
m
X
k=1
m
X
k=1
m
X
k=1
m
X
k=1
= ||
|( + )(tk ) ( + )(tk1 )|
|(tk ) + (tk ) (tk1 ) (tk1 )|
|((tk ) (tk1 )) + ((tk ) (tk1 ))|
|(tk ) (tk1 )| + |(tk ) (tk1 )|
|(tk ) (tk1 )| +
m
X
m
X
k=1
|(tk ) (tk1 )|
k=1
m
X
k=1
m
X
|(tk ) (tk1 )| + ||
k=1
|(tk ) (tk1 )|
= ||v(; P) + ||v(; P)
||sup{v(; P) : P a partition of [a, b]} + ||sup{v(; P) : P a partition of [a, b]}
= ||V() + ||V()
<
x, y [a, b].
Then, for any partition P = {a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tm = b} of [a, b], we have
v(; P) =
m
X
k=1
|(tk ) (tk1 )|
m
X
C|tk tk1 | = C
k=1
m
X
k=1
Hence, the function : [a, b] C, for [a, b] R, is of bounded variation, since there is a constant M > 0
such that for any partition P = {a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tm = b} of [a, b]
v(; P) =
m
X
k=1
|(tk ) (tk1 )| M.
Exercise 7. Show that : [0, 1] C, defined by (t) = t + it sin 1t for t , 0 and (0) = 0, is a path but is
not rectifiable. Sketch this path.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise
R8. Let and be the two polygons [1, i] and [1, 1 + i, i]. Express and as paths and calculate
R
f where f (z) = |z|2 .
f
and
|z|2 dz =
1
0
= (1 + i)
"
(2t2 2t + 1)dt
2 3 2
t t +t
3
!
2
1+1
= (1 + i)
3
2
2
= +i .
3
3
= (1 + i)
#1
0
44
2
Z1
Z
=
|z|2 dz +
|z|2 dz
Z
1
1
Z 1
(t2 + 1)(i)dt +
((1 t)2 + 1)(1)dt
0
0
Z 1
Z 1
=i
(t2 + 1)dt
(t2 2t + 2)dt
=
"
#1
"
t3
t2 + 2t
3
0
!
4
1
= i
1+2
3
3
4
4
= i
3
3
4
= (1 + i)
3
t3
+t
=i
3
#1
0
Exercise 9.R Define : [0, 2] C by (t) = exp(int) where n is some integer (positive, negative, or zero).
Show that 1z dz = 2in.
Solution. Clearly, (t) = eint is continuous and smooth on [0, 2]. Thus
Z
dz =
2
int
int
ine
dt =
in dt = in(2 0) = 2in.
Solution. Clearly, (t) = eint is continuous and smooth on [0, 2] (It is the unit circle).
Case 1: n = 1
Z
Z 2
Z 2
z1 dz =
eit ieit dt = i
dt = 2i.
Case 2: n , 1
Z
zn dz
eint ieit dt = i
0
"
ei(n+1)t
i(n + 1)
h
i
ei(n+1)2 1
ei(n+1)t dt = t
#2
0
1 h i(n+1)t i2
1
=
=
e
0
n+1
n+1
1
1
[cos((n + 1)2) i sin((n + 1)2)1] =
[1 i 0 1]
=
n+1
n+1
= 0.
R
Exercise 11. Let be the closed polygon [1 i, 1 + i, 1 + i, 1 i, 1 i]. Find 1z dz.
45
Solution. Define
1 (t)
2 (t)
3 (t)
4 (t)
t from 1 to 1
t from 1 to 1
t from 1 to 1
t from 1 to 1
= 1 + it,
=
t + i,
= 1 + it,
=
t i,
10 (t)
20 (t)
30 (t)
40 (t)
= i
= 1
= i
= 1.
Thus
Z
1
dz
z
Z 1
Z 1
Z 1
1
1
1
1
i dt +
dt +
i dt +
dt
t+i
1 + it
1 1 + it
1
1
1 t i
!
!
Z 1
Z 1
1
1
1
1
=
dt + i
dt
+
ti
1 + it
1 t + i
1 1 + it
Z 1
Z 1
t + i + t + i
1 + it 1 it
=
dt + i
dt
1 (t + i)(t i)
1 (1 + it)(1 + it)
Z 1
Z 1
1
1
dt
2i
dt
= 2i
2
2
1 1 t
1 t + 1
Z 1
Z 1
1
1
= 2i
dt
+
2i
dt
2+1
2+1
t
t
1
1
Z 1
1
= 4i = 2i.
dt = 4i [arctan(z)]11 = 4i
= 4i
2
4
4
2
t
+
1
1
R eiz
Exercise 12. Let I(r) = z dz where : [0, ] C is defined by (t) = reit . Show that limr I(r) = 0.
=
Solution. To show limr I(r) = 0 which is equivalent to > 0, n N such that if r > N, then |I(r)| < .
Let > 0, then
Z
Z iz Z ireit
Z
e
ireit
e
it
ireit
rie
dt
dz =
|I(r) 0| = |I(r)| =
i
=
e
dt
e dt.
0
0 reit
z
0
Now, recall that |ez | = eRe(z) (p. 38 eq. 2.13), so
it
eire = eRe(ireit ) = eRe(ir cos(t)+iri sin(t)) = eRe(ir cos(t)r sin(t)) = er sin(t) .
Hence,
Z
it
eire dt =
er sin(t) dt =
er sin(t) dt +
er sin(t) dt +
er sin(t) dt
2
for 1 > 0 and 2 > 0. Since er sin(t) is continuous, so 1 > 0 can be chosen such that
Z 1
r > 0.
er sin(t) dt < ,
3
0
Similar, 2 > 0 can be chosen such that
Z
er sin(t) dt <
46
,
3
r > 0.
we have
lim
er sin(t) dt <
.
3
Hence,
lim I(r) = 0.
R
1
Exercise 13. Find z 2 dz where: (a) is the upper half of the unit circle from +1 to 1: (b) is the
lower half of the unit circle from +1 to 1.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 14. Prove that if : [a, b] [c, d] is continuous and (a) = c, (b) = d then is one-one iff is
strictly increasing.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 15. Show that the relation in Definition 1.16 is an equivalence relation.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 16. Show that if and are equivalent rectifiable paths then V() = V().
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 17. Show that if : [a, b] C is a path then there is an equivalent path : [0, 1] C.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 18. Prove Proposition 1.17.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 19. Let = 1 + eit for 0 t 2 and find
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 20. Let = 2eit for t and find
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 21. Show that if F1 and F2 are primitives for f : G C and G is open end connected then there
is a constant c such that F1 (z) = c + F2 (z) for each z in G.
Solution. Let F1 and F2 be primitives for f : G C. Recall then that F10 = f = F20 . Let h = F1 F2 for
all z G. Then for all z G,
h0 (z) = F10 (z) F20 (z) = f (z) f (z) = 0
Since G is open and connected with h0 (z) = 0 for all z G, then h is a constant, say c: h = c. So
h = F1 F2 = c and F1 (z) = F2 (z) + c for all z G.
47
RExercise 22. Let be a closed rectifiable curve in an open set G and a < G. Show that for n 2,
(z a)n dz = 0.
(z a)1n
on G. Since
Solution. Let f (z) = (z a)n for all z G. Then f has the antiderivative F(z) =
1n
0
F (z) = f (z) where n 2 (note F is undefined for n = Z
1). Now, let be a closed rectifiable curve in G with
endpoints z1 , z2 C. Since z1 = z2 , F(z1 ) = F(z2 ). So,
f g0 +
f 0g
=
(def)
f 0 ((t))g((t)) d(t)
=
Prop. 1.7 (a)
=
(def)
Hence,
f g = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a)
f 0 g.
then g is continuous. If
g (z) =
(w, z) dw.
z
48
Exercise 3. Suppose that is a rectifiable curve in C and is defined and continuous on {}. Use Exercise
2 to show that
Z
(w)
dw
g(z) =
w
z
is analytic on C {} and
(n)
g (z) = n!
(w)
dw.
(w z)n+1
lim
r1
an rn = A.
1
a+za
a
X (1)n
1 1
1 X (1)n
n
(z a)n ,
=
(z
a)
=
n+1
a 1 + za
a n=0 an
a
a
n=0
where the radius of convergence is |a|. Let a = i, then integrate term by term yields
n
i2
X
X (1 + iz)n
X in+1
n+1
n+1
log(z) = i +
i
(z
i)
=
i
,
(z
i)
+
2
2
n+z
2
n
(n + 1)in+1
n=0
n=0
n=1
since Log(i) = 2 i. The convergence radius is |i| = 1.
Exercise 6. Give the power series expansion of z about z = 1 and find its radius of convergence.
Solution. From the definition of numbers with rational exponents za = exp(a log z) we see that the square
Q
root cannot be analytic on all of C. In fact, taking the first derivatives we see that f (n) (z) = 2n n1
k=0 (1
1
2k)zn+ 2 and therefore
n1
1 Y
1 (n)
,
f (1) =
an =
n!
n!2n k=0
and with these an ,
f (z) =
n1
X
X
1 Y
an (z 1)z =
(1 2k)(z 1)n .
z=
n
n!2
n=0
k=0
k=0
Note that the logarithm is undefined at zero. Thus, of all branch cuts of the logarithm, the best radius of
convergence we can achieve is 1.
49
Exercise 7. Use the results of this section to evaluate the following integrals:
(a)
Z iz
e
dz,
(t) = eit ,
0 t 2;
2
z
(b)
dz
,
za
sin(z)
dz,
z3
(c)
(d)
log z
dz,
zn
(t) = a + reit ,
0 t 2;
(t) = eit ,
0 t 2;
1
(t) = 1 + eit ,
2
0 t 2 and n 0.
Solution. a) Let a = 0, r = 1, n = 1, f (z) = eiz and f 0 (z) = ieiz . Clearly f (z) is analytic on C and
1) C. Now use Corollary 2.13.
B(0;
Z iz
Z
Z iz
1!
1
e
eiz
e
f 0 (0) =
dz
i
=
dz
dz = 2.
2
2i (z 0)2
2i z2
z
r) C. Now use Corollary
b) Let a = a, r = r, n = 0, and f (z) = 1. Clearly f (z) is analytic on C and B(a;
2.13.
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
0!
1
(0)
dz
dz = 2i.
f (a) =
dz 1 =
2i (z a)1
2i z a
z
c) Let a = 0, r = 1, n = 2 and f (z) = sin(z). Then f 0 (z) = cos(z) and f 00 (z) = sin(z). Clearly f (z) is
1) C. Now use Corollary 2.13.
analytic on C (p. 38) and B(0;
Z
Z
Z
sin(z)
sin(z)
sin(z)
2!
1
1
f 00 (0) =
dz
sin(0)
=
dz
0
=
dz
2i (z 0)3
i z3
i z3
Z
sin(z)
dz = 0.
z3
d) We have that
f (z) =
log(z)
zn
is analytic in the disk B(1; 12 ) where n 0. Furthermore, is a closed rectifiable curve ((t) is a circle with
radius r = 1/2 and center (1, R0) in C). Obviously (t) = 1 + 12 eit B(1; 12 ). Hence, by Proposition 2.15, f
has a primitive and therefore f = 0. Therefore,
Z
log(z)
dz = 0.
zn
Exercise 8. Use a Mbuis transformation to show that Proposition 2.15 holds if the disk B(a; R) is replaced
by a half plane.
Solution. Not available.
50
(b)
(c)
Z
1
dz
n where n is a positive integer and (t) = + eit , 0 t 2;
2
z 12
dz
where (t) = 2eit , 0 t 2. (Hint: expand (z2 + 1)1 by means of partial fractions);
z2 + 1
(d)
(e)
sin z
dz where (t) = eit , 0 t 2;
z
z1/m
1
dz where (t) = 1 + eit , 0 t 2;
m
(z 1)
2
Z z
(m 1)!
e ez
0 , m odd
dz
=
m
2 , m even
2i
z
Z z
, m odd
e ez
0
dz
=
(m > 0).
4i
m
z
, m even
(m1)!
b) Let a = 1/2, r = 1, n = m 1 and
f (z) = 1
f 0 (z) = 0
f 00 (z) = 0
..
.
(m1)
f
(z) = 0.
51
(m 1)!
1
1 , m = 1
m dz =
0 , m > 1
1
2i
z
2
1
2i , m = 1
.
m dz =
0
1
,m > 1
z
2
c) Using partial fraction decomposition, we obtain
1
B
Az + Ai + Bz Bi
A
!
+
=
=
z2 + 1 z i z + i
z2 + 1
which implies
A+B = 0
Ai Bi
(4.1)
= 1.
From (4.1), we get A = B inserted into (4.2) yields 2Bi = 1 and therefore B = 2i1 and A =
Z
Z
Z
dz
dz
dz
1
1
.
=
2+1
2i
z
i
2i
z
z
+i
(4.2)
1
2i .
Thus
For the first integral on the right side, use Proposition 2.6. Let a = 0, r = 2 and f (w) = 1, (t) = 2eit ,
2) C. Then
0 t 2. Clearly f (z) is analytic on C. We also have B(0;
Z
Z
Z
1
f (w)
1
1
1
f (z) =
dw 1 =
dw
dz = 2i,
2i w i
2i w i
zi
where | i 0| < 2 1 < 2.
For the second integral on the right side, use Proposition 2.6. Let a = 0, r = 2 and f (w) = 1, (t) = 2eit ,
2) C. Then
0 t 2. Clearly f (z) is analytic on C. We also have B(0;
Z
Z
Z
f (w)
1
1
1
1
dw 1 =
dw
dz = 2i,
f (z) =
2i w + i
2i w + i
z+i
where |i| < 2 1 < 2. Hence
Z
Z
Z
dz
dz
1
1
1
dz
1
= 2i 2i = = 0.
=
2
2i z i 2i z + i 2i
2i
z +1
So
dz
= 0.
z2 + 1
1) C. Now use
d) Let a = 0, r = 1, n = 0 and f (z) = sin(z). Clearly f (z) is analytic on C and B(0;
Corollary 2.13.
Z
Z
Z
sin(z)
sin(z)
sin(z)
1
0!
dz
dz = 0.
dz
0
=
f (0) (0) =
1
2i (z 0)
2i z
z
52
z1/m
dz
m
(z 1)
!
!
Z
z1/m
(m 1)!
1
1 1
1 ...
(m 2) 1 =
dz
m
m m
m
2i
(z 1)
!
!
!
Z
1 (m 1)m
2i 1 1 m 1 2m
z1/m
...
dz =
m
(m 1)! m
m
m
m
(z 1)
Z
m2
Y
z1/m
2i
(1 im).
dz
=
m
(m 1)!mm1 i=0
(z 1)
f (m1) (1) =
z2 +1
z(z2 +4)
(m 1)!
2i
dz where (t) = reit , 0 t 2, for all possible values of r, 0 < r < 2 and
z2 + 1
. Then f (z) can be decomposed using partial fractions as
z(z2 + 4)
3/8
3/8
z2 + 1
1/4
+
+
.
=
z
z 2i z + 2i
z(z2 + 4)
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
1
z2 + 1
1
1
1
3
3
1
dz =
It follows,
dz +
dz +
dz. By Proposition 2.6,
dz =
2 + 4)
4
z
8
z
2i
8
z
+
2i
z(z
z
1
2i f (0) = 2i where f 1 as f 1 is analytic on B(0, 2) and = 0 + reit with 0 < r < 2. Now, note z2i
is
Z
1
dz = 0. Similarly,
analytic on B(0, 2) and for 0 < r < 2 is in B(0, 2). Thus, by Proposition 2.15,
z 2i
Z
Z
1
1
z2 + 1
For the second integral, we use Proposition 2.6 with a = 0, 2 < r < , f (w) = 1, and (t) = 0 + reit for
53
dz = 2i
z
+
2i
f (w)
dw
w 2i
1
dz = 2i.
z 2i
It follows that,
Z
Z
Z
Z
1
z2 + 1
1
1
1
3
3
dz
=
dz
+
dz
+
dz
2
4 z
8 z 2i
8 z + 2i
z(z + 4)
3
3
1
= (2i) + (2i) + (2i)
4
8
8
= 2i
!
1
1 + iz
log
;
2i
1 iz
also, show that tan f (z) = z (i.e., f is a branch of arctan z). Show that
f (z) =
X
k=0
(1)k
z2k+1
,
2k + 1
for
|z| < 1
X
E2k 2k
z
(2k)!
k=1
for some constants E2 , E4 , . These numbers are called Eulers constants. What is the radius of convergence of this series? Use the fact that 1 = cos z sec z to show that
!
!
!
2n
2n
2n
n1
E2 + (1)n = 0.
E2n4 + + (1)
E2n2 +
E2n
2
2n 4
2n 2
Evaluate E2 , E4 , E6 , E8 . (E10 = 50521 and E12 = 2702765).
Solution. It is easily seen that
sec z = 1 +
X
E2k 2k
z ,
(2k)!
k=1
54
1
= 11 = 1 and sec z = cos1 z is an even function. The radius of convergence is the closest
since sec(0) = cos(0)
distance from 0 to the nearest non-analytic point which is precisely 2 .
Since 1 = cos z sec z, we can multiply the series for sec z and cos z together to obtain
n
X
X
2i
E2k
ik
1=
z .
(1)
(2k)!(2i 2k)!
i=0 k=0
Finally, we can compare the coefficients of z2i and multiply by (2i)! to obtain the formula
!
n
X
2n
=0
(1)nk E2k
2k
i=0
which is equivalent to
E2n
2n
2n 2
E2n2 +
2n
2n 4
E2n4 + + (1)n1
2n
2
E2 + (1)n = 0.
ez 1
z
X
ak
f (z) =
k=0
k!
zk
be its power series expansion about zero. What is the radius of convergence? Show that
!
!
n+1
n+1
an .
a1 + +
0 = a0 +
n
1
Using the fact that f (z) + 12 z is an even function show that ak = 0 for k odd and k > 1. The numbers
B2n = (1)n1 a2n are called the Bernoulli numbers for n 1. Calculate B2 , B4 , , Bl0 .
Solution. The Bernoulli numbers Bn are defined by
Bn = lim
dn ez z1
,
dzn
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
X Bk
z
=
zk
z
e 1 k=0 k!
1
if x = 0
Furthermore the function f has essential singularities exactly at z = 2k, k Z {0}. Therefore f (z) has
a Laurent series expansion on the punctured disk ann(0; 0, 2) and the negative indices disappear because
the singularity at the origin is a removable one. The uniqueness of the Laurent expression together with the
55
formula for the coefficients in the expansion (Theorem 2.8, p. 72) give the desired result.
First we compute B0 = limz0 ez z1 = 1 and note that the result in question does not hold for B0 . Also
z
P Bk k
1
compute B1 . Taking the limits, B1 = limz0 (1z)e
= 21 . Consider the equation ez z1 =
k=0 k! z for
(ez 1)2
z ann(0; 0, 2). This is equivalent to
X zl X Bk k
z .
z =
l!
k!
l=1
k=0
Divide by z , 0, then
X zl1 X
Bk X zl X Bk
1 =
n
X
X
znm
Bm m
z
m! (n + 1 m)!
n=0 m=0
zn
!
n
zn X n + 1
Bm
(n + 1)! m=0 m
n=0
n=0
= B0 +
n
X
Bm
m!(n
+
1 m)!
m=0
!
n
zn X n + 1
Bm .
(n + 1)! m=0 m
0=
n=1
n=1
!
n
zn X n + 1
Bm
(n + 1)! m=0 m
for all nonzero z ann(0; 0, 2). This can only happen if the inner summation equals zero for all n N.
This prove the first part of the statement. For the second claim, one only needs to show that f (z) + 21 z is an
even function. It is true that
2z + (ez 1)z z(ez + 1)
1
=
.
f (z) + z =
2
2(ez 1)
2(ez 1)
as well as t
1
z(ez + 1) z(1 + ez ) z(1 + ez )
1
f (z) z = z
=
=
= f (z) + z.
2
e 1
2(1 ez )
2(ez 1)
2
With the power series expansion of f and recalling that B1 = 21 this is the same as saying
1+
X
X
Bk k
Bk
(z)k = 1 +
(z)
k!
k!
k=2
k=2
56
1 X n + 1
Bn =
Bk .
k
n+1
k=0
This gives
!
1
3
1
1
B2 = (B0 + 3B1 ) = 1
= ,
3
3
2
6
1
1
B4 = (B0 + 5B1 + 10B2 ) = ,
5
30
1
1
B6 = (B0 + 7B1 + 21B2 + 35B4 ) =
,
7
42
and
1
1
B8 = (B0 + 9B1 + 36B2 + 126B4 + 84B6 ) = .
9
30
Exercise 14. Find the power series expansion of tan z about z = 0, expressing the coefficients in terms of
Bernoulli numbers. (Hint: use Exercise 13 and the formula cot 2z = 12 cot z 12 tan z.)
Solution. To find the power series expansion of tan z about z = 0, we replace z by 2iz in the function
f (z) =
z(ez + 1)
2(ez 1)
cos(z)
2iz(e2iz + 1) iz(eiz + eiz )
=
=z
= z cot(z).
iz
iz
2iz
e e
sin(z)
2(e 1)
Next, we replace z by 2iz of the power series expansion for f (z) to obtain
z cot(z) = 1
Multiplying the formula cot 2z =
1
2
X
4n B2n
n=1
(2n)!
z2n .
and therefore
Hence,
2n
n
X
X
X
4n (4n 1)B2n 2n
4
B
4
B
2n
2n
2n
2n
z 1
z =
z .
z tan z = 1
(2n)!
(2n)!
(2n)!
n=1
n=1
n=1
tan(z) =
X
4n (4n 1)B2n
n=1
(2n)!
57
z2n1 .
X
f (k) (0)
ak zk ,
whereak =
f (z) =
k!
k=0
with infinite radius of convergence. We have to show that f (k) (0) = 0 for k n + 1, then we are done. Let
r > R and let (t) = reit , 0 t 2. Note that is a closed and rectifiable curve. Then
Z
Z
k!
f (z) k!
| f (z)|
(k)
| f (0)|
=
dz
|dz|.
k+1
k+1
Corollary 2.13 p.73 2i
2
z
|z|
Since r > R, |(t)| = |reit | = r > R, 0 t 2. So | f (z)| M|z|n , z {}, we get
Z
Z
Z
k!
k!M
k!
| f (z)|
M|z|n
|dz|
|dz|
=
|z|nk1 |dz|
2 |z|k+1
2 |z|k+1
2
Z
k!M nk1
k!M nk1
r
r
2r
|dz| =
=
|z|=r
2
2
1
= k!Mrnk = k!M kn 0
r
n
X
f (k) (0) k
z;
k!
k=0
z G.
(4.3)
(def)
1
1
= |g(a)|,
| f (z)| (4.3) | f (a)| (def)
z G.
According to the Maximum Modulus Theorem 3.11 p. 79, g is constant and thus f is constant. Thus, we
conclude: Either f (a) = 0 or f is constant.
Exercise 7. Give an elementary proof of the Maximum Modulus Theorem for polynomials.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 8. Let G be a region and let f and g be analytic functions on G such that f (z)g(z) = 0 for all z in
G. Show that either f 0 or g 0.
Solution. It is easy to verify the following claim:
If f (z) =constant in B(a; R) G, then f (z) =same constant for all z G.
Proof: Suppose f (z) = c in B(a; R). Define g(z) = f (z) c, then g(z) A(G). g(n) (a) = 0 for all
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. So g(z) = f (z) c 0 on G.
Let G be a region and let f, g A(G) such that
f (z)g(z) = 0,
z G.
Assume f (z) , 0, z G. Let a G such that f (a) , 0, then (since f is continuous, because f A(G))
there is an R > 0 such that f (z) , 0 whenever z B(a; R). Hence g(z) = 0 z B(a; R) to fulfill f (z)g(z) = 0
z B(a; R). By the claim above we obtain that
z G.
g(z) = 0,
So g 0.
Similar, assume g(z) , 0 z G, then by the same reasoning, we obtain f 0. Thus, we conclude: Either
f 0 or g 0.
Exercise 9. Let U : C R be a harmonic function such that U(z) 0 for all z in C; prove that U is
constant.
Solution. There exists an analytic function f : C C such that
U(z) = Re( f (z)),
since U : C R is assumed to be harmonic. Hence, Re( f (z)) 0 z C by assumption. For all z C,
define g(z) = e f (z) A(C). Then
|g(z)| = |e f (z) | = eRe( f (z)) = eRe( f (z)) 1,
(def)
z C,
where the last step follows since Re( f (z)) 0 by assumption. Thus, g(z) is bounded and an entire function,
and therefore g is constant according to Liouvilles Theorem 3.4 p. 77 and hence f (z) is constant, too. It
follows that U is constant.
59
Exercise 10. Show that if f and g are analytic functions on a region G such that fg is analytic then either
f is constant or g 0.
Solution. Not available.
n
Y
k=1
(z ak )
for some constant c (see Corollary 3.6 p. 77) where a1 , . . . , an are the zeros of p(z). By the product rule we
obtain
n
n
n Y
n
Y
X
X
(z al ) = c
(z al ).
p0 (z) = c (z ak )0
l=1
k=1
k=1 l=1
l,k
l,k
Thus
Z
p0 (z)
dz =
p(z)
Z c
Pn Qn
k=1
Qn
l=1 (z
l,k
k=1 (z
al )
ak )
dz
!
1
1
1
=
+
+ ... +
dz
z a2
z an
z a1
Z
Z
Z
1
1
=
(z a1 ) dz + (z a2 ) dz + . . . + (z an )1 dz
Z
n
X
2i = 2in,
k=1
since by Definition 4.2 p. 81 (t) = Reit , 0 t 2 or (t) = Re2it , 0 t 1 is a closed and rectifiable
curve and a1 , . . . , an < {} since R > 0 sufficiently large so that p never vanishes in {z : |z| R}. In addition,
we have n(; ai ) = 1 1 i n. Hence,
Z 0
p (z)
dz = 2in.
p(z)
Exercise 4. Fix w R= rei , 0 and let be a rectifiable path in C {0} from 1 to w. Show that there is an
integer k such that z1 dz = log r + i + 2ik.
Solution. Not available.
60
za , z , a
.
g(z) =
f 0 (a),
z=a
Clearly, g A(G). (Check the power series of f (z) like in the proof of Theorem 3.7 c) b) p. 78) By
Cauchys Theorem, we obtain
Z
Z
f (z) f (a)
g=0
dz = 0
a<
za
Z
Z
f (z)
f (a)
dz
dz = 0
za
za
Z
Z
f (z)
1
dz = f (a)
dz
za
za
Z
f (z)
dz = f (a)n(; a)2i
dz = n(; a) f (a).
2i z a
(z a)n dz = 0.
Solution. Since is a closed rectifiable curve in C, {} is bounded. So there exists R > 0 such that
{} B(a; R). Hence C\B(a; R) belongs to the unbounded component of B(a; R). Therefore n(; w) = 0
w C\B(a; R) by Theorem 4.4 p.82. We can apply Corollary 5.9 p.86 if we let G = B(a; R) the open set
and f : G C given by f (z) = 1 is analytic. Further is a closed and rectifiable curve in G such that
w C\G,
n(; w) = 0,
61
a)n
Z
(n 1)!
1
0 n(; a) =
dz
2i
(z
a)n
(n1)
(z a)n dz = 0,
for n 2.
Exercise 6. Let f be analytic on D = B(0; 1) and suppose | f (z)| 1 for |z| < 1. Show | f 0 (0)| 1.
Solution. We can directly apply Cauchys estimate 2.14 p. 73 with a = 0, R = 1, M = 1 and N = 1, that is
by assumption f is analytic on B(0; 1) and | f (z)| 1 for all z in B(0; 1) (since |z| < 1). Then
| f 0 (0)|
So | f 0 (0)| 1.
Exercise 7. Let (t) = 1 + eit for 0 t 2. Find
1! 1
= 1.
11
R
z n
z1
Solution. Let G = B(1; R) (open) where 1 < R < and let f : G C be given by f (z) = zn which
is analytic on G. By Theorem 4.4 p. 82, n(; w) = 0 w C\G since C\G belongs to the unbounded
component of G and is a closed and rectifiable curve in C.
Now, we can apply Corollary 5.9 with G and f defined above such that n(; w) = 0 w C\G and is a
closed rectifiable curve in G, then for a = 1 in G\{}
Z
Z
zn
(n 1)!
z n
(n 1)!
dz
=
dz
f (n1) (1)n(; a) =
n
2i
2i
(z 1)
z1
Z
(n 1)!
z n
n! =
dz
2i
z1
Z
z n
dz = 2in,
z1
since f (n1) (1) = n! and n(; a) = 1.
Exercise 8. Let G be a region and suppose fn : G C is analytic for each n 1. Suppose that { fn }
converges uniformly to a function f : G C Show that f is analytic.
Solution. Let G be a region and suppose fn : G C is analytic for each n 1, that us fn is continuous for
each n 1.
Let T be an arbitrary triangular path in G. Then T is closed and rectifiable. We also have, that n(T ; w) = 0
w C\G, since w is an element of the unbounded component of G (Theorem 4.4 p. 82).
By Cauchys Theorem (First Version), p. 85 with m = 1, we have
Z
fn = 0,
n N,
(4.4)
T
62
since we suppose fn : G C is analytic for each n 1 and T is closed and rectifiable. We also have
Z
Z
fn = lim 0 = 0
f = lim
n T
(4.4) n
T
The first equality follows by Lemma 2.7 p. 71 since T is closed and rectifiable and since each { fn } A(G),
we have fn is continuous for each fn and by the uniform convergence to a function f , we get f is continuous
(Theorem 6.1 p. 29).
Finally,
R we can apply Moreras Theorem 5.10 p. 86 to obtain that f is analytic in G, since f is continuous
and f = 0 for every triangular path T in G.
Exercise 9. Show that if f : C C is a continuous function such that f is analytic off [1, 1] then f is an
entire function.
R
Solution. By Moreras Theorem, it suffice to show that for every triangular path T in C, we have T f = 0,
since we already assume f is continuous. There are several cases to consider:
R
Case 1: A triangle does not intersect I. In this case, we obtain by Cauchys Theorem, that T f = 0,
since we can find an open neighborhood G containing T (is closed and rectifiable) such that f A(G) (by
assumption) and n(T ; w) = 0 w C\G (by Theorem 4.4 p. 82).
Case 2: A triangle touches I exactly at one point P. This single point ofR intersection P is a removable
singularity, since f is continuous. Again apply Cauchys Theorem to obtain T f = 0. (Procedure: Translate
R
the triangle by i depending if it lies above or below the x-axis. By Cauchys Theorem T f = 0 over the
translated triangle and let 0 since f is continuous).
Case 3: One edge of the triangle touches I. Like in case 2 we can translate the triangle by We can
also argue this way: Let G be an open neighborhood containing the triangle T . Let {T n } be a sequence of
triangles that are not intersecting I, but whose limit is the given T . Then by the continuity of f , we get
Z
Z
f = lim 0 = 0,
f = lim
T
Tn
where the first equality follows by Lemma 2.7 and the second one by case 1.
Case 4: A triangle T is cut into 2 parts by I. Then, we can always decompose the triangle T in three parts.
Two trianglesR are of the kind explained in case 3 and one is of the kind explained in case 2 (a sketch might
help). Thus, T f = 0 again.
Case 5: A triangle T contains parts of I (also here a sketch might help). In this instance, we can decompose
the triangle into 5 parts. Two triangles Rare of the kind explained in case 3 and the other three triangles are
of the kind explained in case 2. Hence, T f = 0.
R
Summary: Since T f = 0 for every triangular path in C and f is continuous, we get by Moreras Theorem:
f A(C), that is f is an entire function.
Exercise 10. Use Cauchys Integral Formula to prove the CayleyHamilton Theorem: If A is an n n
matrix over C and f (z) = det(z A) is the characteristic polynomial of A then f (A) = 0. (This exercise was
taken from a paper by C. A. McCarthy, Amer. Math. Monthly, 82 (1975), 390391).
Solution. Not available.
Solution. Assume is a closed and rectifiable curve in G and 1 . Since 1 (t) a and 2 (t) b, we
surely have that 1 and 2 are closed and rectifiable curves in G. If we can show that 1 2 , then we get
2 , since is an equivalence relation, that is:
1
and
1 2 2 .
So, now we show 1 2 , that is, we have to find a continuous function : [0, 1] [0, 1] G such that
(s, 0) = 1 (s) = a
and
(s, 1) = 2 (s) = b,
for
0s1
and (0, t) = (1, t) for 0 t 1. Let (s, t) = tb + (1 t)a. Clearly is a continuous function. (it is
constant with respect to s and a line with respect to t). In addition, it satisfies (s, 0) = a 0 s 1 and
(s, 1) = b 0 s 1 and (0, t) = tb + (1 t)a = (1, t) 0 t 1. So 1 2 .
Exercise 2. Show that if we remove the requirement (0, t) = (1, t) for all t from Definition6.1 then the
curve 0 (t) = e2it , 0 t 1, is homotopic to the constant curve 1 (t) 1 in the region G = C {0}.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. 3. Let C = all rectifiable curves in G joining a to b and show that Definition 6.11 gives an
equivalence relation on C.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Let G = C {0} and show that every closed curve in G is homotopic to a closed curve whose
trace is contained in {z : |z| = 1}.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Evaluate the integral
dz
z2 +1
Solution. A sketch shows that the two zeros of z2 + 1 (they are i) are inside of the closed and rectifiable
curve (The region looks like a clover with four leaves ). Using partial fraction decompositions gives
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
dz
1
dz
dz
=
2+1
2i
z
i
2i
z
+
i
z
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
=
dz
dz
2i z i
2i z + i
=
(n(; i) n(; i))
Def 4.2 p. 81
0 = 0,
since n(; i) = n(; i) since i and i are contained in the region generated by . Hence
Z
dz
= 0.
2+1
z
dz
.
z2 +2
Solution. A sketch reveals that the zero i is inside the region and the zero i is outside the region. Using
partial fraction decomposition yields
Z
Z
Z
1
dz
1
1
1
=
dz
dz
2 + 2
2i
z
i
2i
z
+
i
z
=
n(; i) n(; i) = 0 1 = 1,
Def 4.2 p. 81
64
since i is not contained in the region generated by , so n(; i) = 0 and i is contained in the region, so
n(; i) = 1. Hence,
Z
dz
= 1.
2
2
z +
3
i
3
1
1
Exercise
R 7. Let f (z) = [(z 2 i) (z1 2 i) (z1 2 ) (z 2 i)] and let be the polygon [0, 2, 2+2i, 2i, 0].
Find f .
Exercise 8. Let G = C {a, b}, a , b, and let be the curve in the figure below.
(a) Show that n(; a) = n(; b) = 0.
(b) Convince yourself that is not homotopic to zero. (Notice that the word is convince and not prove.
Can you prove it?) Notice that this example shows that it is possible to have a closed curve in a region
such that n(; z) = 0 for all z not in G without being homotopic to zero. That is, the converse to Corollary
6.10 is false.
Solution. Let be the path depicted on p. 96. We can write it as a sum of 6 paths. Two of them will
be closed and have a and b in their unbounded component. Therefore, two integrals will be zero and we
will have another 2 pair of non-closed paths. The first pair begins at the leftmost crossing pair and goes
around a in opposite direction. The second pair begins at the middle crossing pair and goes around b in
opposite direction. They Ralso meet at the rightmost crossing point. If we integrate over the path around a
1
dz where 1 (t) = a + reit , 0 t and 2 (t) = a + reit , t 2 for
is equivalent to evaluate za
1
2
some r > 0. It is easily seen that we have
Z
Z
1
1
dz =
dz = i
z
a
z
a
2
1
and therefore n(; a) = 0 and similarly we obtain n(; b) = 0.
Exercise 9. Let G be a region and let 0 and 1 be two closed smooth curves in G. Suppose 0 1 , and
satisfies (6.2). Also suppose that t (s) = (s, t) is smooth for each t. If w C G define h(t) = n(t ; w) and
show that h : [0, 1] Z is continuous.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 10. Find all possible values of
through i.
dz
,
1+z2
Solution. Let be a closed rectifiable curve in C not passing through i. Using partial fraction decomposition and the definition of the winding number we obtain
!
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
dz
=
dz
dz
= (2in(; i) 2in(; i)) = (n(; i) n(; i)) .
2
2i
z
1
z
+
i
2i
1
+
z
R ez ez
Exercise 11. Evaluate z4 dz where is one of the curves depicted below. (Justify your answer.)
Solution. Using Corollary 5.9 p. 86 we have a G {}
Z
1
f (z)
dz = 2i f (k) (a)n(; a) ,
k+1
k!
(z a)
65
where is a closed rectifiable curve in G (open) such that n(; w) = 0 for all w C G and f : G C is
analytic.
In our case a = 0 and satisfies the above assumptions for exercise a), b) and c). Let f (z) = ez ez which
is clearly analytic on any region G. We have f (3) (0) = e0 + e0 = 2 and using the formula above for k = 3
we obtain
Z z
1 2i
e ez
dz = 2i 2n(; 0) =
n(; 0).
4
6
3
z
2i
3 .
X
k=0
ak (z a)k
where
ak =
f (k) (a)
and |z a| < R
k!
X
X
f (k) (a)
f (k) (a)
=
(z a)k =
(z a)k
k!
k!
k=0
k=m
= (z a)m
X
f (k) (a)
(z a)km
=
k!
g(a),0, since
k=0
|
{z
}
f (m) ,0
(z a)m g(z)
g(z)
(n)
(z) =
n
X
k=0
n
k
m!
(z a)m(nk) g(k) (z),
(m (n k))!
66
n = 1, 2, . . . , m.
If z = a, then clearly f (n) (a) = 0 for m (n k) > 0 and f (n) (a) , 0 for m (n k) = 0. If k = 0 and m = n,
then f (m) (a) = f (n) (a) = m!g(a) , 0 since g(a) , 0 by assumption. Hence, f (n) (a) = 0 for n = 1, 2, . . . , m 1
and f (n) (a) , 0 for n = m.
Exercise 4. Suppose that f : G C is analytic and one-one; show that f 0 (z) , 0 for any z in G.
Solution. Assume f 0 (a) = 0 for some a G. Then f (a) = where is a constant. Define
F(z) = f (z) .
Then F(a) = f (a) = = 0 and F 0 (a) = f 0 (a) = 0 by assumption. Hence, F has a as a root of
multiplicity m 2.
Then, we can use Theorem 7.4 p. 98 to argue that there is an > 0 and > 0 such that for 0 < | a| < ,
the equation f (z) = has exactly m simple roots in B(a; ), since f is analytic in B(a; R) and = f (a). Also
f (z) has a zero of order m 2 at z = a.
Since f (z) = has exactly m (our case m 2) simple roots in B(a; ), we can find at least two distinct
points z1 , z2 B(a; ) G such that
f (z1 ) = = f (z2 )
contradicting that f is 1 1. So f 0 (z) , 0 for any z in G.
Exercise 5. Let X and be metric spaces and suppose that f : X , is one-one and onto. Show that f
is an open map iff f is a closed map. (A function f is a closed map if it takes closed sets onto closed sets.)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 6. Let P : C R be defined by P(z) = Re z; show that P is an open map but is not a closed map.
(Hint: Consider the set F = {z : Im z = (Re z)1 and Re z , 0}.)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 7. Use Theorem 7.2 to give another proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.
Solution. Not available.
67
Chapter 5
Singularities
5.1 Classification of singularities
Exercise 1. Each of the following functions f has an isolated singularity at z = 0. Determine its nature; if
it is a removable singularity define f (0) so that f is analytic at z = 0; if it is a pole find the singular part; if
it is an essential singularity determine f ({z : 0 < |z| < }) for arbitrarily small values of .
a)
sin z
;
f (z) =
z
b)
cos z
;
f (z) =
z
c)
cos z 1
f (z) =
;
z
d)
f (z) = exp(z1 );
e)
f (z) =
log(z + 1)
;
z2
f)
f (z) =
cos(z1 )
;
z1
f (z) =
z2 + 1
;
z(z 1)
g)
h)
f (z) = (1 ez )1 ;
i)
1
f (z) = z sin ;
z
68
j)
1
f (z) = zn sin .
z
Solution. a) According to Theorem 1.2 p.103, z = 0 is a removable singularity, since
lim (z 0)
If we define,
sin(z)
sin(z)
= lim z
= lim sin(z) = 0.
z
z
z
z
sin(z)
z ,
f (z) =
1,
z,0
,
z=0
X
z2k
(1)k
cos(z) =
(2k)!
k=0
and therefore
sin(z)
z
= 1.
1
cos(z) X
z2k1
=
= + analytic part.
(1)k
z
(2k)! z
k=0
Thus cosz z has a simple pole at z = 0.
c) According to Theorem 1.2 p.103, z = 0 is a removable singularity, since
lim (z 0)
If we define,
cos(z) 1
cos(z) 1
= lim z
= lim cos(z) 1 = 1 1 = 0.
z
z
z
z
cos(z)1
z ,
f (z) =
1,
z,0
,
z=0
X
zk
(1)k+1 .
log(1 + z) =
k
k=1
cos(z)1
z
= 0.
So we can write
k
k2
k2
X
1 X
log(1 + z)
1 1 X
k+1 z
k+1 z
k+1 z
=
(1)
=
=
+
(1)
(1)
k
k
z 2 k=3
k
z2
z2 k=1
k=1
has a pole of order 1 at z = 0 and the singular part is 1z (by Equation 1.7 and
and hence f (z) = log(1+z)
z2
Definition 1.8 p. 105).
2
z+1
z+1
= 1 + z(z1)
g) First, we simplify zz2+1
. Now partial fraction decomposition of z(z1)
yields
z
1
2
z+1
= +
z(z 1)
z z1
so
f (z) = 1
1
2
+
z z1
69
2
1z (by Equation
and hence f (z) = zz2+1
has poles of order 1 at z = 0 and z = 1 and the singular part is z1
z
1.7 and Definition 1.8 p. 105).
i) We know (see p. 38)
X
z2k+1
(1)k
sin(z) =
(2k + 1)!
k=0
so
2k+1
2k
1
1
X
X
1
1
1
1
z
z
k
k
=
=1
(1)
f (z) = z sin = z (1)
+
+ ...
2
4
6
z
(2k
+
1)!
(2k
+
1)!
3!z
5!z
7!z
k=0
k=0
Therefore f (z) = z sin 1z has an essential singularity at z = 0 (it is neither a pole nor a removable singularity
by Corollary 1.18c). We have
f ({z : 0 < |z| < }) = f [ann(0; 0, )] = C
by the Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem p. 109. But f ({z : 0 < |z| < }) = f [ann(0; 0, )] is either C or C\{a}
for one a C by the Great Picard Theorem (p. 300). In this case,
f ({z : 0 < |z| < }) = f [ann(0; 0, )] = C.
Exercise 2. Give the partial fraction expansion of r(z) =
z2 +1
.
(z2 +z+1)(z1)2
Solution. a) We have 0 < |z| < 1 and using partial fraction decomposition yields
!
1
1
1 1
1
1
=
=
+
f (z) =
z(z 1)(z 2) z (z 1)(z 2) z z 1 z 2
1
1
1 1
1 X n 1 X z n
=
=
z
!n+1
!n+2
X
X
X
n
1
1
n1
n1
z
z =
=
z
1
2
2
n=1
n=0
n=0
=
X
1 2n2 zn ,
n=1
!n
1 X z n
1 1 X 1
1 1
1 1 1
X
X
X
1
1
1
n1
n2
=
z =
zn1
z
z
2
2
n=0
n=0
n=0
n=0
!n+2
2
X
X
1
zn ,
(1 < |z| < 2).
zn
=
2
n=
n=1
70
1 1
1 1 1
+
=
z z 1 1z
z 1
!
X 1 n+2 X
=
+
2n
z
n=0
n=0
f (z) =
2
X
n=
2
z
(2n2 1)zn ,
1
z
=
|1/z|<1and |2/z|<1
!n+2
X
n=0
!n
!n
1 1 X 1
1 X 2
+
z z n=0 z
z n=0 z
(2n 1)zn2
Exercise 5. Show that f (z) = tan z is analytic in C except for simple poles at z =
n. Determine the singular part of f at each of these poles.
sin(z)
Solution. Define zn = 2 + n. We know tan(z) = cos(z)
and (cos(z))0 = sin(z). Hence, tan(z) has a simple
1
at each zn .
pole at each zn with residue 1 and with singular part zz
n
Exercise 6. If f : G C is analytic except for poles show that the poles of f cannot have a limit point in
G.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 7. Let f have an isolated singularity at z = a and suppose f (z) . 0. Show that if either (1.19) or
(1.20) holds for some s in R then there is an integer m such that (1.19) holds if s > m and (1.20) holds if
s < m.
Solution. Let limza |z a| s | f (z)| = 0 hold, that is limza (z a) s f (z) = 0 for some s in R. Then it holds
obviously for any greater ss. Hence, there exist an integer n > 0 such that
lim(z a)n f (z) = 0
(5.1)
(5.2)
za
and
za
(In fact we are free to choose any positive integer greater than s). Now, (z a)n f (z) thus has a removable
singularity at z = a (by Theorem 1.2 p. 103) applied to (5.2)) and its extended value is also zero by (5.2).
Thus (z a)n f (z) has a zero of finite order k at z a. So
(z a)n f (z) = (z a)k h(z)
where h(z) is analytic at a and h(a) , 0. Hence
Thus,
0,
s
sn
n
sn+k
lim(z a) f (z) = lim(z a) (z a) f (z) = lim(z a)
h(z) =
,
za
za
za
h(a) , 0,
0,
lim |z a| | f (z)| =
,
za
s
71
s>m
s<m
s>nk
s<nk
s = n k.
where m = n k.
Now let limza |z a| s | f (z)| = for some s in R. Then there exists an integer n < 0 so that
lim |z a|n | f (z)| =
(5.3)
za
(In fact we are free to choose any negative integer less than s). Now (z a)n f (z) thus has a pole at z = a
(by Definition 1.3 p.105 and (5.1)) and (z a)n f (z) has a pole of finite order l at z = a and so
(z a)n f (z) = (z a)l k(z)
where k(z) is analytic at a and k(a) , 0 (Proposition 1.4 p.105). Hence
Thus,
0,
s
sn+n
snl
lim(z a) f (z) = lim(z a)
f (z) = lim(z a)
k(z) =
,
za
za
za
k(a) , 0,
0,
lim |z a| s | f (z)| =
,
za
where m = n + l.
s>n+l
s<n+l
s = n + l.
s>m
s<m
Exercise 8. Let f , a, and m be as in Exercise 7. Show: (a) m = 0 iff z = a is a removable singularity and
f (a) , 0; (b) m < 0 iff z = a is a removable singularity and f has a zero at z = a of order m; (c) m > 0 iff
r = a is a pole of f of order m.
Solution. a) : Let m = 0. Then by Exercise 7, we have
s>0=m
0,
2
lim(z a) f (z) =
.
, 0, s = 0 = m
za
(5.4)
Thus using s = 1, f (z) has a removable singularity (by Theorem 1.2 p. 103) with the extended value equal
to f (a) = limza f (z) , 0.
: Let z = a be a removable singularity and f (a) = limza f (z) , 0. Then limza (z a) f (z) = 0 by
Theorem 1.2 p.103. By Exercise 7, we obtain that there is an integer m such that
0, s > m
s
lim |z a| | f (z)| =
.
, s < m
za
But m = 0, since
0,
lim(z a) f (z) =
,
za
s
s>0
,
s<0
lim(z a) f (z) = 0.
and
za
Recall limza (z a) s f (z) = 0 if s > m so it is true of s = 0 and s = 1. Thus, f (z) has a removable
singularity at z = a and also the extended function has the value limza f (z) = 0 at z = a (p. 103 Theorem
72
1.2). Now h(z) := (z a)m f (z) has a removable singularity at z = a (since limza (z a)m+1 f (z) = 0) but
h(z) has extended value
h(a) = lim(z a)m f (z) , 0
za
0, s > m
s
s+m
lim |z a| | f (z)| = lim |z a| |h(z)| =
, s < m
za
za
by Exercise 7. Hence, the algebraic order of f at z = a is equal to m (m > 0).
c) : Let the algebraic order be m > 0. Then
lim(z a) s f (z) = 0
za
by Exercise 7. Then for z , a, we have h(z) = (z a)m f (z) has a removable singularity at z = a with
h(a) , 0. Now f (z) = (z a)m h(z) where h A(B(a; )) and h(a) , 0. Thus f (z) has a pole of order m at
z = a.
: Let f (z) have a pole of order m at z = a. Then f (z) = (za)m g(z) where g(z) A(B(a; )) and g(a) , 0.
Thus limza (z a)m f (z) = g(a) , 0 and
lim(z a)m+1 f (z) = lim(z a)g(z) = 0.
za
za
So
s
sm
za
0,
|z a| | f (z)| =
,
m
s>m
s<m
Exercise 9. A function f has an essential singularity at z = a iff neither (1.19) nor (1.20) holds for any real
number s.
Solution. : We prove this direction by proving the contrapositive (P Q Q P). Assume
(1.19) or (1.20) hold for some real number s. Then by Exercise 7, there exists an integer m such that (1.19)
holds if s > m and (1.20) holds if s < m. Then by Exercise 8, z = a is either a removable singularity or a
pole. Hence z = a is not an essential singularity (by Definition 1.3 p.105).
: Also this direction by is being proved by showing the contrapositive. Assume that f has an isolated
singularity at z = a which is not an essential singularity. Then either z = a is a removable singularity or a
pole (by Definition 1.3 p.105). Again by Problem 7 and 8, in either case there exists an m such that (1.19)
or (1.20) holds. (If z = a is removable, then either m = 0 or m < 0; if z = a is a pole, then m > 0 by
Exercise 8).
Exercise 10. Suppose that f has an essential singularity at z = a. Prove the following strengthened version
of the CasoratiWeierstrass Theorem. If c C and > 0 are given then for each > 0 there is a number ,
|c | < , such that f (z) = has infinitely many solutions in B(a; ).
73
1
z . Can you generalize this result?
X
1
1
1
exp z +
= a0 +
an zn + n
2
z
z
n=1
for 0 < |z| < , where for n 0
1
an =
1
1
z
2
z
1
bn =
!)
= b0 +
bn zn +
n=1
(1)n
zn
Exercise 15. Let f be analytic in G = {z : 0 < |z a| < r} except that there is a sequence of poles {an } in G
with an a. Show that for any in C there is a sequence {zn } in G with a = lim zn and = lim f (zn ).
Solution. Not available.
1
R1
and g(z) = 0 (t z)1 dt are
Exercise 16. Determine the regions in which the functions f (z) = sin 1z
analytic. Do they have any isolated singularities? Do they have any singularities that are not isolated?
Solution. Not available.
!
Exercise 17. Let f be analytic in the region G =ann(a; 0, R). Show that if G | f (x + iy)|2 dx dy < then f
!
has a removable singularity at z = a. Suppose that p > 0 and G | f (x + iy)| p dx dy < ; what can be said
about the nature of the singularity at z = a?
Solution. Not available.
74
5.2 Residues
Exercise 1. Calculate the following integrals:
a)
Z
b)
c)
2
since x4 +xx 2 +1 is even.
2
f (z) = z4 +zz 2 +1 has two
cos x 1
dx
x2
cos 2 d
where a2 < 1
1 2a cos + a2
d)
x2 dx
x4 + x2 + 1
d
where a > 1.
(a + cos )2
x2 dx
1
=
x4 + x2 + 1 2
x2 dx
x4 + x2 + 1
2
simple poles at a1 = ei 3 , a2 = ei 3 enclosed by R . By the residual Theorem, we have
2i(Res( f, a1 ) + Res( f, a2 )) =
f =
x2
dx +
4
x + x2 + 1
CR
z4
z2
dz.
+ z2 + 1
Thus,
Z
We have
Z
f (z) dz =
CR
x2 dx
= lim
4
R
x + x2 + 1
CR
2
X
z2
Res( f, ak ).
dz
+
2i
z4 + z2 + 1
k=1
Z
Z
Z
z2
|z|2
|z|2
z2
dz
dz
|dz|
|dz|
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
CR z + z + 1
CR |z| |z| 1
CR |z + z + 1|
CR z + z + 1
Z
R2
R3
|dz| = 4
0 as R .
4
2
R R 1 CR
R R2 1
Res( f, ei 3 )
lim (z ei 3 )
zei 3
z4
z2
1
= ei 3 lim (z ei 3 ) 4
2+1
i3
+ z2 + 1
z
+
z
ze
2
=
=
ei 3
1
ei 3
=
=
3
2
3
i
i
i
4e 3 + 2e 3
4e 3 + 2
zei 3 4z + 2z
1
1
1
1
1
1
2 + 2 3i
2 + 2 3i
=
= +
1
1
4( 2 + 2 3i) + 2
2 3i
4 3i 4
1
1
i.
4 4 3
2
= ei 3 lim
75
Res( f, ei 3 )
lim (z ei 3 )
2
zei 3
z4
4
2
z2
1
= ei 3 lim (z ei 3 ) 4
2
2
+z +1
z + z2 + 1
zei 3
2
ei 3
1
ei 3
=
=
4
2
6
3
2
4ei 3 + 2
4ei 3 + 2ei 3
zei 3 4z + 2z
12 + 21 3i
12 + 21 3i
1
1
=
=
=
1
1
4
4( 2 2 3i) + 2
2 3i
4 3i
1
1
= i.
4 4 3
4
= ei 3 lim
So
2
X
!
!
1
1
1
1
1
Res( f, ak ) = 2i
2i
= 2i i = i2 = .
i+
4
4
4 3
4 3i
2 3
3
3
k=1
Hence,
x4
x2 dx
1
= .
2
+x +1 2 3
eiz 1
z2
R
r
r
R
We have
So
Z
eix 1
dx +
x2
r
R
eix 1
dx =
x2
eix 1
dx
x2
R
r
eix 1
dx.
x2
eix + eix 2
dx = 2
x2
r
Z R
cos(x) 1
dx
= 2
x2
r
ix
ix
R e +e
2
x2
Therefore,
Z
cos(x) 1
1
dx =
2
2
x
1
cos(x) 1
dx = lim
R
2
x2
eiz 1
1
dz
2
2
z
!
!
Z iz
eiz 1
e 1
1
dz lim
dz
r0 2
z2
z2
r
eiz 1
dz
z2
2
R
R
76
dx
1
cos(x) 1
dx = 0 = .
2
2
2
2
x
0
c) If a = 0, then
Z
cos 2 d
=
1 2a cos + a2
cos 2 d =
0
1
1
[sin 2]0 = [0 0] = 0.
2
2
2a
cos
+
a
1
2a
cos
+
a
1 2a 2 + a2
0
0
0
Let z = ei . Then dz = iz d = d =
1
2
2
0
e2i +e2i
2
ei +ei
2a 2
+ a2
1
2
dz
iz .
Hence,
z2 +
|z|=1
1
=
4ia
1
z2
|z|=1
z4 + 1
dz
2
2
2
|z|=1 z z az a + a z
Z
1
z4 + 1
z4 + 1
dz
dz
=
2
4ia |z|=1 z2 (z a) z 1
z2 z2 1+a
a z+1
a
1
dz
=
1
2
iz
4i
1a z+ z +a
2
By the Residue Theorem and the fact that |a| < 1, since a2 < 1
Z
z4 + 1
dz = 2i Res f ( f, 0) + Res( f, a)
1
|z|=1 z2 (z a) z
a
where f (z) =
z4 +1
.
z2 (za)(z 1a )
It is easily obtained
d 2
d
z4 + 1
z4 + 1
= lim
Res( f, 0) = lim z
z0 dz
z0 dz (z a) z 1
z2 (z a) z a1
a
1
1
3 2
4
4z z az a z + 1 (z 1) 2z a a
1
= lim
=a+
2
z0
a
z2 az 1a z + 1
and
Res( f, a) = lim(z a)
za
So
|z|=1
Finally,
z4 + 1
a4 + 1
a4 + 1
z4 + 1
= lim
=
=
.
za z2 z 1
a(a2 1)
z2 (z a) z a1
a2 a 1a
a
!
2a4
4ia3
1
a4 + 1
z4 + 1
dz = 2i a + +
= 2i 2
=
.
2
a a(a 1)
a(a = 1)
1 a2
z2 (z a) z a1
Z
!
a2
1
cos 2 d
4ia3
=
4ia
1 2a cos + a2
1 a2
1 a2
77
(x2
b)
dx
= 3,
2
2
+a )
4a
c)
d)
(log x)3
dx = 0;
1 + x2
(a + 1)ea
cos ax
dx
=
,
4
(1 + x2 )2
/2
0
f)
dx
= ;
1 + x2 2
h)
if a > 0;
log x
dx = ;
4
(1 + x2 )2
Z
Z
if a > 0;
d
=
,
1
2
a + sin 2 [a(a + 1)] 2
e)
g)
a > 0;
eax
dx =
,
x
1+e
sin a
log sin2 2 d = 4
0
if
0 < a < 1;
4
0
1
it
Solution. a) Let f (z) = (z2 +a
2 )2 and R = [R, R] + C R where C R = Re , 0 t . So f has z1 = ai as a
pole of order 2 enclosed by R . So we have by the Residue Theorem
Z
f (z) dz = 2i Res( f, z1 )
R
where
Res( f, z1 )
=
=
#
#
"
"
d
d
1
1
=
lim
(z ai)2
zai dz
zai dz (z + ai)2
(z ai)2 (z + ai)2
2
2
1
lim
=
= 3 .
3
3
zai (z + ai)
(2ai)
4a i
lim
Also
2i
1
=
=
4a3 i 2a3
dx
+
(x2 + a2 )2
f (z) dz
CR
where the latter integral on the right hand side is zero since
Z
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
dz
|dz|
|dz| 2
|dz|
2
2 2
2
22
2
2 2
(R a2 )2 CR
CR |z + a |
CR (|z| |a| )
CR (z + a )
R
0 as R .
=
(R2 a2 )2
78
Hence,
eiaz
c) Let f (z) = (1+z
2 )2
enclosed by R . By
1
dx
=
(x2 + a2 )2 2
1
dx
= lim
(x2 + a2 )2 2 R
dx
=
=
.
(x2 + a2 )2 2 2a3 4a3
it
where
Res( f, z1 )
#
"
" iaz #
d
d
eiaz
e
2
= lim
= lim
(z i)
2
2
zi dz
zi
dz (z + i)2
(z i) (z + i)
"
#
#
"
2
iaz
iaz
(z + i)iaeiaz 2eiaz
(z + i) iae 2(z + i)e
= lim
= lim
zi
zi
(z + i)4
(z + i)3
2
Also
2i
(a + 1)ea (a + 1)ea
=
=
4i
2
f (x) dx +
f (z) dz
CR
where the latter integral on the right hand side is zero since
Z
Z
Z
Z
eiaz
|eiaz |
1
f (z) dz =
dz
|dz|
|dz|
2
2
2
2
2
2
CR (1 + z )
CR |1 + z |
CR
CR (|z| 1)
1
=
R 0 as R ,
(R2 1)2
since |eiaz | = eIm(az) 1 since Im(az) 0 (a > 0 by assumption). Hence
Z
Z R
Z
cos ax
1 cos ax
1
1 (a + 1)ea (a + 1)ea
cos ax
lim
=
dx
=
dx
=
dx =
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 (1 + x )
2 R R (1 + x )
2
2
4
0 (1 + x )
provided a > 0.
g) First of all substitute u = e x , so
Z
eax
dx =
1 + ex
ua1
du = 2
1+u
Hence,
ua du
=
1+u u
t2a2 t
dt = 2
1 + t2
eax
dx = 2
1 + ex
2a1
ua1
du.
1+u
t2a1
dt.
1 + t2
x2a1
dx.
1 + x2
Let f (z) = z1+z2 and = [R, r] + r + [r, R] + R (0 < r < R). Define log z on G = {z C : z , 0, 2 <
arg(z) < 3
2 } with log(z) = log |z| + i, = arg(z). f (z) has a simple pole i enclosed by . By the Residue
79
Theorem
Z
= 2Res( f, i) = 2i lim(z i)
f (z) dz
zi
= i
Also
f (z) dz =
2a1
IV)
= e
(2a1) log i
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx +
f (z) dz +
f (z) dz .
|R {z } |r {z } |r {z } |R {z }
I
I)
i2a1
z2a1
= 2i
(z i)(z + i)
2i
III
II
IV
Z R
Z R (2a1)(log |x|+i)
(x)2a1
e
f (x) dx =
dx
=
dx
2
1
+
x
1 + x2
r
r
r
Z R (2a1) log x
Z R (2a1) log x
e
e
2ai
dx
=
e
dx
= e(2a1)i
2
1
+
x
1 + x2
r
r
Z R 2a1
x
= e2ai
dx.
1
+ x2
r
f (x) dx
Z
Z
Z
z2a1
|z|2a1
R2a1
R2a
f (z) dz =
dz
|dz|
R
=
0 as R
2
R 1 + z2
R2 1
R2 1
R
R |1 + z |
since a < 1.
II) Similar to IV)
Z
r2a
f (z) dz 2
0 as r 0
r 1
r
since a > 0.
Hence, if r 0 and R , we get
Z
Z
ai
2ai
ie =
f (z) dz = e
f (x) dx + 0 +
Thus,
ai
ie
and so
f (x) dx =
Therefore,
2ai
= (1 e
2ai
f (x) dx + 0 = (1 e
f (x) dx.
f (x) dx
i
i
i
ieai
=
=
=
=
.
1 e2ai eai eai eai eai 2i sin(a) 2 sin(a)
eax
dx = 2
1 + ex
x2a1
dx = 2
=
2 sin(a) sin(a)
1 + x2
80
Exercise 4. Suppose that f has a simple pole at z = a and let g be analytic in an open set containing a.
Show that Res( f g; a) = g(a)Res( f ; a).
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Use Exercise 4 to show that if G is a region and f is analytic in G except for simple poles at
a1 , . . . , an ; and if g is analytic in G then
1
2i
fg =
n
X
k=1
for any closed rectifiable curve not passing through a1 , . . . , an such that 0 in G.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 6. Let be Rthe rectangular path [n + 21 + ni, n 12 + ni, n 21 ni, nR + 12 ni, n + i + ni] and
evaluate the integral (z + a)2 cot z dz for a , an integer. Show that limn (z + a)2 cot z dz = 0
and, by using the first part, deduce that
X
2
1
=
2
sin a n= (a + n)2
(Hint: Use the fact that for z = x + iy, | cos z|2 = cos2 x + sinh2 y and | sin z|2 = sin2 x + sinh2 y to show that
| cot z| 2 for z on if n is sufficiently large.)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 7. Use Exercise 6 to deduce that
1
2 X
=
8
(2n
+
1)2
n=0
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 8. Let be the polygonal path defined in Exercise 6 and evaluate
an integer. Show that limn (z2 a2 )1 cot z dz = 0, and consequently
cot a =
1 X 2a
+
a n=1 a2 n2
for a , an integer.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 9. Use methods similar to those of Exercises 6 and 8 to show that
1 X 2(1)n a
= +
sin a a n=1 a2 n2
for a , an integer.
Solution. Not available.
81
Exercise 10. Let be the circle |z| = 1 and let m and n be non-negative integers. Show that
(1) p (n+2p)!
Z 2
(z 1)m dz
1
p!(n+p)! , if m = 2p + n, p 0
=
m+n+1
0,
2i z
otherwise
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 11. In Exercise 1.12, consider an and bn as functions of the parameter and use Exercise 10 to
compute power series expansions for an () and bn (). (bn () is called a Bessel function.)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 12. Let f be analytic in the plane except for isolated singularities at a1 , a2 , . . . , am . Show that
Res( f ; ) =
Res( f, ak ).
k=1
R
1
f when
(Res( f ; ) is defined as the residue of z2 f (z1 ) at z = 0. Equivalently, Res( f ; ) = 2i
(t) = Reit , 0 t 2, for sufficiently large R.) What can you say if f has infinitely many isolated
singularities?
Solution. Not available.
it
Exercise 13. Let f be an
R entire function1and let a, b C such that |a| < R and |b| < R. If (t) = Re ,
0 t 2pi, evaluate [(z a)(z b)] f (z) dz. Use this result to give another proof of Liouvilles
Theorem.
Since h(z) = z has only one zero (z = 0) inside the unit circle, we get that
g(z) = f (z) z
has exactly one zero inside the unit circle. Hence, there is a unique z such that f (z) z = 0 f (z) = z
with |z| < 1.
If we choose f (z) = z, then | f (z)| 1 for |z| = 1 and therefore we have infinitely many fixed points.
If we choose f (z) = 1, then | f (z)| 1 for |z| = 1 and therefore we do not have any fixed points.
83
Chapter 6
z G.
| f (z)| c,
(6.1)
Exercise 2.)
(c) If p is a polynomial and c > 0 show that {z : |p(z)| = c} is the union of a finite number of closed paths.
Discuss the behavior of these paths as c .
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Let 0 < r < R and put A = {z : r |z| R}. Show that there is a positive number > 0 such
that for each polynomial p,
sup{|p(z) z1 | : z A}
This says that z1 is not the uniform limit of polynomials on A.
Solution. Not available.
R) with | f (z)| M for |z| R and | f (0)| = a > 0. Show that the
Exercise 5. Let f be analytic on B(0;
number of zeros of f in B(0; 13 R) is less than or equal to log1 2 log Ma . Hint: If z1 , . . . , zn are the zeros of f
in B(0; 13 R); consider the function
n
!1
Y
z
,
1
g(z) = f (z)
z
k
k=1
Qn
k=1
ak = a1 a2 . . . an .)
u G.
Then we can use the Maximum Modulus Theorem (Version 3). Instead of showing that
lim sup | f (zn )| M lim sup | f (z)| M,
za
So assume lim supza | f (z)| > M. But this implies lim supza | f (zn )| > M since zn z as z , that is zn
gets arbitrarily close to z and since f is analytic, that is continuous, we have f (zn ) gets arbitrarily close to
f (z).
85
| f (0)| + |z|
| f (0)| |z|
| f (z)|
1 + | f (0)| |z|
1 | f (0)| |z|
Solution. We claim that |g(z)| 1 and g(0) = 0. It is easy to check that g(0) = 0 since
g(0) =
f (0) a
aa
=
= 0.
1 a f (0) 1 a a
We also have
|g(z)| =
| f (z) a|
1
|1 a f (z)|
since | f (z)| 1. (Can you see it?) Now, apply Schwarz Lemma.
3
4
and f 0 ( 21 ) = 32 ?
Solution. The answer is no. Assume there exist an analytic function f : D D with f ( 21 ) = 34 . According
to the definition, we have
Ea = { f A(D) : | f (z)| 1, f (a) = }.
In our case, we have a =
1
2
and = 34 . We know,
0 1 ||2
f (a)
1 |a|2
But f 0 ( 12 ) =
2
3
2
!
3
0 1 1 4
f
2 =
2
1 12
7
16
3
4
86
7 3
7
=
= 0.583.
16 4 12
Exercise 3. Suppose f : D C satisfies Re f (z) 0 for all z in D and suppose that f is analytic.
(a) Show that Re f (z) > 0 for all z in D.
(b) By using an appropriate Mbius transformation, apply Schwarzs Lemma to prove that if f (0) = 1 then
| f (z)|
1 + |z|
1 |z|
| f (z)|
1 |z|
1 + |z|
R)
Exercise 4. Prove Caratheodorys Inequality whose statement is as follows: Let f be analytic on B(0;
and let M(r) = max{| f (z)| : |z| = r}, A(r) = max{Re f (z) : |z| = r}; then for 0 < r < R, if A(r) 0,
M(r)
R+r
[A(R) + | f (0)|]
Rr
(Hint: First consider the case where f (0) = 0 and examine the function g(z) = f (Rz)[2A(R) + f (Rz)]1 for
|z| < 1.)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Let f be analytic in D = {z : |z| < 1} and suppose that | f (z)| M for all z in D. (a) If f (zk ) = 0
for 1 k n show that
n
Y
|z zk |
| f (z)| M
|1
zk z|
k=1
for |z| < 1. (b) If f (zk ) = 0 for 1 k n, each zk , 0, and f (0) = Meia (z1 z2 , . . . , zn ), find a formula for f .
Solution. Not available.
1) and | f (z)| = 1 where |z| = 1. Find a
Exercise 6. Suppose f is analytic in some region containing B(0;
formula for f . (Hint: First consider the case where f has no zeros in B(0; 1).)
Solution. Not available.
1) and | f (z)| = 1 when |z| = 1. Suppose that
Exercise 7. Suppose f is analytic in a region containing B(0;
f has a zero at z = 41 (1 + i) and a double zero at z = 12 . Can f (0) = 21 ?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 8. Is there an analytic function f on B(0; 1) such that | f (z)| < 1 for |z| < 1, f (0) =
f 0 (0) = 34 ? If so, find such an f . Is it unique?
Solution. Not available.
87
1
2,
and
ts
us
ut
(6.2)
(6.3)
ut
(0, 1). Since f is convex on
which we show now. Let a < s < t < u < b, t = s + (1 )u with = us
(a, b), we get
ut
ts
f (t)
f (s) +
f (u)
us
us
which implies
(t s) f (u) + (u t) f (s) (u s) f (t) 0
which is equivalent to
.
ts
us
.
us
ut
zx
z (x , x + ).
(6.4)
f (x)
Taking the limit z x, we have that f (x)f (x) (z x) 0 and f (x+)
(z x) 0. Thus f (z) f (x) 0,
88
zx
which gives the first inequality in (6.4).
Applying the outer inequality in (6.2) to the three points z < x < x + gives
f (x) f (z)
f (x + ) f (x)
f (z) f (x)
f (x + ) f (x)
xz
x+x
zx
.
xx+
zx
zx
The second inequality in (6.4) follows from the first inequality in (6.2) applied to x, z, x + .
f (z) f (x)
f (x + ) f (x)
f (z) f (x)
f (x + ) f (x)
.
zx
x+x
zx
0, x [a, b)
.
f (x) =
1, x = b
Clearly, f is convex on [a, b], but f is not continuous at x = b (but the function is continuous on (a, b)).
Exercise 3. Show that a function f : [a, b] R is convex iff any of the following equivalent conditions is
satisfied:
f (u) u 1
f (y) y 1
f (y) f (x)
f (u) f (x)
(b) a x < u < y b gives ux yx ;
f (x)
f (u)
(c) a x < u < y b gives f (u)
f (y)
ux
yu ;
Interpret these conditions geometrically.
89
n
Y
gk (z)kk ;
k=1
n
Y
k=1
|k (z)|k kk
|k (z)|k k
| f (z)|
n
Y
k=1
M,
lim sup | f (z)| =
Mk ,
(a),(b)
za
k
90
kk kk |k (z)| = | f (z)| z G.
aA
a Bk
n
Y
k=1
|gk (z)|1 kk
+
n
Y
k k max{M, M1 , . . . , Mn }
n
1
k (z)
k=1
for all z in G and for all k > 0. Letting k 0 k = 1, . . . , n gives that | f (z)| M for all z in G.
Exercise 3. Let G = {z : |Im z| < 12 } and suppose f : G C is analytic and lim supzw | f (z)| M for w
in G. Also, suppose A < and a < 1 can be found such that
| f (z)| < exp[A exp(a|Re z|)]
for all z in G. Show that | f (z)| M for all z in G. Examine exp(exp z) to see that this is the best possible
growth condition. Can we take a = 1 above?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Let f : G C be analytic and suppose M is a constant such that lim sup | f (zn )| M for each
sequence {zn } in G which converges to a point in G. Show that | f (z)| M. (See Exercise 1.8).
Solution. Claim: Let M be a constant such that lim supn | f (zn )| M for each sequence {zn } in G with
z = lim zn ,
n
z G
(6.5)
implies
lim sup | f (z)| M
for all
za
a G.
(6.6)
If G would be a region together with the claim would give | f (z)| M z G by the Maximum Modulus
Theorem III.
However, G is assumed to be an open set. But every open set can be written as a union of components
(components are open and connected). So each component is a region.
Therefore, we can apply the Maximum Modulus Theorem III to each component once we have shown the
claim and additionally we have to show that the boundary of G is the same as taking the boundaries of the
components:
Clearly, since the components of G add up to G, we have that the boundary of the components must include
the boundary of G.
So it remains to show that the boundary of the component does not include more than the boundary of G.
Assume it would be the case. Then there needs to be a boundary of a component lying inside G (since every
component is lying inside G). But this would imply that it must be connected to another component of G
contradicting the fact a component is a maximally connected subset.
Hence, the boundary of G equals the boundary of all its components.
It remains to show the claim which we will do by showing the contrapositive.
Proof of the claim: Assume not (6.6), that is
M > 0 a G : lim sup | f (z)| > M
za
which is equivalent to
M > 0 a G : lim+ sup{| f (z)| : z G B(a; r)} > M
r0
91
by definition. Then, clearly > 0 such that limr0+ sup{| f (z)| : z G B(a; r)} > M + . Let {zn } be a
sequence with limn = a and let rn = 2|zn a|. Obviously, we have limn rn = 0. Next, consider the
sequence n = sup{| f (z)| : z F B(a; rn )}. Then limn n > M + . In addition, {n } is a nonincreasing
sequence, therefore limn n > M + implies n > M + n. Thus, yn G B(a; rn ) such that
| f (yn )| > M + . Taking lim sup in this inequality yields
lim sup | f (yn )| M + ,
n
that is
lim sup | f (yn )| M
n
where limn yn = a, which gives not (6.5). Hence (6.5) implies (6.6).
Exercise 5. Let f : G C be analytic and suppose that G is bounded. Fix z0 in G and suppose that
lim supzw | f (z)| M for w in G, w , z0 . Show that if limzz0 |z z0 | | f (z)| = 0 for every > 0 then
| f (z)| M for every z in G. (Hint: If a < G, consider (z) = (z z0 )(z a)1 .)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 6. Let G = {z : Re z > 0} and let f : G C be an analytic function with lim supzw | f (z)| M
for w in G, and also suppose that for every > 0,
lim sup{exp(/r)| f (rei )| : || <
1
} = 0.
2
1+z
1z
"
(1 x)2 + y2
(1 + x)2 + y2
.
92
# 12
Chapter 7
t
1+t
d(s,t)
Solution. To show that : S S R, (s, t) = 1+d(s,t)
is a metric we proof that satisfies the conditions
of a metric function.
d(s,t)
is well defined in the nonnegative real numbers because d is a metric.
For s, t S the value (s, t) = 1+d(s,t)
Also (s, t) = 0 if and only if d(s, t) = 0 and since d is a metric it follows that s = t. The metric d is
symmetric and therefore is also. It remains to show the triangle inequality. Let therefore s, t, u S . The
metric d satisfies the triangle inequality
(7.1)
t
The function f (t) = 1+t
is a strictly increasing, concave function on the interval [0, ). Thus if d(s, u)
max{d(s, t), d(t, u)}, then also (s, u) max{(s, t), (t, u)} and by nonnegativity of also
1 + d(s, u)
1 + d(s, u)
d(s, t)
d(t, u)
d(s, t)
d(t, u)
=
+
+
1 + d(s, u) 1 + d(s, u) 1 + d(s, t) 1 + d(t, u)
= (s, t) + (t, u),
(s, u) =
, then B (x, ) Bd (x, ). Similarly, if
(0, 1) such that Bd (x, ) O. Choose positive such that < 1+
O is an open set in (S , ) and is such that x B (x, ) O then choose > 0 with 1
which implies
Bd (x, ) B (x, ). Since this can be done for any element x O, open sets in (S , d) are open in (S , ) and
vice-versa.
The fact that exactly the open sets in (S , d) are open in (S , ) leads to the statement about Cauchy sequences.
Assume that {xn }n is a Cauchy sequence in (S , d). To see that it is Cauchy in (S , ), let > 0 be arbitrary
but fixed. By the above there is a small enough that Bd (x, ) B (x, ) and depends only on , but not
on x S . Since {xn }n is Cauchy in (S , d) there is N N such that d(xm , xn ) < whenever m, n N and
therefore also (xm , xn ) < for m, n N. The opposite statement holds with a similar argument.
Exercise 2. Find the sets Kn obtained in Proposition 1.2 for each of the following choices of G: (a) G is an
open disk; (b) G is an open annulus; (c) G is the plane with n pairwise disjoint closed disks removed; (d) G
is an infinite strip; (e) G = C Z.
Solution.
a) G is an open disk,
where a ball of negative radius is to be understood as the empty set. Depending on the size of r, a
S
finite number of Kn may be empty, not violating the condition Kn int Kn+1 , and obviously G =
n=1 .
b) G is an open annulus,
Let a C be the center of the annulus with radii r, R, 0 r < R < so that G = ann(a, r, R). Define
!
1
1
Kn = ann a, r + , R ,
n
n
again with the interpretation that an annulus with inner radius larger than the outer radius is the
empty set.
d) G = {z C : |Imz| < 1},
)
(
1
.
Kn = {z = x + iy C : x, y R, |x| n} z = x + iy C : x, y R|y| 1
n
S
Although G is unbounded each Kn is bounded and closed and hence compact and G =
n=1 Kn .
e) G = C Z.
Kn = {z C : |z| n}
B ( j, ,
n
j=n
an intersection of closed set, one of which is bounded, hence Kn is compact. Also Kn int Kn+1 by
S
definition and G =
n=1 .
.
2
Since gN is continuous, there is an open neighborhood B(x; r) around x (with r < ). For any y B(x; r)
we have gN (y) < , that is
> 0 x G N N B(x; r) : y B(x; r) : gN (y) < .
Since gN is monotonically decreasing, we surely get gn (y) < for every n N and for every y B(x; r).
These open neighborhoods will cover G. Since G is compact, we can find finitely many x1 , . . . , xk such that
B(xi ; r) cover G for every value of . Note that the values of N can change the chosen center x of each
those neighborhoods, say Ni . Therefore, let M = maxi Ni . Because of the monotonicity of gn , we have that
gn (y) < n M in every open neighborhood B(xi ; r), that is, for every value in G. Hence,
> 0 M N, n M x G : | fn (x) f (x)| < ,
which shows fn f .
Exercise 7. Let { fn } C(G, ) and suppose that { fn } is equicontinuous at each point of G. If f C(G, )
and f (z) = lim fn (z) for each z then show that fn f .
S
Solution. By Proposition 1.2 we can find a sequence {Kn } of compact subsets of G such that
n=1 Kn . Thus,
WLOG we can assume that G is compact. Since fn is equicontiuous at each point of G, we have that
> 0 > 0 : d( fn (x), fn (y)) <
whenever |x y| < .
3
(7.2)
whenever |x y| < .
3
(7.3)
by the pointwise convergence ( f (z) = lim fn (z) z G by assumption). As in the previous exercise, we
can find finitely many points y1 , . . . , yk G such that the open neighborhoods B(yi ; ) cover G, since G is
95
compact. To be more precise: For every point x in G, we can find an open neighborhood B(yi ; ) for some
i = 1, . . . , k. Since fn f pointwise, we have
d( fn (yi ), f (yi )) <
3
n Ni .
3
n N
i = 1, . . . , k.
(7.4)
<
+ + =
(7.2),(7.3),(7.4) 3 3 3
Solution. a) Let G = B(0; R). This result is proved with the Arzela-Ascoli Theorem. With the given function
f define an analytic function
X
|ak |zk .
(7.5)
g : G C,
g(z) :=
k=0
|z|+R
2 (<
R) then z B(0; r). Let F = { fn }n . Then for this fixed z and for any n N
n
n
X
X
|ak ||z|k = g(|z|) < .
| fn (z)| = | ak zk |
k=0
k=0
Thus for a given z G, { fn (z) : fn F } is bounded and therefore has compact closure.
Next, we want to show equicontinuity at each point of G. Fix z0 G and let be positive. Let r > 0 be such
that B(z0 ; r) G. With the function g(z) defined in equation (7.5) and the computations from above we have
for all w B(z0 ; r) and for all n N
| fn (w)| g(|w|).
The boundary of the disk with radius r is compact and so is g(B(z0 ; r)). Thus there is a positive number M
such that |g(B(z
0 , r))| M.
r
Choose 0, min{ 2r , 2M
} and let |z z0 | < then as in the proof of Montels theorem the following
estimate holds
I
fn (w)(z z0 )
1
dw|
| fn (z) fn (z0 )| = |
2i |wz0 |=r (w z)(w z0 )
2M
.
r
By Arzela-Ascoli the sequence { fn } is normal in C(G) so there is a subsequence { fnk } that converges in C(G).
Since f is analytic and { fn } is the sequence of partial sums of f , { fn } itself is an analytic Cauchy sequence
in C(G). Hence every subsequence converges to the same limit, which shows that fn f in C(G). As a last
step recall that H(G) is complete as a subspace of C(G) (Corollary 2.3) and { fn } H(G) thus also the limit
function f H(G).
96
2it
Exercise 9. Let D = B(0;
R 1) and for 0 < r < 1 let r (t) = re , 0 t 1. Show that a sequence { fn } in
H(D) converges to f iff | f (r) fn (z)| |dz| 0 as n for each r, 0 < r < 1.
r
=
r =re2it ,0t1
|dz|
0 < r < 1.
as n for
R each r, 0 < r < 1.
: Assume | f (z) fn (z)| |dz| 0 as n for each r, 0 < r < 1. Let K be an arbitrary compact subset
r
of D = B(0; 1) and choose 0 < r < 1 such that K B(0; r) and denote the shortest distance between an
arbitrary point in K and an arbitrary point on B by > 0. By the assumption, we have
Z
| f (z) fn (z)| |dz| < 2.
(7.6)
B
1
2
| f (z) fn (z)|
1
|dz|
|z a|
2
2
| f (z) fn (z)| |dz| <
= .
(7.6) 2
B
Hence, fn (a) f (z) uniformly a K. Since it converges uniformly on all compact subsets of D, Proposition 1.10 b) yields that { fn } converges to f z D.
Exercise 10. Let { fn } H(G) be a sequence of one-one functions which converge to f . If G is a region,
show that either f is one-one or f is a constant function.
Solution. Assume { fn } H(G) is a sequence of one-one functions which converge to f where G is a region
(open and connected). Suppose f is not the constant function. Then, we have to show that f is one-one.
Choose an arbitrary point z0 G and define the sequence gn (z) = fn (z) fn (z0 ). Clearly, the sequence {gn }
converges to g(z) = f (z) f (z0 ) on the open connected set G\{z0 }, which is again a region. In addition, we
98
have that gn never vanishes on G\{z0 }, since fn are assumed to be one-one functions.
Therefore, the sequence {gn } satisfies the conditions of the Corollary 2.6 resulting from Hurwitzs Theorem,
where the region is G\{z0 }. Thus, either g 0 or g never vanishes (g has no zeros). Since g(z) = f (z) f (z0 )
is not identically zero on G\{z0 }, we must have g(z) = f (z) f (z0 ) has no zeros in G\{z0 }. This implies
z G\{z0 }.
f (z) , f (z0 )
1
2
f (a + reit )
i2
dt.
Multiply by r, we get
f 2 (a)r =
1
2
i2
f (a + rei ) r d
(7.7)
So
| f (a)|2
1
R2
2
0
2
0
99
i2
f (a + rei ) r dr d.
2
f (a + rei ) r dr d.
b) Let G be a region and M be a fixed constant. Let F be the family of all functions f in H(G) such that
"
| f (z)|2 dx dy M.
(7.8)
G
n
.
2
(7.9)
Every sequence has a convergence subsequence, say {znk }, with znk z0 K since K is compact. WLOG,
we write {znk } = {zn }. Clearly z0 G since z0 K (K G), hence R > 0 such that B(z0 ; R) G (since
G is open). If we pick n large enough, we can get zn B(z0 ; R2 ) (a picture might help). In addition, we can
B(z0 ; R ) because B(z0 ; R ) is open. Apply part a) to the ball B(zn ; R)
to
find an R > 0 such that B(zn ; R)
2
2
obtain:
Z 2 Z R
"
1
1
1
f (z + rei )2 r dr d
M < .
| fn (zn )|2
| fn (z)|2 dx dy
n n
2
R 2 0
R 3
G
0
(7.8)
B(z ;R)G
n
So
| fn (zn )|
M1
< .
R
n
.
2
This gives a contradiction if we let n . Thus, F is locally bounded and therefore normal.
| fn (zn )|
2|z a|
<
p
1 + |z|2 1 + |a|2
2|z a|
2r
<
p
p
p
2
2
2
1 + |z| 1 + |a|
1 + R 1 + |a|2
p
r
1 + |z|2
|z a| <
2
1+R
p
100
r
1 + R2
1 + R2
|z a| < r.
B (a; ) B(a; r).
b) Let > 0 and a C. To show: There is a number r > 0 such that B(a; r) B (a; ).
Claim: Pick r < 2 to obtain
B(a; r) B (a; ).
Proof of the claim: Let z B(a; r). This is equivalent to
r< 2
1+|z|2
1+|a|2
|z a| < r
|z a| <
2
|z a| < 1
2
p
p
1 + |z|2 1 + |a|2
|z a| <
2
2|z a|
<
p
1 + |z|2 1 + |a|2
d(z, a) < .
So z B (a; ). Therefore,
B(a; r) B (a; ).
4
2
1 to obtain
C K B (; ).
(Clearly K is compact and r > 0 since 2.)
101
C B(0; r)
=
=
=
r>
4
2
{C B(0; r)} {}
{C {z C : |z| r}} {}
C
:
|z|
1
{}
1
{}
z
C
:
|z|
>
zC:
1 < |z|
{}
<
{}
zC: p
2
1 + |z|
{z C : d(, z) < } {}
B (; ).
=
Therefore,
C K B (; ).
d) Let K C where K is compact. To show: There is a number > 0 such that B (; ) C K. Let
B(0; r) such that B(0; r) K where r > 0. Clearly
C B(0; r) C K.
So it suffices to show: There is a number > 0 such that
B (; ) C B(0; r)
for a given r > 0.
Claim: Choose
2
r2 +1
to obtain
B (; ) C B(0; r)
and hence
B (; ) C K.
Proof of the claim:
B (; )
=
=
r2 +1
=
=
=
=
{z C : d(, z) < } {}
<
{}
zC: p
2
1 + |z|
2
2
<
z
C
:
p
{}
2
2
r + 1
1 + |z|
{z C : r |z|}} {}
{C {z C : |z| < r} {}
C {z C : |z| < r}
C B(0; r).
102
Therefore,
B (; ) C B(0; r).
Exercise 2. Show that if F M(G) is a normal family in C(G, C ) then (F ) is locally bounded.
Solution. Not available.
(by the Riemann Mapping Theorem). Since, we have f : G G (since Re f (z) > 0) and g :
11
11
D so g1 : D G we can define h(z) = g( f (g1 (z))). Clearly h(z) is analytic and oneonto
onto
one, since f and g are analytic and one-one, and we have
h(D) = D
by construction. We have
h(0) = g( f (g1 (0)))
=
g1 (0)=a
103
g( f (a)) = g(a) = 0.
f (a)=a
We also have
|h(z)| 1
z D
since h : D D. Thus, the hypothesis of Schwarzs Lemma are satisfied, and hence, we get
|h0 (0)| 1.
We have
h0 (z) =
i0
0
g( f (g1 (z))) = g0 ( f (g1 (z))) f 0 (g1 (z)) g1 (z)
1
g0 (g1 (z))
where the last step follows from Proposition 2.20 provided g0 (g1 (z)) , 0. So
h0 (0)
1
g0 (g1 (0))
1
1
= g0 (a) f 0 (a) 0
= f 0 (a)
g0 (a)
g (a)
Solution. Define the function F(z) = f 1 (h(z)). This is well-defined since f : G1 G2 and h :
onto
11
G1 G2 . Clearly F(z) is analytic since f and h are analytic, F(z) is one-one and F : G1 G1 by
construction. We have
F(a) = f 1 (h(a)) = f 1 () = a.
Thus by Exercise 5, we get
|F 0 (a)| 1.
We have
0
F 0 (z) = f 1 (h(z)) = f 0 (h(z))h0 (z) =
1
f 0 ( f 1 (h(z)))
h0 (z)
1
f 0 ( f 1 (h(a)))
h0 (a) =
h0 (a)
f 0 ( f 1 ())
|h0 (a)|
1
| f 0 (a)|
104
h0 (a)
f 0 (a)
gives
|h0 (a)| | f 0 (a)|.
If h is not one-one, then we get the same result, since I do not need the assumption that F(z) has to be
one-one for exercise 5.
Exercise 7. Let G be a simply connected region and suppose that G is not the whole plane. Let = { :
|| < 1} and suppose that f is an analytic, one-one map of G onto with f (a) = 0 and f 0 (a) > 0 for some
point a in G. Let g be any other analytic, one-one map of G onto and express g in terms of f .
Solution. Let a G such that f (a) = 0 and f 0 (a) > 0. Since g is one-one mapping from G onto , we
clearly have g(a) = , where ( does not have to be zero). Next, define
g1 (z) =
z
.
1 z
Clearly, g1 is a Mbius transformation mapping to and in addition g1 is one-one and analytic. Now
define
g2 (z) = g1 (g(z)).
Then, g2 is one-one and analytic and maps G onto . In addition, we have
g2 (a) = g1 (g(a)) = g1 () = 0.
(7.10)
But g02 (a) need not necessarily satisfy g02 (a) > 0. However, g02 (a) , 0 z G since g2 is one-one. Therefore,
define the rotation
g3 (z) = ei z
for [0, 2). Clearly g3 maps onto . g3 is one-one and analytic. Finally, let
h(z) = g3 (g2 (z)).
Also h is one-one, analytic and maps G onto . We have
h(a) = g3 (g2 (a))
= g3 (0) = 0.
(7.10)
And,
h0 (z) = (g3 (g2 (z)))0 = (g3 (g1 (g(z))))0 = g03 (g1 (g(z)))g01 (g(z))g0 (z)
(1 g(z))
1 (g(z) ) ()
0
g (z).
= ei
2
(1 g(z))
So,
h0 (a) = ei
2
1
(1 )
0 0
i 1 ||
g
(a)
=
e
g0 (a) = ei
g0 (a).
2
2
2
(1 )
(1 || )
1 ||2
Clearly, we can choose a [0, 2) such that h0 (a) > 0 (depending on the sign of g0 (a). Recall g0 (a) , 0
1
0
i
since g is one-one and , so 1||
= 1 or
2 > 0). For example: If g (a) < 0, then pick = , so e
= Arg(g0 (a)) will work, too.
By uniqueness of the map f ( f satisfies the properties of the Riemann Mapping Theorem), we have
f (z) = h(z)
105
since h satisfies the properties of the Riemann Mapping Theorem, too. Thus,
f (z) = h(z) = g3 (g2 (z)) = ei g2 (z) = ei g1 (g(z)) = ei
g(z)
.
1 g(z)
So
1 g(z)
= ei g(z) ei
f (z) g(z)
f (z) = ei g(z) ei
i
(e + f (z))g(z) = f (z) + ei
f (z) + ei
g(z) = i
.
e + f (z)
Exercise 8. Let r1 , r2 , R1 , R2 , be positive numbers such that R1 /r1 = R2 /r2 ; show that ann(0; r1 , R1 ) and
ann(0; r2 , R2 ) are conformally equivalent.
Solution. The function f : C C; f (z) = rr21 z is analytic and it maps the annulus ann(0; r1 , R1 ) bijectively
into ann(0; r2 , R2 ). The inner boundary {z : |z| = r1 } of the domain is mapped to the inner boundary of
ann(0; r2 , R2 ). For the outer boundary note that by assumption R1 = Rr22r1 , so if |z| = R1 then | f (z)| = rR2 r11 =
R2 . The inverse function is f 1 (z) = rr12 z, an analytic and non-constant function also. Therefore the result is
proved.
Exercise 9. Show that there is an analytic function f defined on G =ann(0; 0, 1) such that f 0 never vanishes
and f (G) = B(0; 1).
Solution. Not available.
for sufficiently large n where the last inequality follows since limz0 log(1+z)
= 1 by Exercise 2. By the
z
P
P
comparison test, log(1 + xn ) converges, that is log(1 + |zn |) converges.
P
P
: Assume log(1 + |zn |) converges, that is log(1 + xn ) converges. Therefore, we have log(1 + xn ) 0
and therefore xn 0. So given > 0, we have
(1 )xn log(1 + xn )
for sufficiently large n where the last inequality follows since limz0
P
P
comparison test, xn converges, that is |zn | converges.
P
P
Therefore, n=1 |zn | converges iff n=1 log(1 + |zn |) converges.
106
log(1+z)
z
= 1 by Exercise 2. By the
= 1.
Exercise 2. Prove that limz0 log(1+z)
z
Solution. First note that,
f (z) =
log(1 + z)
z
z0
log(1 + z)
= lim log(1 + z) = log(1) = 0
z0
z
X
zk
(1)k+1
p.165
k
k=1
log(1 + z) =
if |z| < 1. Therefore,
f (z) =
log(1 + z)
=
z
k=1 (1)
k+1 zk
k
X
X
X
zk1
zk1
zk
=1+
=1+
(1)k+1
(1)k+2
(1)k
k
k
k+1
k=1
k=2
k=1
k
X
X
X
(limz0 z)k
k z
=1+
(1)k
0=1
lim f (z) = lim 1 +
(1)
= 1 +
z0
z0
k+1
k+1
k=1
k=1
k=1
and therefore
log(1 + z)
= 1.
z
Exercise 3. Let f and g be analytic functions on a region G and show that there are analytic functions
f1 , g1 , and h on G such that f (z) = h(z) f1 (z) and g(z) = h(z)g1 (z) for all z in G; and f1 and g1 have no
common zeros.
limz0
Solution. Let f and g be analytic functions on the region G. Let {a j } be the zeros of f with multiplicity n j .
Let {b j } be the zeros of g with multiplicity n j .
If f and g have no common zeros, let h = 1. Then f1 = f and g1 = g. Clearly f1 , g1 and h are analytic on
G such that f (z) = h(z) f1 (z) and g(z) = h(z)g1 (z) for all z in G and f1 and g1 have no common zeros.
Otherwise let {z j } be the set of common zeros of f and g with multiplicity m j = min(n j , n j ). Then {z j } form
a sequence of distinct points in G with no limit points on G (since the zeros are isolated). Then there is an
analytic function h defined on G whose only zeros are at the points z j with multiplicity m j (by Theorem 5.15
p. 170). Let f1 = hf and g1 = gh , then clearly f1 and g1 are analytic functions on G such that f (z) = h(z) f1 (z)
and g(z) = h(z)g1 (z) for all z in G. (since f1 and g1 have removable singularities at the z j s by construction;
the multiplicity of z j s in f and g is greater or equal than the multiplicity of z j s in h). In addition, we have
that f1 and g1 have no common zeros by construction.
Exercise 4. (a) Let 0 < |a| < 1 and |z| r < 1; show that
a + |a|z 1 + r
(1 a z)a 1 r
(b) Let {an } be a sequence of complex numbers with 0 < |an | < 1 and
product
!
Y
|an | an z
B(z) =
an 1 a n z
n=1
107
P
(1 |an |) < . Show that the infinite
converges in H(B(0; 1)) and that |B(z)| 1. What are the zeros of B? (B(z) is called a Blaschke Product.)
P
(c) Find a sequence {an } in B(0; 1) such that (1 |an |) < and every number ei is a limit point of {an }.
Solution. Not available.
1
n=1 n p
for p > 0.
i
Qh
Q
Exercise 6. Discuss the convergence of the infinite products
1 + ni and 1 + ni .
Q
i
Solution. First consider
n=1 1 + n . We claim that this product does not converge.
q
Q
Let zn := 1 + ni = rn ein with rn = 1 + n12 and = arctan 1n . If there is z = rei such that
n=1 zn = z,
Q
P
then n=1 rn = r and n=1 n = .
Since arctan(x)
12 for all values x (0, 1] the estimate
x
!
X
X
1X1
1
n =
arctan
n
2 n n
n=1
n=1
1
is valid. The right hand side does not converge, therefore the angles do not converge and there is no z C
with the desired properties (note that rn > 1 for all n, thus z , 0).
q
The second infinite product is a product of real numbers and zn = |1 + ni | =
1 + n12 . The estimate
2
1 + n12 1 + n12 implies that 1 zn 1 + n12 . Thus for any integer N N
N
Y
n=1
N
Y
n=1
zn
N
Y
n=1
1+
1
n2
where the last term is absolutely convergent by an example in class. Therefore the sequence of the partial
QN
products n=1
zn is an increasing, bounded sequence that converges in the real numbers. With log(zn ) > 0
for all n, the comparison with the sum of logarithms (Proposition 5.4) gives absolute convergence.
Q
1
1
Exercise 7. Show that
n=2 1 n2 = 2 .
Solution. Consider
Pn
=
=
=
So,
! Y
!
! Y
!
!
n
n
1
k1 k+1
1
1
1
1+
=
1 2 =
k
k
k
k
k
k=2
k=2
k=2
!
!
!
!#
"
n
n
k1 k+1
Y k1 k+1
X
exp
log
= exp
log
k
k
k
k
k=2
k=2
n
n
X
X
exp
log(k 1) log(k)
+ exp
log(k + 1) log(k)
k=2
k=2
exp log(1) log(n) + exp log(2) + log(n + 1)
!)
(
n+1
n+1
=
.
exp log(2n) + log(n + 1) = exp log
2n
2n
n
Y
Y
n=2
!
1
n+1 1
= .
= lim Pn = lim
n
n 2n
2
n2
108
Q
Q
Exercise 8. For which values of z do the products (1 zn ) and (1 + z2n ) converge? Is there an open
set G such that the product converges uniformly on each compact subset of G? If so, give the largest such
open.
Q
n
Solution. Consider the infinite product
n=1 (1 z ). By definition and Corollary 5.6 this converges absoP
n
lutely if and only if n=1 z converges absolutely. From Calculus it is known that the convergence is also
uniform for |z| r < 1 with r [0, 1).
If z is an nth root of unity for a positive integer n, then one of the factors in the infinite product becomes 0
and the product converges to 0, but not absolutely according to Definition 5.5. If there is no n such that z
is nth root of unity then no factor of the infinite product equals zero and there is a subsequence {(1 znk }k
Q
n
such that |1 znk | > 1.5. We conclude that
n=1 (1 + z ) does not converge.
S
th
With the denseness of nN {z C : z is n root of unity} in the unit sphere it follows that the maximal set G
such that the convergence is uniform on compact subsets is the unit disk.
Q
2n
2
The behavior of
n=1 (1 + z ) is almost the same as the previous one. Substitute w := z , then the convergence is uniform for |w| r < 1, so |z| sqrtr < 1. Also if |z| -and hence |w|- is greater than 1, then the
infinite product diverges. Similar to the previous case one factor equals 0 if z is a 2nth root of 1.
The maximal region G such that the convergence is uniform on compact sets is again the open unit disk.
Exercise 9. Use Theorem 5.15 to show there is an analytic function f on D = {z : |z| < 1} which is not
analytic on any open set G which properly contains D.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 10. Suppose G is an open set and { fn } is a sequence in H(G) such that f (z) =
in H(G). (a) Show that
0 Y
fn (z)
fk (z)
k=1
fn (z) converges
n,k
converges in H(G) and equals f (z). (b) Assume that f is not the identically zero function and let K be a
compact subset of G such that f (z) , 0 for all z in K. Show that
Q h
n=1 1
4z2
(2n1)2
Solution. We know by the double-angle identity of sine sin(2z) = 2 sin(z) cos(z) (this is proved
easily by
Q
z2
using the definition) or sin(2z) = 2 sin(z) cos(z). Since, we know sin(z) = z
n=1 1 n2 , we obtain
Y
Y
4z2
z2
2z
1 2 = 2z
1 2 cos(z)
n
n
n=1
n=1
!
!
!
Y
Y
4z2 Y
4z2
z2
2z
1
= 2z
1
1 2 cos(z)
(2m)2 m=1
(2m 1)2
n
m=1
n=1
where the last statement follows by splitting the product into a product of the even and odd terms (rearrangement of the terms is allowed). Hence
!
!
!
Y
4z2
4z2 Y
z2
2z
= 2z
1
1
1 2 cos(z)
(2n)2 n=1
(2n 1)2
n
n=1
n=1
!
!
!
Y
Y
4z2
z2
z2 Y
=
2z
cos(z).
1
1
2z
1 2
n n=1
(2n 1)2
n2
n=1
n=1
Thus,
cos(z) =
Y
n=1
110
!
4z2
.
(2n 1)2
Solution. We know
ez ez ei(iz) e(i)(iz)
=
2
2
ei(iz) + ei(iz)
ei(iz) + ei(iz)
=i
=
2
2i
ei(iz) ei(iz)
= i
= i sin(iz)
2i
!
!
Y
Y
(iz)2
z2
= i(iz)
1 2 2 =z
1+ 2 2
n
n
n=1
n=1
sinh(z) =
Y
n=1
!
!
Y
z2
z2
sin(z)
=
z
.
1
n2
n2 2
n=1
Therefore,
sinh(z) = z
1+
n=1
!
z2
.
n2 2
We have
ez + ez ei(iz) + e(i)(iz)
=
2
2
ei(iz) + ei(iz)
= cos(iz)
=
2
! Y
!
Y
4z2
4(iz)2
=
=
1+
1
(2n 1)2 2
(2n 1)2 2
n=1
n=1
cosh(z) =
Y
n=1
!
!
Y
4z2
4z2
1
cos(z) =
.
1
(2n 1)2
(2n 1)2 2
n=1
Therefore,
cosh(z) =
1+
n=1
!
4z2
.
(2n 1)2 2
z
4
sin
(2n)2
n=1 (2n1)(2n+1) .
111
z
4 .
(z)(1 z) =
lim
lim
z 1
z2
12
1
z2
22
1
1
=
z limn 1
=
=
1
12
z2
z2
32
1
z2
n2
1
2
1 3z 2 1
22
z2
= Q
Q
z2
z n=1 1 n2
z n=1 1
= csc(z)
sin(z)
z2
n2
n+1z
n
z2
lim
n2 n
n+1z
{zn }
=1
where the step before the last step follows by p. 175 Equation 6.2. So
(z)(1 z) = csc(z)
for z not an integer. Now, let z = 21 , then
!
!
1
1
1
= csc
2
2
2
which implies
Exercise 3. Show:
= 1 = .
2
Solution. Following the hint define a function f on its domain G = {z C : z < (Z N)} by
!
2z1 z z 1
.
+
f (z) =
2 2
2
112
Let x be a positive real number. It suffices to show that f (x) satisfies the Bohr-Mollerup Theorem. By the
logarithmic convexity of is follows that
!
x
x 1
+
+ log
log f (x) = (x 1) log 2 log + log
2
2 2
is a convex function. Also f satisfies the functional equation of the Gamma-function:
!
x 1 x
2x
+1
+
f (x + 1) =
2
2 2
!
x
2
x 1 x x
=
+
2 2 2 2
!
x2 x1 x 1 x
+
=
2 2
2
= x f (x).
( 1 )
Lastly, also f (1) = 2 = 1; thus by Theorem 7.13, f agrees with on the positive real numbers. With the
Identity Theorem then f agrees with on the whole domain G.
X
n=1
z z
log 1 +
.
n
n
X
(1)n
+
et tz1 dt
n!(z
+
n)
1
n=0
et tz1 dt
and
(z) =
et tz1 dt.
(7.11)
We can write
(z) =
et tz1 dt =
1X
n=0
X (1)n
(t)n z1
t dt =
n!
n!
n=0
"
#1 X
X
(1)n
(1)n tn+z
=
n! n + z 0 n=0 n!(z + n)
n=0
113
tn tz1 dt
0
Thus,
(z) =
X
(1)n
+
et tz1 dt
n!(z
+
n)
1
n=0
(7.12)
Claim 1: (z) given by (7.12) is the analytic continuation of (7.11), that is (z) given by (7.12) is defined
for all z C {0, 1, 2, . . .}.
Proof of Claim 1: We know from the book that (z) is analytic for Re (z) > 0.
Claim 2: (z) is analytic for Re (z) 0. Thus (z) is analytic on C.
Proof of Claim 2: Assume Re (z) 0. Then
|tz1 | = tRe(z)1
t1 .
t[1,),Re(z)0
1
1
But since e 2 t tRe (z)1 0 as t , there exists a constant C > 0 such that tRe(z)1 Ce 2 when t 1.
Hence, we have
1
1
|et tz1 | |et | |tz1 | = et tRe(z)1 et Ce 2 t = Ce 2 t
1
and therefore Ce 2 t is integrable on (1, ). By Fubinis Theorem for any {} G = {z : Re(z) 0},
Z Z
Z Z
et tz1 dt dz =
et tz1 dz dt = 0
which implies
In summary,
(z) =
et tz1 dt H(G).
et tz1 dt H(C).
X
(1)n
n!(z + n)
n=0
is analytic on C {0, 1, 2, . . .}. Note that (z) is uniformly and absolutely convergent as a series in any
closed domain which contains none of the points 0, 1, 2, . . . and thus provides the analytic continuation
of (z). Since
Z
X
(1)n
+
et tz1 dt
n!(z
+
n)
1
n=0
is analytic and we know (Theorem 7.15 p. 180)
(z) =
for Re(z) > 0, we get
(z) =
et tz1 dt
X
(1)n
+
et tz1 dt
n!(z
+
n)
1
n=0
sin(t ) dt =
1
cos(t ) =
2
2
1
.
2
1
2
! Z
Z
1
2 2
t 12
=
=
e t dt = 2a
ea t dt
2
0
0
(because of Theorem 7.15 p. 180). The last step involves integrating a complex integral. Hence, we have
2 2
.
(7.13)
ea t dt =
2a
0
Let a =
Z
1i
,
2
then a2 =
1i
2
t2
dt
12i+i2
2
= i and therefore
Z
Z0
=
=
(7.13)
(i)t2
dt =
eit dt
Z
cos(t2 ) dt + i
sin(t2 ) dt
0
0
0
r
r
r
1 1
1 1
1 1
1+i
=
(1 + i) =
+i
.
=
2 2
2 2
2 1i
2 (1 i)(1 + i) 2 2
2
2
cos(t ) + i sin(t2 ) dt =
Thus,
Z
cos(t ) dt + i
1
sin(t ) dt =
2
which implies
Z
and
1
cos(t ) dt =
2
1
sin(t ) =
2
2
1
1
+i
2
2
1
.
2
Exercise 8. Let u > 0 and v > 0 and express (u)(v) as a double integral over the first quadrant of the
plane. By changing to polar coordinates show that
Z
2
(u)(v) = 2(u + v)
(cos )2u1 (sin )2v1 d.
0
The function
B(u, v) =
(u)(v)
(u + v)
tu1
dt
(1 + t)u+v
Can this be generalized to the case when u and v are complex numbers with positive real part?
115
Solution. Let u > 0 and v > 0, then by Theorem 7.15 p. 180 and three changes of variables (indicated by
CoV) we obtain
Z
Z
s u1
(u)(v)
=
e s ds
et tv1 dt
0
0
Z
Z
2
2
=
2
ex x2u2 x dx 2
ey y2v2 y dy
CoV:s=x2 ,t=y2
0
0
Z Z
2
2
=
4
ex y x2u1 y2v1 dx dy
0
0
Z /2 Z
2
=
4
er r2u1 (cos )2u1 r2v1 (sin )2v1 r dr d
CoV:x=r cos(),y=r sin
0
0
Z /2 Z
2
=
4
er r2u+2v1 (cos )2u1 (sin )2v1 r dr d
0
0
Z
Z /2
r2 2u+2v1
=
4
e r
dr
(cos )2u1 (sin )2v1 d
0
0
Z
Z /2
1 t u+v1
e t
dt
(cos )2u1 (sin )2v1 d
=
4
2 0
CoV:t=r2
0
Z /2
=
2(u + v)
(cos )2u1 (sin )2v1 d.
0
This implies
B(u, v) =
(u)(v)
=2
(u + v)
Next, we show
B(u, v) =
/2
We have
B(u, v)
=
=
CoV:t=cos2
Z /2
(u)(v)
=2
(cos )2u1 (sin )2v1 d
(u + v)
0
Z 1
2v2
2u2
t
1t
dt
2
0
Z 1
tu1 (1 t)v1 dt.
0
Hence,
B(u, v) =
Finally, we show
B(u, v) =
tu1
dt.
(1 + t)u+v
116
We have
B(u, v)
=
=
t
CoV:s= 1t
=
=
=
Z
Z
tu1 (1 t)v1 dt
s u1
s v1
(1 + s)2 ds
1
1+s
1+s
1
1
(1 + s)2 ds
u1 (1 + s)v1
(1
+
s)
Z0
1
su1
(1 + s)2 ds
(1 + s)u+v2
0
Z
su1
ds.
u+v
0 (1 + s)
su1
Hence,
B(u, v) =
tu1
dt.
(1 + t)u+v
Yes, the beta function can be generalized to the case when u and v are complex numbers with positive real
part. We have seen that
B(u, v) =
tu1
dt = 2
(1 + t)u+v
/2
I) We have
|tu1 (1 + t)uv | dt
tRe(u)1 (1 + t)Re(u)Re(v) dt
tRe(u)1 <
where the last step follows since Re(u) > 0 and the previous one since Re(u) > 0 and Re(v) > 0 and
t (0, 1). This implies |tu1 (1 + t)uv | is integrable on (0, 1). By Fubinis Theorem for any {} G G
Z Z
1
0
tu1
dt dz =
(1 + t)u+v
1
0
117
tu1
dz dt = 0
(1 + t)u+v
which implies
Z
1
0
tu1
dt H(G G).
(1 + t)u+v
II) We have
Z
|t
u1
(1 + t)
uv
| dt
lim
lim
tRe(u)1
lim
lim
lim
|tu1 (1 + t)uv | dt
tRe(u)1 (1 + t)Re(u)Re(v) dt
lim
Z1 n
tRe(u)+Re(v)
t1Re(u)
1
t1+Re(v)
1
t
1
t
Re(u)+Re(v)
+1
dt
1
Re(u)+Re(v) dt
+1
dt <
where the last step follows since Re(v) > 0 and the previous one since Re(u) + Re(v) > 0, t 1 and
1
therefore
1. This implies |tu1 (1 + t)uv | is integrable on (1, ). By Fubinis Theorem for
Re
(u)+Re(v)
1
( t +1)
any {} G G
Z Z
Z Z
tu1
tu1
dt
dz
=
dz dt = 0
u+v
u+v
1 (1 + t)
1
(1 + t)
which implies
In summary
Z
Z
tu1
dt H(G G).
(1 + t)u+v
tu1
dt H(G G).
(1 + t)u+v
Exercise 9. Let n be the volume of the ball of radius one in Rn (n 1). Prove by induction and iterated
integrals that
n = 2n1
(1 t2 )(n1)/2 dt
4
3
3 r
and therefore
which implies
Vn (r) = rn Vn (1) = rn n
(7.14)
(def)
n1
n1
1 t2 =
1 t2
Vn1 (1) = 1 t2 2 n1 .
Clearly, the ball Bn (1) is the union of all disjoint balls Bn1
n = Vn (1) =
1 t2 as t varies over [1, 1]. Hence
Z
n1
2 2
n1 dt = 2n1
1t
n1
1 t2 2 dt
Vn (r)
CoV:xi =ryi
=
=
2n
rn
1
1
1y1 y2
1y1
r x1 x2
i=1
xi
2
r r2 x12 r2 x12 x22
r2 n1
i=1 xi
Z r Z r2 x2 Z r2 x2 x2
Z r2 Pn1
2
i=1 xi
1
1
2
n
2
Pn1 2
Z
Z Z
2 Z
2
2
0
Z 1y2 Z 1y2 y2
rn Vn (1).
1y21
1y21 y22
i=1
yi
Z 1Pn1
2
i=1 y
i
Pn1
2
i=1 yi
This implies Vn (r) = rn Vn (1). (Note that this is kind of obvious, since we scale the unit ball in Rn by r in
each dimension to obtain the ball with radius r in Rn ). We could have proved the formula by mathematical
induction. Using spherical coordinates simplifies the computation if preferred.
Exercise 10. Show that
n =
n/2
(n/2)(n/2)
119
0 (z)
(z)
(a) Show that is meromorphic in C with simple poles at z = 0, 1, . . . and Res(; n) = 1 for n 0.
(b) Show that (1) = .
(c) Show that (z + 1) (z) = 1z .
(d) Show that (z) (1 z) = cot z.
(e) State and prove a characterization of analogous to the Bohr-Mollerup Theorem.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 1. Let (z) = z(z l) 2 z (z)( 21 z) and show that is an entire function which satisfies the
functional equation (z) = (1 z).
Solution. The function is analytic on C ({2k : k N0 } {1}) as a product of analytic functions. The
1
factors z, z 1 and 2 z are entire. The zeta-function has a simple pole at z = 1, hence limz1 (z 1)(z)
exists in C and the function is well-defined at z = 1.
The function 21 z has simple poles at the non-positive even integers. For z = 0, limz0 z 21 z C. For
negative even integers z = 2k,
k
N the poles of Gamma coincide with the simple zeros of the zetafunction, hence limz2k (z) 21 z exists in C also. Therefore the function is analytic at each point.
The functional equation of is related to the functional equation of (8.3, p. 192), evaluated at 1 z, i.e.
!
1
z
(7.15)
(1 z) = 2(2) (z)(z) sin (1 z) .
2
Furthermore the proof uses variants of problems 1, 2 of the homework set 5, in particular
!
!
!
1 z
1 z
1
= csc (1 z)
2 2
2 2
2
!
z 1 z
z1
(z) = 2
.
+
2
2 2
120
(7.16)
(7.17)
(1 z)
(1 z) = (1 z)(z)
2 2
!
!
1 z 1z z
1
(7.15)
12 + 2z
= z(z 1)
2 (z)(z) sin (1 z)
2 2
2
!
z
1
(z) 2 2
1
1
= (z) 2 21z
sin (1 z)
z
2
2
!
csc 21 (1 z)
1
1
(z)
(7.16)
2 1z
sin (1 z)
= (z) 2
2
z
1+z
12 + 2z
(z)
= (z) 21z
z
2 12 + 2z
1
2
1
2z1 1 z
1
(7.17)
1
= (z) 2 21z
+
2 2
21 + 2z 2
= (z).
p1
n = . Notice that this implies that there are an infinite
Q 1
Solution. Eulers Theorem asserts that for real values x > 1, (x) =
, where pn are the prime
n=1 1px
n
numbers. The left hand side is unbounded as x & 1 and so is the right hand side.
P
1
Now the argument goes as follows. Seeking contradiction suppose that
n=1 pn is finite. All summands
P
1
are positive, therefore the sum converges absolutely. By Proposition 5.4, p.165, also
n=1 log 1 pn
converges absolutely. But this implies that
!
!
Y
X
1
1
= log
= log (1) <
log 1
pn
1 pn
n=1
n=1
which gives the desired contradiction because the log((z)) has a simple pole at z = 1.
P d(n)
Exercise 3. Prove that 2 (z) =
n=1 nz for Re z > 1, where d(n) is the number of divisors of n.
(n)
n=1 nz ,
(n)
n=1 nz
for Re z > 1, where (n) is the number of integers less than n and
(z)
=
Exercise 7. Prove that (z)
m 1; and (n) = 0 otherwise.
n=1
(n)
nz
X
Re (1 + + it) =
(n)n1(1+) cos(t log n)
n=1
122
Chapter 8
Runges Theorem
8.1 Runges Theorem
Exercise 1. Prove Corollary 1.14 if it is only assumed that E meets each component of C G.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. Let G be the open unit disk B(0; 1) and let K = {z : 14 |z| 34 }. Show that there is a function
f analytic on some open subset G1 containing K which cannot be approximated on K by functions in H(G).
Remarks. The next two problems are concerned with the following question. Given a compact set K
contained in an open set G1 G, can functions in H(G1 ) be approximated on K by functions in H(G)?
Exercise 2 says that for an arbitrary choice of K, G, and G1 this is not true. Exercise 4 below gives criteria
for a fixed K and G such that this can be done for any G1 . Exercise 3 is a lemma which is useful in proving
Exercise 4.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. Let K be a compact subset of the open set G and suppose that any bounded component D of
G K has D G , . Then every component of C K contains a component of C G.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Let K be a compact subset of the open set G; then the following are equivalent:
(a) If f is analytic in a neighborhood of K and > 0 then there is a g in H(G) with | f (z) g(z)| < for all
z in K;
(b) If D is a bounded component of G K then D G , ;
(c) If z is any point in G K then there is a function f in H(G) with
| f (z)| > sup{| f (w)| : w in K}.
Solution. Not available.
123
Exercise 6. Let K be a compact subset of the region G and define K G = {z G : | f (z)| k f kK for all f in
H(G)}.
u [0, 1].
(s, 0) = R((s)),
!!
1
(s, 1) = R
,
2
(0, u) = (1, u)
u [0, 1].
The function satisfies Definition IV 6.1 (p.88), the curve is homotopic to the point R 12 and by
Definition IV 6.14 (p.93) the set G is simply connected.
Exercise 2. If K is polynomially convex, show that the components of the interior of K are simply connected.
Solution. Not available.
124
X
k=0
where k =
sn (z) or
1 (k)
k! g (an ).
rn (z)
X
k=0
k (z an )k B(an ; Rn )
Goal: Try to use this series to create a singular part rn (z) at an such that rn (z)gn (z) =
k (z an )k =
mn
X
j=1
mn
X
X
A jn
A jn
=
k rn (z)(z an )k .
j
(z an ) j
(z
a
)
n
j=1
k=0
Claim:
rn (z) =
mn
X
B jk (z an ) jk
j=1
(8.1)
works.
Proof of the claim:
X
k=0
k rn (z)(z an )k
k=0
mn
X
B jk (z an ) jk (z an )k
mn
X
B jk (z an ) j
k=0
mn
X
j=1
j=1
j=1
(z an ) j
X
k=0
k B jk =
mn
X
j=1
A jn
(z an ) j
k B jk = A jn .
k=0
Since G is a region, G is open. Let {an } be a sequence of distinct points without a limit point in G and such
that an , bm for all n, m. Let {rn (z)} be the sequence of rational functions given by
rn (z) =
mn
X
j=1
B jk
(z an ) j+k
(see (8.1)). By Mittag-Lefflers Theorem, there is a meromorphic function h on G whose poles are exactly
the points {an } and such that the singular part of h at an is rn (z).
Set f = g h. Then by construction f is the meromorphic function on G whose only poles and zeros are {an }
and {bm } respectively, the singular part at z = an is S n (z), and z = bm is a zero of multiplicity pm . (Note that
the zeros do not cancel the poles since by assumption an , bm n, m).
125
Exercise 2. Let {an } be a sequence of points in the plane such that |an | , and let {bn } be an arbitrary
sequence of complex numbers.
(a) Show that if integers {kn } can be chosen such that
!k
X
r n bn
an
an
k=n
(3.4)
X
r n bn
an
z an
k=n
(3.5)
X
bn
ak+1
n=1 n
(3.6)
!
!k 1
X
bn
z n
z
bn
f (z) =
+
+ ... +
1+
z an an
an
an
n=1
(f) Let and 0 be two complex numbers such that Im(0 /) , 0. Using the previous parts of this exercise
show that the series
!
1
1
z
1 X 0
,
+ +
(z) = +
z
z w w w2
where the sum is over all w = 2n + 2n0 for n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . but not w = 0, is convergent in M(C) to a
meromorphic function with simple poles at the points 2n + 2n0 0 . This function is called the Weierstrass
zeta function.
(g) Let P(z) = 0 (z); P is called the Weierstrass pe function. Show that
!
1 X 0
1
1
P(z) = 2 +
z
(z w)2 w2
where the sum is over the same w as in part (f). Also show that
P(z) = P(z + 2n + 2n0 0 )
for all integers n and n0 . That is, P is doubly periodic with periods 2 and 20 .
Solution. Not available.
126
Exercise 3. This exercise shows how to deduce Weierstrasss Theorem for the plane (Theorem VII. 5.12)
from Mittag-Lefflers Theorem.
(a) Deduce from Exercises 2(a) and 2(b) that for any sequence {an } in C with lim an = and an , 0 there
is a sequence of integers {kn } such that
!
!k 1
X
1
1 z
1 z n
1
+
+
+ ... +
h(z) =
z an an an an
an an
n=1
is a meromorphic function on C with simple poles at a1 , a2 , . . .. The remainder of the proof consists of
showing that there is a function f such that h = f 0 / f . This function f will then have the appropriate zeros.
(b) Let z be an arbitrary but fixed point in C {a1 , a2 , . . .}. Show that if 1 and 2 are any rectifiable curves
in C {a1 , a2 , . . .} from 0 to z and h is the function obtained in part (a), then there is an integer m such that
Z
Z
h
h = 2im.
1
(c) Again let h be the meromorphic function from part (a). Prove that for z , a1 , a2 , . . . and any rectifiable
curve in C {a1 , a2 , . . .},
Z !
h
f (z) = exp
defines an analytic function on C {a1 , a2 , . . .} with f 0 / f = h. (That is, the value of f (z) is independent of
the curve and the resulting function f is analytic.
(d) Suppose that z {a1 , a2 , . . .}; show that z is a removable singularity of the function f defined in part
(c). Furthermore, show that f (z) = 0 and that the multiplicity of this zero equals the number of times that z
appears in the sequence {a1 , a2 , . . .}.
(e) Show that
!
!2
!k
Y
z
1 z
1 z n
z
(3.7)
f (z) =
exp +
+ ... +
1
an
an 2 an
2 an
n=1
Remark. We could have skipped parts (b), (c), and (d) and gone directly from (a) to (e). However this
would have meant that we must show that (3.7) converges in H(C) and it could hardly be classified as a new
proof. The steps outlined in parts (a) through (d) give a proof of Weierstrasss Theorem without introducing
infinite products.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. This exercise assumes a knowledge of the terminology and results of Exercise VII. 5.11.
(a) Define two functions f and g in H(G) to be relatively prime (in symbols, ( f, g) = 1) if the only common
divisors of f and g are non-vanishing functions in H(G). Show that ( f, g) = 1 iff Z( f ) Z(g) = .
(b) If ( f, g) = 1, show that there are functions f1 , g1 in H(G) such that f f1 + gg1 = 1 (Hint: Show that there
is a meromorphic function on G such that f1 = g H(G) and g|(1 f f1 ).)
(c) Let f1 , . . . , fn H(G) and g = g.c.d { f1 , . . . , fn }. Show that there are functions 1 , . . . , n in H(G) such
that g = 1 f1 + . . . + n fn . (Hint: Use (b) and induction.)
T
(d) If {J } is a collection of ideals in H(G), show that J = J is also an ideal. If S H(G) then let
J = {S : S is an ideal of H(G) and S J}. Prove that J is the smallest ideal in H(G) that contains S
and J = {1 f1 + . . . + n fn : k H(G), fk S for 1 k n}. J is called the ideal generated by S and
is denoted by J = (S). If S is finite then (S) is called a finitely generated ideal. If S = { f } for a single
function f then ( f ) is called a principal ideal.
(e) Show that every finitely generated ideal in H(G) is a principal ideal.
127
(f) An ideal J is called a fixed ideal if Z(J) , ; otherwise it is called a free ideal. Prove that if J = (S)
then Z(J) = Z(S) and that a proper principal ideal is fixed.
(g) Let fn (z) = sin(2n z) for all n 0 and let J = ({ f1 , f2 , . . .}). Show that J is a fixed ideal in H(C) which
is not a principal ideal.
(h) Let J be a fixed ideal and prove that there is an f in H(G) with Z( f ) = Z(J) and J ( f ). Also show
that J = ( f ) if J is finitely generated.
(i) Let M be a maximal ideal that is fixed. Show that there is a point a in G such that M = ((z a)).
(j) Let {an } be a sequence of distinct points in G with no limit point in G. Let J = { f H(G) : f (an ) = 0
for all but a finite number of the an }. Show that J is a proper free ideal in H(G).
(k) If J is a free ideal show that for any finite subset S of J, Z(S) , . Use this to show that J can
contain no polynomials.
l) Let J be a proper free ideal; then J is a maximal ideal iff whenever g H(G) and Z(g) Z( f ) , for
all f in J then g J.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Let G be a region and let {an } be a sequence of distinct points in G with no limit point in G.
For each integer n 1 choose integers kn 0 and constants An(k) , 0 k kn . Show that there is an analytic
function f on G such that f (k) (an ) = k!An(k) . (Hint: Let g be an analytic function on G with a zero at an of
multiplicity kn + 1. Let h be a meromorphic function on G with poles at each an of order kn + 1 and with
singular part S n (z). Choose the S n so that f = gh has the desired property.)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 6. Find a meromorphic
function with poles of order 2 at 1,
2, 3, . . . such that the residue at
X
3 nz2 2z3
n3/2 (z n)2
k=1
has the desired properties. f has poles of order 2 at z = n, n N (and no other poles) and it is analytic
for every z C that isnot one of the poles. Moreover f converges in M(C). To see this let r > 0 and choose
N N so large that n > 2r for all n N. Then for |z| r and n N
3 nz2 2z3
r2 (3 n + n) 16r2
| 3/2
2 =: Mn .
2 | 3/2
n
n (z n)
n ( n r)2
f (z) =
Next fix m N and consider the limit in equation limz n (z n)2 f (z) = 1,
2
2X
3 nz2 2z3
m) f (z) = lim
m)
lim
(z
(z
z m
z m
n3/2 (z n)2
n=1
m1
X
(z m)(3 nz2 2z3 ) 3m3/2 2m3/2
+
m3/2
z m
n3/2 (z n)2
n=1
X
(z n)(3 nz2 2z3 )
+ lim
z m
n3/2 (z n)2
m+1
= lim
= 0 + 1 + 0 = 1.
128
Lastly we have
to check that the residuals are 0 at the poles. By Proposition V 2.4, p.113, for a function
g(z) := (z m)2 f (z), it has to be verified that g0 (z)|z= m = 0.
First find the derivative of f as
X
6 nz2 6nz 2z3
0
f (z) =
n3/2 (z m)3
n=1
n3/2 (z n)2
n=1
X
(z m)2 (6 nz2 6nz 2z3 )
+
n3/2 (z m)3
n=1
z= m
p
X
=
2(z (n))(3 nz2 2z3 ) + (z m)(6 nz2 ) 6nz 2z3 )
n=1
z m
3/2
n (z n)3 z= m
m, the last factor equals zero, in the case n = m, (z m)2 cancels directly and we are
12 m 2z3 6mz
6z(z m)
= 0.
=
n3/2
n3/2 (z m) z=m
z=m
The residuum vanishes for all m, m N and therefore the function considered in this exercise has all the
required properties.
If n , m and z =
left with
129
Chapter 9
Exercise 2. Let D0 = B(1; 1) and let f0 be the restriction of the principal branch of z to D0 . Let (t) =
exp(2it) and (t) = exp(4it) for 0 t 1.
(a) Find an analytic continuation {( ft , Dt ) : 0 t 1} of ( f0 , D0 ) along and show that [ f1 ]1 = [ f0 ]1 .
(b) Find an analytic continuation {(gt , Bt ) : 0 t 1} of ( f0 , D0 ) along and show that [g1 ]1 = [g0 ]1 .
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. Let f be an entire function, D0 = B(0; 1), and let be a path from 0 to b. Show that if
{( ft , Dt ) : 0 t 1} is a continuation of ( f, D0 ) along then f1 (z) = f (z) for all z in D1 (This exercise is
rather easy; it is actually an exercise in the use of the terminology.)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Let : [0, 1] C be a path and let {( ft , Dt ) : 0 t 1} be an analytic continuation along .
Show that {( ft0 , Dt ) : 0 t 1} is also a continuation along .
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Suppose : [0, 1] C is a closed path with (0) = (1) = a and let {( ft , Dt ) : 0 t 1} be
an analytic continuation along such that [ f1 ]a = [ f00 ]a and f0 , 0. What can be said about ( f0 , D0 )?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 6. Let D0 = B(1; 1) and let f0 be the restriction to D0 of the principal branch of the logarithm.
For an integer n let (t) = exp(2int), 0 t 1. Find a continuation {( ft , Dt ) : 0 t 1} along of
( f0 , D0 ) and show that [ f1 ]1 = [ f0 + 2in].
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 7. Let : [0, 1] C be a path and let {( ft , Dt ) : 0 t 1} be an analytic continuation along .
Suppose G is a region such that ft (Dt ) G for all t, and suppose there is an analytic function h : G C
such that h( f0 (z)) = z for all z in D0 . Show that h( ft (z)) = z for all z in Dt and for all t. Hint: Show that
T = {t : h( ft (z)) = z for all z in Dt } is both open and closed in [0, 1].
131
132
Exercise 3. Let X and be sets and let {N x : x X} and {M : } be neighborhood systems and let
T and S be the induced topologies on X and respectively.
(a) Show that a function f : X is continuous iff when x X and = f (x), for each in M there is
a U in N x such that f (U) .
(b) Let X = = C and let Nz = Mz = {B(z; ) : > 0} for each z in C. Interpret part (a) of this exercise
for this particular situation.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Adopt the notation of Exercise 3. Show that a function f : X is open iff for each x in X
and U in N x there is a set in M (where = f (x)) such that f (U).
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Adopt the notation of Exercise 3. Let Y X and define UY = {Y U : U NY } for each y in
Y. Show that {UY : y Y} is a neighborhood system for Y and the topology it induces on Y is TY .
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 6. Adopt the notation of Exercise 3. For each point (x, ) in X let
U(x,) = {U : U N x , M }
(a) Show that {U(x,) : (x, ) X } is a neighborhood system on X and let P be the induced topology
on X .
(b) If U T and S, call the set U an open rectangle. Prove that a set is in P iff it is the union of
open rectangles.
(c) Define p1 : X X and p2 : X X by p1 (x, ) = x and p2 (x, ) = . Show that
p1 and p2 are open continuous maps. Furthermore if (Z, R) is a topological space show that a function
f : (Z, R) (X , P) is continuous iff p1 f : Z X and p2 f : Z are continuous.
Solution. Not available.
a
zc
+ b (some a, b, c in C).
136
Chapter 10
Harmonic Functions
10.1 Basic properties of harmonic functions
Exercise 1. Show that if u is harmonic then so are u x =
u
x
and uy =
u
y .
(10.1)
Since u : G R is harmonic, u is infinitely times differentiable by Proposition 1.3 p. 252. Thus, the third
partial derivatives of u exist and are continuous (therefore u xyy = uyyx and uyxx = u xxy ). Now, we show that
u x is harmonic, that is
(u x ) xx + (u x )yy = 0.
(u x ) xx + (u x )yy = u xxx + u xyy = u xxx + uyyx = (u xx + uyy ) x
= 0 x = 0.
(10.1)
= 0y = 0.
(10.1)
Thus, uy is harmonic.
Exercise 2. If u is harmonic, show that f = u x iuy is analytic.
Solution. Since, u is harmonic, we have
u xx + uyy = 0.
(10.2)
In addition, u is infinitely times differentiable by Proposition 1.3 p. 252. Thus, all the partials are continuous
(therefore u xy = uyx ).
To show: f = u x iuy is analytic which is equivalent to showing
a) Re( f ) = u x and Im( f ) = uy are harmonic and
b) u x and uy have to satisfy the Cauchy Riemann equations (by Theorem III 2.29).
137
a) By the previous exercise, we have seen that u x and uy are harmonic. Therefore, uy is harmonic, too.
Thus, part a) is proved.
b) We have to show that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied, that is
(u x ) x = (uy )y
(u x )y = (uy ) x .
and
B(a;R)
R) D G. There exist an f H(D) such that Re( f ) = u on D.
Solution. Let D be a disk such that B(a;
From Cauchys Integral Formula, we have
f (a) =
1
2i
f (w)
1
dw =
wa
2
f (a + rei ) d
1
f (a)r =
2
f (a + rei ) d.
Multiply by r, we get
f (a + rei )r d
0
138
B(a;R)
where the last step follows by changing from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates. Now
"
"
1
1
u(a) = Re( f (a)) =
Re(
f
(x,
y))
dx
dy
=
u(x, y) dx dy.
R2
R2
B(a;R)
B(a;R)
Thus
u(a) =
Exercise 7. For |z| < 1 let
1
R2
"
u(x, y) dx dy.
B(a;R)
!
1 + z 2
.
u(z) = Im
1z
Show that u is harmonic and limr1 u(rei ) = 0 for all . Does this violate Theorem 1.7? Why?
2
Solution. Let D = {z C : |z| < 1}. Let f (z) = 1+z
1z . Clearly, f H(D) since z = 1 is not in D. By
Theorem III 2.29 we obtain that v = Re( f ) and u = Im( f ) are harmonic. Therefore
!
1 + z 2
u(z) = Im
1z
is harmonic. Next, we will show
lim u(rei ) = 0
r1
139
u(re ) =
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
!
1 + rei 2
Im
1 rei
!
!
1 + rei 2 1 rei 2
Im
1 rei
1 rei
!
(1 + rei )(1 rei ) 2
Im
(1 rei )(1 rei )
"
#
(1 + rei rei r2 )2
Im
(1 rei rei + r2 )2
#
"
(1 + 2ri sin r2 )2
Im
(1 2r cos + r2 )2
#
"
((1 r2 ) + 2ri sin )2
Im
(1 2r cos + r2 )2
"
#
(1 r2 )2 + 4ri sin (1 r2 ) 4r2 sin2
Im
(1 2r cos + r2 )2
4r(1 r2 ) sin
.
(1 2r cos + r2 )2
r1
4 1 (1 12 ) sin
0
= 2
= 0.
2
2
(1 2 1 cos + 1 )
2 (1 cos )2
If = 2k, k Z, then
lim u(re2k ) = lim
r1
r1
4r(1 r2 ) sin(2k)
0
= lim
= 0.
2
2
r1 (1 r)4
(1 2r cos(2k) + r )
Thus,
lim u(rei ) = 0.
r1
This does not violate Theorem 1.7. The reason is the following: If we pick u = u and v = 0, then the
condition
lim sup u(z) 0
za
If we fix x = 1, then
!
2
2
1 + x + iy 2
= 4y(1 x y ) .
u(z) = u(x, y) = Im
1 x iy
(1 2x + x2 + y2 )2
u(1, y) =
4y(y2 ) 4y3
4
= 4 =
y
y4
y
But 4y as y 0 .
140
y , 0.
Exercise 8. Let u : G R be a function with continuous second partial derivatives and define U(r, ) =
u(r cos , r sin ).
(a) Show that
#
!
" 2
2
U 2 U
U
2 U
u 2 u
2 U
=
r
+
+
r
=
r
r
+ 2.
+
r2
2
2
2
2
r
r r
x
y
r
!
U
2 U
r
r
+ 2 = 0.
r r
(b) Let u have the property that it depends only on |z| and not arg z. That is, u(z) = (|z|). Show that u is
harmonic iff u(z) = a log |z| + b for some constants a and b.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 9. Let u : G R be harmonic and let A = {z G : u x (z) = uy (z) = 0}; that is, A is the set of zeros
of the gradient of u. Can A have a limit point in G?
Solution. Let u be harmonic and not constant. By Exercise 1 p. 255, we know that u x and uy are harmonic.
By exercise 2 p. 255, we know that f = u x iuy is analytic. Define B = {z G : f (z) = 0} = {z G :
u x (z) iuy (z) = 0}. Clearly
A = {z G : u x (z) = uy (z) = 0} = B
since u x (z) iuy (z) = 0 iff u x (z) = uy (z) = 0 (u x (z) and uy (z) are real). Since f is analytic, the zeros are
isolated and therefore B cannot have a limit point in G (Corollary 3.10 p. 79). This implies that A cannot
have a limit point in G.
If u is constant, then A = B = G and thus A can have a limit point in G. (In this case f 0 and by Theorem
3.7 p. 78 A has a limit point in G).
Exercise 10. State and prove a Schwarz Reflection Principle for harmonic functions.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 11. Deduce the Maximum Principle for analytic functions from Theorem 1.6.
Solution. Not available.
for all n 1.
141
Solution. Let D = {z : |z| < 1} and suppose f = u + iv : D C is a continuous function such that u and v
are harmonic. Clearly u and v are continuous functions mapping D to R. By Corollary 2.9 we have
Z
1
i
Pr ( t)u(eit ) dt for 0 r < 1 and all
(10.3)
u(re ) =
2
and
v(rei ) =
1
2
Pr ( t)v(eit ) dt
(10.4)
Hence,
Z
Z
1
1
it
f (re ) = u(re ) + iv(re )
=
Pr ( t)u(e ) dt + i
Pr ( t)v(eit ) dt
2
(10.3),(10.4) 2
Z
Z
h
i
1
1
it
i
=
Pr ( t) u(e ) + iv(r ) dt =
Pr ( t) f (eit ) dt
2
2
i
1
2
f (eit )Pr ( t) dt
f (ei )eint dt = 0
for all n 1. : Let f be analytic on D and assume n 1 (n integer). Define g(z) = f (z)zn1 . Clearly g is
analytic on D. Let = reit , t , 0 < r < 1, then by Cauchys Theorem
Z
g(z) dz = 0
f (z)zn1 dz = 0
Z
i
f (reit )eint rn dt = 0
f (reit )eint rn dt = 0
which implies
lim
r1
f (reit )eint rn dt = 0
by Ex 3a p. 262
142
f (eit )eint dt = 0 n 1.
: Assume
X
1
f (eit )
r|n| ein(t) dt
=
2
n=
Z
X
1
r|n| ein
f (eit )eint dt
=
2 n=
Z
Z
1
1 X n in
1 X |n| in
it int
r e
f (e )e
dt +
r e
f (eit )eint dt
=
2 n=
2 n=0
|
{z
}
=0 by assumption
1 X n
z
f (eit )eint dt.
2 n=0
Z
1 X
1 X n
f (eit )eint dt
z
zn dz
f (eit )eint dt dz =
f (z) dz =
2 n=0
2 n=0
| {z }
=0
Exercise 2. In the statement of Theorem 2.4 suppose that f is piecewise continuous on D. Is the conclusion
of the theorem still valid? If not, what parts of the conclusion remain true?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. Let D = {z : |z| < 1}, T = D = {z : |z| = 1}
(a) Show that if g : D C is a continuous function and gr : T C is defined by gr (z) = g(rz) then
gr (z) g(z) uniformly for z in T as r 1 .
(b) If f : T C is a continuous function define f : D C by f(z) = f (z) for z in T and
Z
f (rei ) = 1
f (eit )Pr ( t) dt
2
(So Re f and Im f are harmonic in D). Define fr : T C by fr (z) = f(rz). Show that for each r < 1 there
is a sequence {pn , (z, z)} of polynomials in z and z such that pn (z, z) fr (z) uniformly for z in T . (Hint: Use
Definition 2.1.)
(c) Weierstrass approximation theorem for T. If f : T C is a continuous function then there is a
sequence {pn (z, z)} of polynomials in z and z such that pn (z, z) f (z) uniformly for z in T .
(d) Suppose g : [0, 1] C is a continuous function such that g(0) = g(1). Use part (c) to show that there is
a sequence {pn } of polynomials such that pn (t) g(t) uniformly for t in [0, 1].
(e) Weierstrass approximation theorem for [0,1]. If g : [0, 1] C is a continuous function then there is a
sequence {pn } of polynomials such that pn (t) g(t) uniformly for t in [0, 1]. (Hint: Apply part (d) to the
function g(t) + (1 t)g(1) + tg(0).)
(f) Show that if the function g in part (e) is real valued then the polynomials can be chosen with real
coefficients.
143
(a + rei ) d
= 2 + 2 +
Z
r
cos d +
sin d +r2
| {z }
| {z }
=0
= 2 + 2 + r2 2 + 2 = (a).
144
=0
Hence, Subhar(G).
b)
(a + rei ) = ( + r cos , + r sin ) = ( + r cos )2 ( + r sin )2
= 2 + 2r cos + r2 cos2 2 2r sin r2 sin2 .
Thus
1
2
(a + rei ) d
= 2 2 +
Z
Z
r2
r
cos d +
cos2 d
sin d
2
| {z }
| {z }
| {z }
=0
r2
2
=0
r2 r2
sin2 d = 2 2 +
= 2 2 = (a).
2
2
| {z }
=
Thus
1
2
(a + rei ) d
= 2 + +
Z
Z
r2
r
cos d +
cos2 d +
sin d
2
2
| {z }
| {z }
| {z }
=0
= 2 + +
=0
r
2 + = (a).
2
Hence, Subhar(G).
d)
(a + rei )
Thus
1
2
(a + re ) d
r
= +
Z
Z
r2
r
2
cos d +
cos d
sin d
2
2
| {z }
| {z }
| {z }
=0
= 2 +
r
2 = (a).
2
Hence, Subhar(G).
e)
(a + rei )
=0
Thus
1
2
(a + rei ) d
= + 2 +
r
2
Z
Z
r
r2
cos d +
sin d +
sin2 d
2
| {z }
| {z }
| {z }
=0
=0
r2
+ 2 = (a).
= + 2 +
2
Hence, Subhar(G).
f)
(a + rei )
Thus
1
2
(a + rei ) d
= 2 +
r
2
Z
Z
r
r2
cos d
sin d
sin2 d
2
| {z }
| {z }
| {z }
=0
=0
r2
= 2
2 = (a).
2
Hence, Superhar(G).
Exercise 2. Let Subhar(G) and Superhar(G) denote, respectively, the sets of subharmonic and superharmonic functions on G.
(a) Show that Subhar(G) and Superhar(G) are closed subsets of C(G; R).
(b) Does a version of Harnacks Theorem hold for subharmonic and superharmonic functions?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. (This exercise is difficult.) If G is a region and if f : G R is a continuous function let
u f be the Perron Function associated with f . This defines a map T : (G; R) Har(G) by T ( f ) = u f .
Prove:
(a) T is linear (i.e., T (a1 f1 + a2 f2 ) = a1 T ( f1 ) + a2 T ( f2 )).
(b) T is positive (i.e., if f (a) 0 for all a in G then T ( f )(z) 0 for all z in G).
(c) T is continuous. Moreover, if { fn } is a sequence in C(G; R) such that fn f uniformly then T ( fn )
T ( f ) uniformly on G.
(d) If the Dirichlet Problem can be solved for G then T is one-one. Is the converse true?
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. In the hypothesis of Theorem 3.11, suppose only that f is a bounded function on G; prove
that the conclusion remains valid. (This is useful if G is an unbounded region and g is a bounded continuous
function on G. If we define f : G R by f (z) = g(z) for z in G and f () = 0 then the conclusion
of Theorem 3.11 remains valid. Of course there is no reason to expect that the harmonic function will have
predictable behavior near we could have assigned any value to f (). However, the behavior near
points of G can be studied with hope of success.)
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 5. Show that the requirement that G1 is bounded in Corollary 3.5 is necessary.
146
z G1 ,
that is
u(z) u1 (z) 0 z G1
If f 0 (z) , 0 for all z in G, then the previous result holds locally for some neighborhood in G. ( f is locally one-one and onto and f 1 is analytic and hence u = f is locally subharmonic). Here is the claim:
Let f : G C be analytic, let z0 A, and let f 0 (z0 ) , 0. Then there is a neighborhood U of z0 and a
neighborhood V of w0 = f (z0 ) such that f : U V is one-one and onto and f 1 : V U is analytic.
Proof of the claim: f (z) w0 has a simple zero at z0 since f 0 (z0 ) , 0. We can use Theorem 7.4 p. 98 to
find > 0 and > 0 such that each w with |w w0 | < has exactly one pre-image z with |z z0 | < . Let
V = {w| |w w0 | < } and let U be the inverse image of V under the map f restricted to {z| |z z0 | < }.
By Theorem 7.4 p. 98, f maps U one-one onto V. Since f is continuous, U is a neighborhood of z0 . By the
Open Mapping Theorem (Theorem 7.5 p. 99), f = ( f 1 )1 is an open map, so f 1 is continuous from V to
U. To finally show that it is analytic, we can use Proposition 3.7 p. 125. We have
Z
z f 0 (w)
1
1
dz.
f (w) =
2i |zz0 |= f (z) w
Note, if we assume that is twice differentiable, then the result holds globally.
147
zw
wa
148
for each a in G. This implies ga (z) = log | f (z)| is a Greens Function on G with singularity at a.
Solution to part b) ii):
Clearly, G is a simply connected region (not the whole plane). If we can find a map, say h : G D, then
the Greens Function, say ga , is given by
ga (z) = log |h(z)|
by Part 1 a). Note that h has to satisfy the following assumptions to use Part 1 a):
a) h : G D one-one and analytic
b) h(a) = 0
c) h(G) = D.
The existence and uniqueness of this function h with the assumptions a), b) and c) is guaranteed by the
Riemann Mapping Theorem p. 160 Theorem 4.2. It remains to find h:
Claim: h : G D given by
h(z) = f (g(z))
where
g(z) =
z g(a)
z1
and f (z) =
z+1
1 g(a)z
works. Thus, the Greens Function for the region G = {z : Re(z) > 0} is given by ga (z) = log |h(z)| where
h(z) is given by the Claim.
Proof of the Claim:
We will invoke the Orientation Principle (p. 53) to find g : G D where g is one-one and analytic. Then
g(z) =
z1
z+1
z g(a)
1 g(a)z
maps D onto D such that f (g(a)) = 0. Hence h(z) = f (g(z)) maps G onto D. In addition h is one-one,
analytic and h(a) = 0 and therefore satisfies a), b) and c).
Exercise 2. Let ga be the Greens Function on a region G with singularity at z = a. Prove that if is a
positive superharmonic function on G {a} with lim inf za [(z) + log |z a|] > , then ga (z) (z) for
z , a.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. This exercise gives a proof of the Riemann Mapping Theorem where it is assumed that if G is
a simply connected region, G , C, then: (i) C G is connected, (ii) every harmonic function on G has a
harmonic conjugate, (iii) if a < G then a branch of log(z a) can be defined.
(a) Let G be a bounded simply connected region and let a G; prove that there is a Greens Function ga on
G with singularity at a. Let u(z) = ga (z) + log |z a| and let v be the harmonic conjugate of u. If = u + iv
let f (z) = ei (z a)e(z) for a real number . (So f is analytic in G.) Prove that | f (z)| = exp(ga (z))
and that limzw | f (z)| = 1 for each w in G (Compare this with Exercise 1). Prove that for 0 < r < 1,
Cr = {z : | f (z)| = r} consists of a finite number of simple closed curves in G (see Exercise VI.1.3). Let Gr
be a component of {z : | f (z)| < r} and apply Rouches Theorem to get that f (z) = 0 and f (z) w0 = 0,
149
|w0 | < r, have the same number of solutions in Gr . Prove that f is one-one on Gr . From here conclude that
f (G) = D = {z : |z| < 1} and f 0 (a) > 0, for a suitable choice of .
(b) Let G be a simply connected region with G , C, but assume that G is unbounded and 0, G. Let l
be a branch of log z on G, a G, and = l(a). Show that l is one-one on G and l(z) , + 2i for any z in
G. Prove that (z) = [l(z) 2i]1 is a conformal map of G onto a bounded simply connected region in
the plane. (Show that l omits all values in a neighborhood of + 2i.)
(c) Combine parts (a) and (b) to prove the Riemann Mapping Theorem.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. (a) Let G be a region such that G = is a simple continuously differentiable closed curve. If
f : G R is continuous and g(z, a) = ga (z) is the Greens Function on G with singularity at a, show that
Z
g
(5.5)
h(a) =
f (z) (z, a) ds
n
is a formula for the solution of the Dirichlet Problem with boundary values f ; where g
n is the derivative of
g in the direction of the outward normal to and ds indicates that the integral is with respect to arc length.
(Note: these concepts are not discussed in this book but the formula is sufficiently interesting so as to merit
presentation.) (Hint: Apply Greens formula
#
"
Z "
v
u
[uv vu] dx dy =
u v
ds
n
n
150
Chapter 11
Entire Functions
11.1 Jensens Formula
Exercise 1. In the hypothesis of Jensens Formula, do not suppose that f (0) , 0. Show that if f has a zero
at z = 0 of multiplicity m then
(m)
!
Z 2
n
X
f (0)
r
1
+
m
log
r
=
log
log
+
log | f (rei )| d.
m!
|a
|
2
k
0
k=1
Solution. We have
r(zak )
r2 ak z
maps B(0; r) onto itself and takes the boundary to the boundary. Let
n
rm Y r2 a k z
.
F(z) = f (z) m
z k=1 r(z ak )
Then F H(G) and F has no zeros in B(0; r) and |F(z)| = | f (z)| if |z| = r. Thus, by a known result, we have
log |F(0)| =
1
2
log |F(rei )| d =
1
2
2
0
log | f (rei )| d.
Also
g(z)
=
P f (i) (0)zi
f (z)
i=0
i!
=
zm
zm
P f (i) (0)zi
i=m
i!
zm
X
f (m) (0) 0 f (m+1) (0) 1
f (i) (0)zim
=
=
z +
z + ...
i!
m!
(m + 1)!
i=m
( f has a zero at z = 0 of multiplicity m) which implies g(0) =
F(0) = g(0)rm
n
Y
k=1
151
f (m) (0)
m! .
!
r
.
ak
Thus,
Therefore
|F(0)| = |g(0)|rm
n
Y
r
|a
k|
k=1
implies
(m)
n
X
f (0)
r
r
log |F(0)| = log |g(0)| + m log r +
log
= log
.
+ m log r +
log
|a
|
m!
|a
k
k|
k=1
k=1
n
X
Hence,
(m)
Z 2
n
X
f (0)
r
1
+ m log r +
log
=
log |F(0)| = log
log | f (rei )| d
m!
|ak | 2 0
k=1
which is equivalent to
(m)
Z 2
n
X
f (0)
1
r
log
log | f (rei )| d
+
+ m log r =
log
m!
|ak | 2 0
k=1
Exercise 2. Let f be an entire function, M(r) = sup{| f (rei )| : 0 2}, n(r) = the number of zeros of f
in B(0; r) counted according to multiplicity. Suppose that f (0) = 1 and show that n(r) log 2 log M(2r).
2r). Suppose a1 , . . . , an are the zeros of f in
Solution. Since f is an entire function, it is analytic on B(0;
B(0; r) repeated according to multiplicity and b1 , . . . , bm are the zeros of f in B(0; 2r) B(0; r). That is,
a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bm are the zeros of f in B(0; 2r) repeated according to multiplicity. Since f (0) = 1 , 0,
we have by Jensens formula
! X
!
Z 2
m
n
X
2r
1
2r
log
+
log | f (2rei )| d
log
0 = log 1 = log | f (0)| =
|a
|
|b
|
2
k
k
0
k=1
k=1
which implies
n
X
2r
log
|a
k|
k=1
m
X
!
Z 2
2r
1
log
+
log | f (2rei )| d
|bk |
2 0
k=1
| {z }
0 since r |bk | < 2r
Z 2
1
log | f (2rei )| d
2 0
Z 2
1
log |M(2r)|
d = log |M(2r)|.
2
0
Def of M(r)
Hence,
n
X
!
2r
log
log |M(2r)|.
|ak |
k=1
But
n
X
2r
log
|ak |
k=1
n(r)
X
!
!
n(r)
Y
2r
2r
=
= log
log
|ak |
|ak |
k=1
k=1
n(r)
n(r)
Y
Y r
2r
n
n(r)
= log 2
+ log
= log 2
|ak |
|ak |
k=1
n(r) log(2)
152
k=1
r
|ak |
Qn(r)
r
k=1 |ak |
+1
M(r)
rn
153
(11.1)
where cn =
f (n) (0)
n! .
Hence,
|cn |
M(r)
+1
< er .
n
r (11.1)
(11.2)
Define, r = n +1 , where is a positive constant, and choose > e for convenience. Then (11.2) can be
written in the form
+1 n
+1
+1
e
1
en
en
n +1
.
(n ) |cn | <
|cn | <
=
1
n
(nn ) +1 n
for any > 0, provided n is taken large enough, n > N say. Since n! < nn , for n 2, we have
1
Exercise 2. Let f1 and f2 be entire functions of finite orders 1 and 2 respectively. Show that f = f1 + f2
has finite order and max(1 , 2 ). Show that = max(1 , 2 ) if 1 , 2 and give an example which
shows that < max(1 , 2 ) with f , 0.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 3. Suppose f is an entire function and A, B, a are positive constants such that there is a r0 with
| f (z)| exp(A|z|a + B) for |z| > r0 . Show that f is of finite order a.
Solution. Not available.
Exercise 4. Prove that if f is an entire function of order then f 0 also has order .
Solution. Let f be an entire function of order , then f has power series
f (z) =
cn zn .
n=0
Differentiating f yields
f 0 (z) =
log |cn | 1
= .
n log n
ncn zn1 =
n=1
X
n=0
154
(n + 1)cn+1 zn .
| {z }
dn
log |dn |
log |(n + 1)cn+1 |
= lim inf
n
n log n
n log n
log(n + 1) log |cn+1 |
= lim inf
n
n log n
"
#
log(n + 1) log |cn+1 | (n + 1) log(n + 1)
= lim inf
n
n log n
n log n (n + 1) log(n + 1)
log(n + 1)
log |cn+1 |
n + 1 log(n + 1)
= lim inf
n
n
(n + 1) log(n + 1) |{z}
n
log(n)
| n log
{z
}
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
1
1
= lim inf
n
1
.
log |cn |
n log n
(a) Show that if f has finite order then > 0. (Hint: If the order of f is and > show that |cn |
rn exp(r ) for sufficiently large r, and find the maximum value of this expression.)
(b) Suppose that 0 < < and show that for any > 0, < , there is an integer p such that |cn |1/n <
n() for n > p. Conclude that for |z| = r > 1 there is a constant A such that
| f (z)| < Ar p +
X
r n
n
n=1
(c) Let p be as in part (b) and let N be the largest integer (2r)1/() . Take r sufficiently large so that
N > p and show that
N
X
X
r n
r n
<
1
and
< B exp (2r)1/()
n
n
n=p+1
n=N+1
z; (d)
Solution. c) The order is = 21 . Note that sinh2 z = cosh2 z 1 and that cos x is bounded for real values x,
so
| cos z|2 = cos2 x + sinh2 y cosh2 y cosh2 |z|.
155
Thus
| cos z| cosh |z| =
and therefore
| cos
1
1 |z|
(e + e|z| ) e|z| e|z| ,
2
2
z| exp(|z|1/2 ).
This implies that the order 21 . Next we want to show that = 12 . Seeking contradiction assume that
there is > 0 and r > 0 such that
1
| cos z| exp(|z| 2 )
(11.3)
for all |z| > r.
Let z = n2 for an n N with n > max{ r, 4, 21/(2) } then in particular (i) |z| > r, (ii) ln 2 + n > 2n , and
(iii) 12 > n12 and
| f (z)| = | cos
n
1
1
1
1
z| = |en + en | > en = e log 2+n > e 2 > exp(n2 n) = exp(n2( 2 ) ) = exp(|z| 2 ).
(ii)
(iii)
2
2
This shows that no > 0 can be found that satisfies equation (11.3). This implies = 12 .
Exercise 7. Let f1 and f2 be entire functions of finite order 1 , 2 ; show that f = f1 f2 has finite order
max(1 , 2 ).
Solution. Define M(r) = max|z|=r | f (z)|, M1 (r) = max|z|=r | f1 (z)| and M2 (r) = max|z|=r | f2 (z)|. Since f1 and
f2 are entire functions of finite order 1 and 2 , respectively, we have for > 0,
M1 (r) < er
1 +/2
M2 (r) < er
2 +/2
(11.4)
and
(11.5)
|z|=r
|z|=r
M1 (r)M2 (r)
= er
<
er
1 +/2
er
2 +/2
by (11.4),(11.5)
1 +/2
+r2 +/2
max(1 ,2 )
e2r
+/2
< er
+
provided r is sufficiently large. Hence, the order of f (z) = f1 (z) f2 (z) has finite order max(1 , 2 ).
P
Exercise 8. Let {an } be a sequence of non-zero complex numbers. Let = inf{a : |an |a < }; the
number called the exponent of convergence of {an }.
(a) If f is an entire function of rank p then the exponent of convergence of the non-zero zeros of f satisfies:
p p + 1.
P
P
(b) If 0 = the exponent of convergence of {an } then for every > 0, |an |(+) < and |an |() = .
(c) Let f be an entire function of order and let {a1 , a2 , . . .} be the non-zero zeros of f counted according
to multiplicity. If is the exponent of convergence of {an } prove that . (Hint: See the proof of (3.5) in
the next section.)
156
Q
(d) Let P(z) =
n=1 E p (z/an ) be a canonical product of rank p, and let be the exponent of convergence of
{an }. Prove that the order of P is . (Hint: If is the order of P, ; assume that |al | |a2 | . . . and fix
z, |z| > 1. Choose N such that |an | 2|z| if n N and |an | > 2|z| if n N + 1. Treating the cases < p + 1
and = p + 1 separately, use (2.7) to show that for some > 0
!
X
z
+
log E p
< A|z| .
an
n=N+1
Prove that for |z| 21 , log |E p (z)| < B|z| p where B is a constant independent of z. Use this to prove that
!
z
+
log E p
< C|z|
a
n
n=1
N
X
Y
f (z) =
(1 an z),
0 < |a| < 1
n=1
b)
f (z) =
Y
n=1
z
n!
c)
f (z) = [(z)]1 .
Q
z
Solution. b) Considering g(z) :=
m=1 1 n! one notes that g(z) is already in form of the canonical
product with the entire function in the exponent being constantly zero and p = 0. Hence also the genus
= 0. The simple zeros of g(z) are at z = n! and from Exercise 8a) it follows that 1. In fact we will
show that = 0. It suffices to show that the exponent of convergence = 0 and to employ Exercise 8d).
Let m N, let n > 4m then
n! n (n 1) 2 (n 2) 3 . . . (n (2k 1)) 2m .
| {z } | {z } |
{z
}
n
Each product of consecutive numbers is of the form (n (k 1))k, for 1 k 2m. By choice of n, nk 12
and n k + 1 > 2m which justifies the individual estimates by n. In total this yields n! > n2m for n large, or
equivalently
X
X
1
(n!) m
n2
n=4m
n=4m
and the sum on the left converges for every positive integer m. We conclude that = inf{m : the left sum converges} =
0. By Part d) of Exercise 8 we conclude that the order of g(z) is zero.
157
i
=
on
G
f (z) = 0} and define h : G0 R by h(z) = log | f (z)|. Show that h
0.
x
y
f
Solution. Let f be analytic in a region G and suppose that f is not identically
zero. Let G0 = G {z :
0
f (z) = 0}, then h : G0 R given by h(z) = log | f (z)| is well defined as well as ff is well defined on G0 .
Let f = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = u + iv. Since f is analytic, the Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) equations u x = vy and
uy = v x are satisfied. We have by p. 41 Equation 2.22 and 2.23
f 0 = u x + iv x
f 0 = iuy + vy
and
and thus
2 f 0 = u x + iv x iuy + vy
implies
f0 =
1
1
1
u x + iv x iuy + vy =
u x iuy iuy + u x =
2u x 2iuy = u x iuy .
(C-R)
2
2
2
Therefore,
f 0 u x iuy
=
.
f
u + iv
Next, we calculate
get
h
x
= h x and
h
y
h x = hu u x + hv v x =
1
2
u
v
ux + 2
vx
u2 + v2
u + v2
and
hy = hu uy + hv vy =
(11.6)
u2
v
u
uy + 2
vy
2
+v
u + v2
and hence
h
h
i
x
y
=
=
=
=
(C-R)
=
=
=
=
h x ihy
u
v
u
v
ux + 2
vx i 2
uy i 2
vy
u2 + v2
u + v2
u + v2
u + v2
v
u
(u x iuy ) + 2
(v x ivy )
2
2
u +v
u + v2
v
u
(u x iuy ) + 2
(uy iu x )
u2 + v2
u + v2
u
iv
(u x iuy ) 2
(u x iuy )
u2 + v2
u + v2
u iv
(u x iuy )
u2 + v2
u iv
(u x iuy )
(u iv)(u + iv)
u x iuy
.
u + iv
158
X
n=1
where an s are the zeros of F. Therefore by the comparison test, we also have
X
n=1
|an |(+1)
X
n=1
P
(+1)
so n=1 |an |(+1) < contradicting the assumption
= . Hence F 0, and therefore we
n=1 |an |
obtain f = g.
b) Since f and g are entire functions of finite order , we also have F = f g is an entire function of finite
P
order (see Exercise 2 p. 286). Suppose that f (an ) = g(an ) for a sequence {an } such that |an |(+) = .
Assume F . 0 ( f . g), we will derive a contradiction. Since F . 0, the sequence {an } are the zeros of F,
because
F(an ) = f (an ) g(an ) = 0
since f (an ) = g(an ) by assumption. Let be the exponent of convergence of {an }, then
X
n=1
X
n=1
|an |(+)
X
n=1
n=1
160
Chapter 12
3|z a|
1
, and | f 0 (z) f 0 (a)| <
.
0
220
For z B(0, 0 ) define g(z) = f (z + a) f (a). By convexity of B(a, 0 ) the line segment = [a, a + z] is
completely contained in B(a, 0 ). It follows that
Z
1
|g(z)| = | f 0 (w) dw| |z| 1 =: M.
0
The function g is not necessarily injective on B(0, 0 ) but the problem only asks for an estimate on the
Landau constant for which injectivity is not required. In this setting Lemma 1.2 gives
!
!
!
2 |g0 (0)|2
1
1
g(B(0, 0 )) B 0,
= B 0,
= B 0,
.
6M
46
24
This statement rewritten for f yields
!
1
.
f (B(a, 0 )) B f (a),
24
Exercise 2. Suppose that in the statement of Blochs Theorem it is only assumed that f is analytic on D.
What conclusion can be drawn? (Hint: Consider the functions f s (z) = s1 f (sz), 0 < s < 1.) Do the same
for Proposition 1.10.
Solution. Not available.
161
1
,
f (z) a
zC
1
1
, ca
C g(C). Again using Little Picards
then g is entire because f (z) a , 0 for all z C and ba
Theorem conclude that g is a constant function. It cannot be the zero-function, because f was assumed
to be meromorphic, hence f (z) , for at least some z C. Thus g is a nonzero constant function and
f (z) = g(z)1 + a is also a constant function and the result is established.
Exercise 2. For each integer n 1 determine all meromorphic functions f and g on C with a pole at
such that f n + gn = 1.
Solution. Not available.
162