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Hindutitlesoflaw
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

IntheDharmastrasandHindulaw,moregenerally,thereareusuallyeighteentitlesoflaw.Thetitlesof
lawmakeupthegroundsforlitigationandtheperformanceofthelegalprocess,usuallybythekingandhis
Brahmincounselors.TheeighteentitlesoflawaccordingtoManuare:"(i)thefirstisthenonpaymentof
debts(ii)deposits(iii)salewithoutownership(iv)partnerships(v)deliveryandnondeliveryofgifts
(vi)nonpaymentofwages(vii)breachofcontract(viii)cancellationofasaleorpurchase(ix)disputes
betweenownersandherdsman(x)theLawonboundarydisputes(xi)verbalassault(xii)physicalassault
(xiii)theft(xiv)violence(xv)sexualcrimesagainstwomen(xvi)Lawconcerninghusbandandwife
(xvii)partitionofinheritanceand(xviii)gamblingandbetting."[1]Thesereasonsvaryslightlyamong
authors,andmanyofthemarecoveredmoreindepth.

Contents
1 18Titlesoflaw
1.1 i.Nonpaymentofdebts
1.2 ii.Deposits
1.3 iii.Salewithoutownership
1.3.1 Typesofsalewithoutownership
1.3.2 Liabilityofaninnocentbuyer
1.4 iv.Partnerships
1.5 v.Deliveryandnondeliveryofgifts
1.6 vi.Nonpaymentofwages
1.7 vii.Breachofcontract
1.8 viii.Cancellationofasaleorpurchase
1.9 ix.Disputesbetweenownersandherdsman
1.10 x.Boundarydisputes
1.11 xi.Verbalassault
1.12 xii.Physicalassault
1.13 xiii.Theft

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1.13 xiii.Theft
1.14 xv.Sexualcrimesagainstwomen
1.15 xvii.Partitionofinheritance
1.16 xviii.Gamblingandbetting
2 Seealso
3 References

18Titlesoflaw
i.Nonpaymentofdebts
Concerningtheeighteentitlesoflaw,thenonpaymentofdebtisalmostalwayslistedfirst.Accordingto
Davisthisisbecause,"AveryoldpracticeoftextualorganizationwithinDharmastraandothertextual
genresofSanskritcallsthefirstprocedureortopictobedescribedthearchetype(prakrti)andthe
subsequentproceduresortopicstheectypes(vikrti).WesawthispracticeintheplacementoftheBrahmin
asthearchetypeasamatteroftextualconcision.TheNonpaymentofDebtsisthearchetypefortheother
titlesoflaw,notonlybecauseitsdescriptionoverlapswithandinsomerespectsencompassesthecontents
oftheothertitlesbutalsobecausedebtasitsthematiccontentpervadesthesubsequenttitles.[2]Intermsof
overlap,questionsaboutwitness,autonomy,competence,documentation,andcontractualsecuritiesareall
assumedinandcarryovertodiscussionsofthelatertitles."[2]

ii.Deposits
TheSanskritwordfordepositsisNikepa,thewordsupanidhiandnysaaresynonyms.ManuVIII179
holdsthatdepositsshouldbeentrustedtothosewhohavegooddharma.Thepersonwhoholdsthedeposit
typicallydoesnotreceiveanypersonbenefitfromdoingso.Themisappropriationormisplacementofa
depositduetonegligenceisregardedasverysinful."Theideaisthatnooneisboundtoacceptadeposit,
butwhenapersonacceptsit,hisprimarydutyistopreserveitwithcareandthenextdutyistoreturnitat
thetimeagreedorondemand.Theobligationarisesfromthetrustreposedinaperson."[3]

iii.Salewithoutownership
Dattpradnikaisconcernedwiththeresumptionofagift.TheNradaSmti"definesitasthattitlewherea
mandesirestoresumewhathasbeengivenbyhimbecauseithasbeenimproperlygivenbyhim".[4]Inthe
HistoryoftheDharmastrasVol.III,P.V.Kanestates,"AccordingtotheNradaSmtiVII.1andthe
SmtiofBhaspati[5]whenaperson,whoholdsanopendeposit,asealeddeposit,anarticlebailedfor
deliverytoanother,stolenproperty,anarticleborrowedforsomefestival,apledge,orpropertylostbya
strangerandfound(byhim),sellsitinsecret(orbehindthebackoftheowner)itistobeconsideredasa
salebyonewhoisnottherightfulowner."[6]Thatwhichmaybegivenmustbeabsolutelyone'sownwith
theexceptionofthingsthatarerequiredforthemaintenanceofone'sfamily.
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Typesofsalewithoutownership
Asalebyanonownerisknownasasvmivikraya.Therearetwodifferenttypesofsaleswithout
ownership:pratipannaasvmivikrayahandapratipannaasvmivikrayah.Thefirst,pratipannaasvmi
vikrayah,occurswhentheunauthorizedpossessoradmitstobeinganonowner.Thesecond,apratipanna
asvmivikrayahoccurswhenthepossessordoesnotadmittobeinganonowner.Thefirsttypesofsaleis
resolvedwithoutdisputebecausethepossessorreturnsthepossessiontotherightfulowner.Thesecond
typeofsaleresultsinacasebecausethepossessor,althoughnotthetrueowner,hassold,given,orpledged
thepropertytoathirdparty.[7]Inthecaseofthesecondtypeofsale"theentireprocessofthecourthasto
begonethroughwithbothpartiesleadingevidencetobuttresstheirrespectiveclaims,andthecourtthen
givingitsjudgement."[8]Itisseenasimportantthatthereisafirstcategoryofsalewithoutownership
becauseithintsatthehow"thestatewasinvolvedinthesettlementofpeople'sdisputesataninformal
level."[8]
Liabilityofaninnocentbuyer
Aninnocentbuyerisregardedasonewhodoesnotknowthatwhathehaspurchasedwassoldbysomeone
withoutownership.ambhu,whoheavilyreliesonManuandMarci,holdsthat"abuyerwhomakeshis
purchasefromtheopenmarket,andinthefullknowledgeofking'smenwillgetacleartitletothegoodsso
purchasedirrespectiveofthebonafidesoftheseller."[9]Devaarefutesthisandgoessofarastosaythat
"notevenahundredcitationsofrulescanconferownershiprightsuponthebuyerwhobuysfromanon
owner.[10]Devaaagreeswithambhuonlyinsofarasthetrueownerfailstoidentifyhisproperty.

iv.Partnerships
PartnershipsinHindulawareanyventurethatresultsintwoormorepeopleworkingtogether.Thestras
havealottosayaboutthedifferentkindsofpartnerships,whomoneshouldenterintoapartnershipwith,
andrulesforgoverningpartnershipswithrespecttoprofits,losses,andquarrelsamongpartners.For
example,theSmtiofBhaspatistatesregardingpotentialpartners,"thatamanshouldcarryonajoint
businesswithotherpersonsofgoodfamily,thatareclever,active,intelligent(oreducated),familiarwith
cons,skilledincontrolling(expenditure)andincome,honestandvaliant(orenterprising)andthatjoint
undertakingsliketradeshouldnotbecarriedonbyprudentmenwithpersons(partners)whoareweakor
lazyorafflictedwithdiseaseorareunluckyordestitute(ofmoney)."[11]Kanestates,"Itisinterestingto
notethattheancientDharmasutrasofGautama,pastambaandBaudhyanaaresilentaboutpartnerships,
andthatManu[12]laydownrulesaboutthedistributionoffeesamongthepriestsatasacrificeadthatin
oneverse[13]heremarksthatthesameprinciplesaretobeappliedinallmatterswheremenwork
conjointly."

v.Deliveryandnondeliveryofgifts
Nondeliveryorresumptionofgiftisreferredtoas"dattanapakarma"inthesmtis.TheNradaSmti
dividesthetitleintofourcategories,"whatmaybegiven,whatmaynotbegiven,whatarevalidgifts,and
whatareinvalidgifts."[14]TheSmtiofKtynaasreconstructedbyP.V.Kane,isusefulinelaboratingand
givinginsighttothistitleoflaw.Itstatesregardinginvalidgifts,"Thesecannotbegiveneitherbecause
theyarenotone'sabsolutepropertyorbecausethegiftofthemisforbiddenbythesages.Inthecaseof
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eventhosewhoholdthatonehasownershipoverone'ssonorwife,thegiftofthemisnotpossiblebecause
itisforbidden,justasthoughoneownsrice,yavasandmasabeans,onecannotmakeofferingsofmasa
becausethevedaprohibitstheiruse."[15]

vi.Nonpaymentofwages
VetanaAnapkarmaistheSanskritwordforthenonpaymentofwages.Theearlysmtisconcern
themselvesinlargepartwiththepaymentofwagestoworkers.TheBhaspatiispopularlycitedbymany
medievalauthorsassertingthat"aworkershallnotdoeventheslightestmischieftothemasterifhedoes
heloseshiswagesandproceedings(vda)begin."Mathurcontendsthat"Devaahasmadeitclearthatthis
versehasreferencetoproceedingsinacourt.Hesaysthatwhenaworkerisdefeatedheloseshiswagesin
proportiontothedamagecausedtohismaster."[16]Devaaswitchestheorderinwhichlitigationand
losingwagesoccurs.

vii.Breachofcontract
Thelawofcontractsishugelyconcernedwiththecontractofdebt,ofpledgeormortgage,ofbailments,of
sale,ofpartnership,andofhireandservice.Thelawofcontractsisnotfoundinoneplace.The
dharmastrasdonotlaydownageneralcodeofrulesapplicabletoalltransfersofimmovableproperty,
nordotheytreatoftransfersbywayofsale,mortgageorgiftinseparatesections."[17]Ancientwriters
largelycommentedonwhowascompetenttoenterintotransactions.Thosewhoare"dependent,minors,
extremelyold,chargedwithgravesins,devoidofalimb,andthosethatareaddictedtovices"are
consideredincompetentandagreementswiththesepeopleareinvalid.[18]Kauilyaholdsthatanycontract
madeundertheinfluenceofintoxicantsorwrathareinvalidaswellasthosemadewhenapersonis
distressedorhasanunsoundmind.Manureinforcesthisbystatingthatallcontractsenteredintobyforce
areinvalid.Contractsthatarecontrarytothekingsordersareregardedasinvalid.AccordingtoDevaathe
kinghasthepowertooutlawanyagreementsthatareagainstrutiandsmtiortaintedbygreed.[19]

viii.Cancellationofasaleorpurchase
TheManusmtidealswiththecancellationofasaleorpurchase."Theprincipleruleisthatthebuyerorthe
sellermayrescindthedealwithintendaysifhefeelsdissatisfied.Butanyoneforcingtheotherpartyto
rescinditshallbepunished."[20]TheMitkaridentifiestheliabilityofthesellerincaseofacancellation
ofasalebythesellerdependentonwhetherthereisapricedifferenceinaproduct."Whenthepricegoes
downthesellerwillhavetocompensatethebuyerasprescribedbyNradawherethepricerises,andthe
buyerislikelytoearnanextraprofit,theliabilityofthesellerisnotextinguished,andhehastopaythe
buyerthevalueofthebenefit,ortheusufructasthecasemaybe.However,ifthepriceremainsunchanged
thesellerstillhastopayinterestattherateoffivepercentperannumontheamountpaidbythebuyer."[21]

ix.Disputesbetweenownersandherdsman
InancienttimesIndiawasapredominatelyagriculturalsocietyandthereforeSvmiplavivdawasamajor
basisoflitigation.SvmiplavivdaistheSanskritwordthatreferstothedisputesbetweentheownerof
cattleandtheherdsmanwhotendstothem.AccordingtoP.V.Kane"duringthedaytheresponsibilityfor
thesafetyofthecattlerestsontheherdsmanandduringthenightontheownerprovidedtheyareinthe
latter'shouse."[22]Theherdsmanisliableforcattleifhedoesnotattempttosavethemorifheneglects
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them.Kanealsostatesthat"itisthedutyofthecowherdtostruggleasmuchasinhimliestoprotectthe
cowsfromaccidentsandifheisunabletodosohemustquicklyinformtheowner."[23]Ifaherdsmandoes
notstruggletosavetheorprotecttheanimalsheisresponsibleformakinggoodthevalueoftheanimals
lostandforpayingafineof12panastotheking.Theherdsmanisalsoresponsibleiftheanimaldiesor
islostbytheft.However,ifafterthetheftofananimaltheherdsmanimmediatelynotifiestheownerheis
notresponsible.Theherdsman'sresponsibilityisalsovoidedifheisseized,thevillageisattacked,orthe
countryisinvaded.

x.Boundarydisputes
Boundarydisputesarecalled"ksetrajavivda",ordisputesrelatingtofields.IntheDharmastrasthe
sectiontitledSimaVivadahdealswiththedeterminationofboundariesoffields,homesandvillages.[24]
TheNradasmtidefinesboundarydisputesas,"disputewithregardtolandinwhichquestionsaboutdikes
orembankments,theboundariesoffields,ploughedlandandfallowland.".[25]Therearesixcausesof
boundarydisputeinmostofthesastras,andtheSmtiofKtynastatesthemas:"claimingmoreland,
claimthatapersonisentitledtolessthanhepossesses,claimtoashare,denialofashare,seizing
possessionwhenpreviouslytherewasnone,andboundary."[26]

xi.Verbalassault
P.V.Kanestates,"Vkprusya,daaprusya,steya,strisangrahana,andsahsaarefivetitlesoutof18that
areconcernedwithwhatmaybecalledcriminalmattersorcrimesinmodernnomenclature."[27]They
represent,respectively,abuseanddefamation,assault,theft,adulteryorunlawfulintercoursewithawoman,
andviolence.
TheNradasmtisaysvkprusyaisdefinedas,"abusivewordsthatloudlyproclaimcensureofanother's
country,caste,familyandthelikeandthatcausementalpainoroffencetothatman."[28]TheNradasmti
furtherdefinesthreekindsofdefamation,"nihura(reproachfulsuchascallingamanafoolorarogue),
alla(obsceneorinsulting),andtvra(mercilesslyseveresuchaschargingamanwithsuchgravesinsas
brahmnamurderordrinkingliquor)andthateachpunishmentforeachlateroneismoreseverethatfor
eachprecedingone."[27]

xii.Physicalassault
TodefineDaaprusya,orassault,theKauilya'sArthastrabeginsbysayingassault,"comprises
touching,threateningtostrikeandactuallystrikinganother."[29]Goingslightlyfurther,"TheNradaSmti
XVIII.46definesitasinjuringthelimbsofanotherwiththehand,foot,weaponorothermeans(suchas
stones)ordefilingorcausingpainby(bringing)ashesandsimilarsubstancesincontactwithanother
assaultmaybeoneofthreekindsviz.mild,middlingandhighlypunishable."[30]Itisevenexplainedinthe
Yjavalkyasmtithatcausinginjurytoanimalsandtreeswouldfallunderthiscategory.[31]Manucontends
thatthepunishmentshouldbecommensuratewiththatoftheharmcausedtothevictim.[32]

xiii.Theft

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Theft,orstreya,isdefinedbytheKauilya'sArthastraas"deprivingamanofhiswealtheither
clandestinelyoropenlyandeitherbynightorbyday."[33]TheNradaSmtidefinestheftas,"derivationof
wealthbyvariousmeansfrompeoplethatareasleep,carelessorintoxicated."[34]Likeassault,thereare
varyingdegreesoftheftdependingonwhatwasstolen.Thethreekindsare:"trifling(whenearthenware,
seats,cots,wood,hides,grass,beansinpodsorcookedfoodisstolen),middling(whenthetheftrelatesto
clothesexceptsilkenones,animalsexceptcowsandbulls,metalsexceptgold,riceandbarley),andgrave
orhigh(whengoldjewels,silkencloth,women,men,cattle,elephants,horses,andthewealthofbrhmanas
ortemplesisstolen)."[35]ThereareseveraltextsthatagreeonthedefinitionofathiefincludingtheManu
Smti,NradaSmti,andtheSmtiofBhaspati.Theirdefinitioncontendsthat,"thievesaretraderswho
employfalseweightsandbalances,gamblers,quacks,bribersofsabhyas,prostitutes,thosewhoprofessto
arbitrate,thosewhomanufactureimitationarticles,thosewhosubsistbyprognosticatinggoodfortuneor
portentsorbymagicorpalmistry,falsewitnesses,etc."[36]

xv.Sexualcrimesagainstwomen
Vas.28.23statesthat,"whenawomanispollutedbybeingrapedorkidnappedbyathief,sheshouldnot
beabandonedoneshouldwaittillhermonthlyillness(makingherundergocertainexpiationstillthen)and
shebecomespureafterit."[37]TheMatsyapuraliberallystatesthatawomanwhoisrapedisinnocent
whileamanwhocommitsrapeshouldbeputtodeath.Othertextsareharsher,suchasthoseofthelate
smtiwriterDevala,thatstatesthatwomenwhoarerapedandconceivemaynotberestoredtosocial
intercourseevenafterundergoingexpiation.[38]

xvii.Partitionofinheritance
Thepastambaprincipleholdsthatafterthedeathofonepropertyownertheotherisentitledtothe
property.Afterthedeathofahusbandawifesucceedsallofthehusband'sestatewithoutallottingany
sharesfortheirsons.Uponthedeathofbothparentssonsaretodivideancestralestateandpaternaldebt
equally.Partitioningduringamother'slifetimeisonlyallowedwiththemother'sconsent."Tracesofthis
rulearetobefoundeveninIX104oftheManuSmrtiwhichcanbeliterallyrenderedas:brothersmaytake
equallytheancestralwealthafterthemotherandthefathertheyhavenocompetencesolongasthemother
andthefatherarealive"[39]

xviii.Gamblingandbetting
Dytasamhvaya,knownas'gamblingandbettinggames,'isatraditionaltitleofdisputefirstpresentinthe
earliersmtiswithlittlechangeinthepostsmtiperiod.TheMitksarisoneoftheonlytextsthatpresents
achange,defininggamblingas"anytransactioninvolvingbettingwithstakemoney"thusexpandingthe
definitionbeyondgameslikediceandcockfighting.[40]AccordingtoMathur,Manu'scategoricalcommand
tothekingstocompletelyprohibitallgamblinginfluencesmanytextsliketheVyavahraNirayaandthe
SmtiCandrik.Thesetextsreflectnodesirabilityinhavinganylawallowinggambling.However,thereare
othertextsliketheBhaspatithatfindgamblinglawtobebeneficialforpurposesoftaxationandtoprovide
easeinthesearchforcriminals.

Seealso
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ClassicalHindulaw
ClassicalHindulawinpractice
HinduLaw
Hinduism
MonarchyinAncientIndia
Nradasmti
Vyavahra

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Olivelle,Patrick,TheLawCodeofManu,OxfordUniversityPress,2004,p.123
Davis,TheSpiritofHinduLaw,forthcoming.Chapter3
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.457
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.471
SBEvol.33p.335verse2
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.462
AshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.142
AshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.143
AshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.141
SCIIP:506TranslatedbyAshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.141
SBEvol.33p.336verses12
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.VIII.206210
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.VIII.211
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.VII.2
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.VII,p.638
AshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.130
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.411
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.412
AshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.167
MSVIII.222TranslatedbyAshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.133
YSII.254TranslatedbyAshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.138
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.497
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.498
HDSIIIPP:502510TranslatedbyAshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.170
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.XIV
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.XIV,p.732
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.511
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.XVIII.1
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III.19
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.513
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.II.212
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.VIII.286
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.VI.28.3Vol.VIII.29.6Vol.X.4.6
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.XVII.17
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.51920
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.520
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.956
Kane,P.V.,HistoryoftheDharmastras,Vol.III,p.957
Y.S.II.117TranslatedbyAshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.70
YSII.199TranslatedbyAshutoshDayalMathur,MedievalHinduLaw2007p.188

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