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Common Machining Processes
Tool
(a) Straight turning
Tool
(b) Cutting off
Cutter
End mill
(c) Slab milling
(d) End milling
FIGURE 8.1 Some examples of common machining processes.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Orthogonal Cutting
tc
Shiny surface
Tool face
Rough surface
Chip
- +
Tool
Shear plane
Rake angle
"
to
Flank
Relief or
clearance
angle
Shear angle
Workpiece
(a)
tc
Rough surface
Chip
Tool face
Tool
- +
Primary
shear zone
"
to
Rake angle
Flank
V
Relief or
clearance
angle
Rough
surface
(b)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional

cutting process, or orthogonal cutting. (a) Orthogonal cutting
with a well-defined shear plane, also known as the Merchant
model; (b) Orthogonal cutting without a well-defined shear
plane.
Chip Formation
Rake angle,
A
Chip
(90 - F + A)
Tool
d
(F - A)
Workpiece
F
Vs
A
(90 - A)
C
B
F
V
Shear
plane
Vc
F
(F- A)
O B
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting. (b) Velocity
diagram in the cutting zone.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Secondary shear zones

Tool
Chip
Chip
Tool
Primary
shear Workpiece
zone
BUE
Primary
shear zone
(a)
(b)
Types of Chips
(c)
Low
shear
strain
High
shear
strain
(d)
(e)
FIGURE 8.4 Basic types of chips produced in metal cutting and their
micrographs: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight primary shear zone; (b)
secondary shear zone at the tool-chip interface; (c) continuous chip with built-up
edge; (d) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous chip. Source:
After M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 8.5 Shiny (burnished) surface

on the tool side of a continuous chip
produced in turning.
Hardness in Cutting Zone

Chip
316
Built-up
edge
474
661
588
565 492
588
656
372
329
331
286
604
Hardness (HK)
306
325
(b)
289
289
371 418
432 684
383
386
589
656 567
306
578
281
261
466 704
361 289
327
587
281
704512639 565
704
410
734770655 341
297 409 544 503
231
377
229
308
317 201
266
251
Workpiece
230
(a)
(c)
FIGURE 8.6 (a) Hardness distribution in the cutting zone for 3115 steel. Note that some regions in the built-up
edge are as much as three times harder than the bulk workpiece. (b) Surface finish in turning 5130 steel with a
built-up edge. (c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling. Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.
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Chip Breakers
Chip breaker
Before
Chip
Rake face
of tool
After
Clamp
Chip breaker
Tool
Tool
Workpiece
(a)
(b)
Rake face
Radius
Positive rake
FIGURE 8.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip

breaker. Note that the chip breaker decreases the radius of
curvature of the chip. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of
a cutting tool. (c) Grooves on the rake face of cutting tools, acting
as chip breakers. Most cutting tools now are inserts with built-in
chip-breaker features.
0 rake
(c)
FIGURE 8.8 Various chips produced in

turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits
workpiece and breaks; (c) continuous chip
moving radially outward from workpiece; and
(d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. Source:
After G. Boothroyd.
(a)

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(b)
(c)
(d)
Oblique Cutting
z
Tool
Top view
At
Ac
Chip
a
i = 0
Tool
Chip
i
i = 15
Workpiece
i = 30
Workpiece
x
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 8.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top view, showing the
inclination angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced with different inclination angles.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
is
Ax
Sh
an
k
Right-Hand Cutting Tool
Side-rake
angle, + (SR)
Face
Cutting edge
Back-rake angle, + (BR)
Nose radius
Flank
Axis
End-cutting
edge angle
(ECEA)
Side-relief angle
Toolholder
Clamp screw
Clamp
Insert
Seat or shim
Side-cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Clearance or end-relief angle
Axis
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool for turning. Although these
tools have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they are now replaced by inserts
of carbide or other tool materials of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cutting Forces
A
A
Chip
Tool
Chip
R
B
N
Fs
Fn
V
F
A
Ft
Fc
Fc
V
Ft
Fs
F
B A
R
B
Workpiece
Tool
(a)
Workpiece
FIGURE 8.11 (a) Forces acting on a

cutting tool in two-dimensional cutting.
Note that the resultant forces, R, must be
collinear to balance the forces. (b) Force
circle to determine various forces acting
in the cutting zone. Source: After M.E.
Merchant.
(b)
Cutting force
Friction coefficient
wto cos ( )
Fc = R cos ( ) =
sin cos ( + )
Ft + Fc tan
= tan =
Fc Ft tan

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cutting Data
TABLE 8.1 Data on orthogonal cutting of 4130 steel.
mm/rev
200
0.1
0.2
0.3
! = 5
800
150
100
15
400
20
50
(N)
Ft (lb)
10
25
20.9
35
31.6
40
35.7
45
41.9
to = 0.0025
2.55 1.46 56
1.56 1.53 57
1.32 1.54 57
1.06 1.83 62
in.; w = 0.475 in.;
ut
(in.-lb/in3
Fc (lb) Ft (lb)
103 )
us
uf
380
224
320
209 111
254
102
214
112 102
232
71
195
94 101
232
68
195
75 120
V = 90 ft/min; tool: high-speed steel.
uf /ut
(%)
35
48
52
62
25
30
0
35
40
250
0
TABLE 8.2 Data on orthogonal cutting of 9445 steel.
2200
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012
Feed (in./rev)
FIGURE 8.12 Thrust force as a function of rake

angle and feed in orthogonal cutting of AISI 1112
cold-rolled steel. Note that at high rake angles, the
thrust force is negative. A negative thrust force has
important implications in the design of machine
tools and in controlling the stability of the cutting
process. Source: After S. Kobayashi and E.G.
Thomsen.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
+10
197
17 3.4
400
19 3.1
642 21.5 2.7
1186 25 2.4
-10
400 16.5 3.9
637
19 3.5
1160 22 3.1
to = 0.037 in.; w = 0.25
Fc
Ft
ut
1.05 46 370 273 400
1.11 48 360 283 390
0.95 44 329 217 356
0.81 39 303 168 328
0.64 33 416 385 450
0.58 30 384 326 415
0.51 27 356 263 385
in.; tool: cemented carbide.
us
292
266
249
225
342
312
289
uf
108
124
107
103
108
103
96
uf /ut
(%)
27
32
30
31
24
25
25
Shear Force & Normal Force

3
A = 20 to 40
240
Fs (lb)
200
320
3
1200
240
A
200
160
120
120
400
80
T = 50,000 psi
40
0
280
1200
800
160
mm2
2
2 3 4 5
As (in2 x 10-3)
80
20
25 800
30
35
40 400
(N)
280
Ft (lb)
(N)
320
mm2
2
40
0
6
(a)
0
0
2 3 4 5
As (in2 x 10-3)
(b)
FIGURE 8.13 (a) Shear force and (b) normal force as a function of the area of the shear plane and the
rake angle for 85-15 brass. Note that the shear stress in the shear plane is constant, regardless of the
magnitude of the normal stress, indicating that the normal stress has no effect on the shear flow stress
of the material. Source: After S. Kobayashi and E.G. Thomsen.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Shear Stress on Tool Face

Tool face
Sliding
Sticking
Tool
!
"
Stresses on tool face

Tool tip
Flank face
FIGURE 8.14 Schematic illustration of the distribution of normal and shear stresses at the tool-chip interface
(rake face). Note that, whereas the normal stress increases continuously toward the tip of the tool, the shear
stress reaches a maximum and remains at that value (a phenomenon known as sticking; see Section 4.4.1).

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Shear-Angle Relationships
Tin
30
20
Eq
Lead
.(
8.
21
)
Co
10
0
230
Eq
.
60
(8.
20
)
# (deg.)
40
nu
mi
Alu
Shear angle, # (deg.)
50
"=0
40
20
Mild steel
ppe
r
! = 10
=0
220 210
30
20
10
(! - ")
40
50
30
0.5
50
1
70 (deg.)
2
FIGURE 8.15
(a) Comparison of
experimental and theoretical shear-angle
relationships. More recent analytical
studies have resulted in better agreement
with experimental data. (b) Relation
between the shear angle and the friction
angle for various alloys and cutting
speeds. Source: After S. Kobayashi.
60
(b)
(a)
Merchant [Eq. (8.20)]

= 45 +
2 2
Shaffer [Eq. (8.21)]

= 45 +
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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Mizuno [Eqs. (8.22)-(8.23]

= for
= 15
for
> 15
< 15
Specific Energy
Specific Energy
Material
W-s/mm3
hp-min/in3
Aluminum alloys
0.4-1.1
0.15-0.4
Cast irons
1.6-5.5
0.6-2.0
Copper alloys
1.4-3.3
0.5-1.2
High-temperature alloys
3.3-8.5
1.2-3.1
Magnesium alloys
0.4-0.6
0.15-0.2
Nickel alloys
4.9-6.8
1.8-2.5
Refractory alloys
3.8-9.6
1.1-3.5
Stainless steels
3.0-5.2
1.1-1.9
Steels
2.7-9.3
1.0-3.4
Titanium alloys
3.0-4.1
1.1-1.5
At drive motor, corrected for 80% efficiency; multiply
the energy by 1.25 for dull tools.
TABLE 8.3 Approximate Specific-Energy Requirements in

Machining Operations

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Temperatures in Cutting
600
mm
130
80
30
Workpiece
ft/ m i n
Work material: AISI 52100

Annealed: 188 HB
Tool material: K3H carbide
700
1200
600
1100
300
1000
Feed: 0.0055 in./rev

(0.14 mm/rev)
200
500
900
800
1.2Y f
T=
c
!
3
V to
K
700
1800
1600
900
1400
700
1200
20
1000
500
800
600
400
.008 .016 .024 .032 .040 .048 .056

Distance from tool tip (in.)
300
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fraction of tool-chip
contact length measured
in the direction of chip flow
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.2 Temperature distribution in turning as a function of cutting speed:

(a) flank temperature; (b) temperature along the tool-chip interface. Note that
the rake-face temperature is higher than that at the flank surface. Source: After
B.T. Chao and K.J. Trigger.
FIGURE 8.18 Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred to the

tool, workpiece, and chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note that most of
the cutting energy is carried away by the chip (in the form of heat), particularly
as speed increases.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Energy (%)
FIGURE 8.1 Typical temperature

distribution in the cutting zone. Note the
severe temperature gradients within the
tool and the chip, and that the workpiece is
relatively cool. Source: After G.Vieregge.
400
1100
2000
50
=5
1.5
in
Flank surface temperature (F)
65
0
Tool
1300
1.0
00
360
650
70
400
1400
600
500
38
0.5
550 ft/m
450
Local temperature at tool-chip interface (F)
Temperature (C)
5
600 00
Chip
l
Too
iece
p
k
or
W
Chip
Cutting speed
Terminology in Turning
Feed
(mm/rev or in./rev)
Depth of cut
(mm or in.)
Chip
Tool
FIGURE 8.19 Terminology used in a turning operation on a lathe, where f is the feed (in mm/rev or in./rev) and
d is the depth of cut. Note that feed in turning is equivalent to the depth of cut in orthogonal cutting (see Fig.
8.2), and the depth of cut in turning is equivalent to the width of cut in orthogonal cutting. See also Fig. 8.42.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Flank wear
Rake
face
Rake face
Crater
wear
depth
(KT)
Tool
Flank
wear
Flank
face
Depth-of-cut line
Crater
wear
Tool Wear
VBmax VB
Nose
radius
Flank face
Depth-of-cut line
(a)
Taylor tool life equation:

Rake face
Rake face
Flank wear
Crater wear
VTn = C
Flank face
Flank face
(b)
(c)
BUE
Thermal
cracking
Flank face
Rake face
TABLE 8.4 Range of n values for various cutting tools.

(d)
(e)
FIGURE 8.20 Examples of wear in cutting tools. (a) Flank

wear; (b) crater wear; (c) chipped cutting edge; (d) thermal
cracking on rake face; (e) flank wear and built-up edge; (f)
catastrophic failure (fracture). Source: Courtesy of
Kennametal, Inc.
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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
High-speed steels
Cast alloys
Carbides
Ceramics
0.08-0.2
0.1-0.15
0.2-0.5
0.5-0.7
Effect of Workpiece on Tool Life

80
50
a
0.4
e
100
b c
40
Hardness
(HB)
265
As cast
215
As cast
207
As cast
Annealed 183
Annealed 170
Tool life (min)
0
100 300 500 700 900
Cutting speed (ft/min)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
0.2
0.1
m/s
0.3
Sp
rrite
ite-fe
Pearl
sitic
Marten
Tool life (min)
120
m/min
100 150 200 250
80
60
he
ro
id
ize
d
40
20
Ferrite
20%
40
60
97
100
Pearlite
80%
60
40
3
_
(a)
0
20
30
40 50 60 70 80
90
(b)
FIGURE 8.21 Effect of workpiece microstructure on tool life in turning. Tool life is given in terms of the time
(in minutes) required to reach a flank wear land of a specified dimension. (a) Ductile cast iron; (b) steels, with
identical hardness. Note in both figures the rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Tool-Life Curves
400
200
m/min
300
50
300
3000
Tool life (min)
ram
Feed constant,
speed variable
Speed constant,
feed variable
ic
10
6
4
2
1
0.6
0.2
1
100
1200 1400
rbid
Ca
steel
Ce
10
y
Cast allo
20
High-speed
Tool life (min)
100
100
60
40
20
800
C
1000
1000
5000 10,000
300
(a)
1500 1800 2100 2400

Temperature (F)
Work material: Heat-resistant alloy

Tool material: Tungsten carbide
Tool life criterion: 0.024 in. (0.6 mm) flank wear
(b)
FIGURE 8.22 (a) Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse of the
slope of these curves is the exponent n in tool-life equations. (b) Relationship between measured
temperature during cutting and tool life (flank wear). Note that high cutting temperatures severely
reduce tool life. See also Eq. (8.30). Source: After H. Takeyama and Y. Murata.
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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
C
700
900
20
10
Tool Wear
1100
c
0.30
0.15
mm3/min
Crater wear rate

(in3/min x 10-6)
500
0
0
800
1200 1600 2000
Average tool-chip interface
temperature (F)
Rake face
FIGURE 8.23 Relationship between craterwear rate and average tool-chip interface
temperature in turning: (a) high-speed-steel
tool; (b) C1 carbide; (c) C5 carbide. Note
that crater wear increases rapidly within a
narrow range of temperature. Source: After
K.J. Trigger and B.T. Chao.
TABLE 8.5 Allowable average wear lands for

cutting tools in various operations.
Operation
Turning
Face milling
End milling
Drilling
Reaming
Allowable Wear Land (mm)

High-Speed Steels Carbides
1.5
0.4
1.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.15
0.15

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Crater wear
Chip
Flank face
FIGURE 8.23 Interface of chip (left) and rake

face of cutting tool (right) and crater wear in
cutting AISI 1004 steel at 3 m/s (585 ft/min).
Discoloration of the tool indicates the
presence of high temperature (loss of
temper). Note how the crater-wear pattern
coincides with the discoloration pattern.
Compare this pattern with the temperature
distribution shown in Fig. 8.16. Source:
Courtesy of P.K. Wright.
Mean flank wear
mm
in.
in.
1.5
mm
0.15
0.050
0.040
0.030
0.020
0.010
0
1.0
0.5
Mean RMS (mV)
ear
w
r
e
Crat
r
wea
k
n
a
Fl
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
0.1
0.05
0
Maximum crater depth
Acoustic Emission and Wear
1500
1000
500
0
10
50
20
30
40
Elapsed machining time (min)
60
FIGURE 8.25 Relationship between mean flank wear, maximum crater wear, and acoustic emission (noise generated
during cutting) as a function of machining time. This technique has been developed as a means for continuously and
indirectly monitoring wear rate in various cutting processes without interrupting the operation. Source: After M.S.
Lan and D.A. Dornfeld.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Roughness (Ra)
m 50
in. 2000
Process
25
1000
12.5
500
6.3
250
3.2
125
1.6
63
0.8
32
0.40
16
0.20
8
0.10
4
0.05
2
0.025 0.012
1
0.5
Rough cutting
Flame cutting
Average application
Snagging (coarse grinding)
Less frequent application
Surface Finish
Sawing
Casting
Sand casting
Permanent mold casting
Investment casting
Die casting
Forming
Hot rolling
Forging
Extruding
Cold rolling, drawing
Roller burnishing
Machining
Planing, shaping
Milling
Broaching
Reaming
Turning, boring
Drilling
Advanced machining
Chemical machining
Electrical-discharge machining
Electron-beam machining
Laser machining
Electrochemical machining
Finishing processes
Honing
Barrel finishing
Electrochemical grinding
Grinding
Electropolishing
Polishing
Lapping
Superfinishing

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 8.26
Range of surface roughnesses
obtained in various machining processes. Note the
wide range within each group, especially in turning
and boring. (See also Fig. 9.27).
Surfaces in Machining
FIGURE 8.27 Surfaces produced on steel in
machining, as observed with a scanning electron
microscope: (a) turned surface, and (b) surface
produced by shaping. Source: J.T. Black and S.
Ramalingam.
(b)
FIGURE 8.28 Schematic illustration of a dull tool in orthogonal

cutting (exaggerated). Note that at small depths of cut, the rake
angle can effectively become negative. In such cases, the tool may
simply ride over the workpiece surface, burnishing it, instead of
cutting.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Increasing depth
of cut
(a)
Tool
Workpiece
Machined
surface
Inclusions in Free-Machining Steels
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 8.29 Photomicrographs showing various types of inclusions in low-carbon, resulfurized freemachining steels. (a) Manganese-sulfide inclusions in AISI 1215 steel. (b) Manganese-sulfide inclusions and
glassy manganese-silicate-type oxide (dark) in AISI 1215 steel. (c) Manganese sulfide with lead particles as
tails in AISI 12L14 steel. Source: Courtesy of Ispat Inland Inc.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Hardness of Cutting Tools

C
100
95
300
500
700
Cera
mics
90
85
ide
65
60
80
Ca
st a
75
55
to
llo
ys
ol
e ls
65
els
ste
60
55
d
pee
h-s
Hig
ste
70
200
400
50
45
HRC
Ca
bo
Hardness (HRA)
70
Ca
rb
40
35
30
25
20
600 800 1000 1200 1400

Temperature (F)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 8.30
Hardness of various cutting-tool
materials as a function of temperature (hot hardness).
The wide range in each group of tool materials results
from the variety of compositions and treatments
available for that group.
Tool Materials
TABLE 8.6 Typical range of properties of various tool materials.
Carbides
High-Speed
Steel
83-86 HRA
Property
Hardness
Compressive strength
MPa
4100-4500
3
psi 10
600-650
Transverse rupture
strength
MPa
2400-4800
3
psi 10
350-700
Impact strength
J
1.35-8
in.-lb
12-70
Modulus of elasticity
GPa
200
6
psi 10
30
Density
kg/m3
8600
3
lb/in
0.31
Volume of hard
phase (%)
7-15
Melting or decomposition temperature
C
1300
F
2370
Thermal conductivity,
W/mK
30-50
Coefficient of thermal
expansion, 106 / C
12
The values for polycrystalline diamond
Cast
Alloys
82-84 HRA
WC
90-95 HRA
TiC
91-93 HRA
Ceramics
91-95 HRA
Cubic
Boron
Nitride
4000-5000 HK
1500-2300
220-335
4100-5850
600-850
3100-3850
450-560
2750-4500
400-650
6900
1000
6900
1000
1380-2050
200-300
1050-2600
150-375
1380-1900
200-275
345-950
50-135
700
105-200
1350
0.34-1.25
3-11
0.34-1.35
3-12
0.79-1.24
7-11
< 0.1
<1
< 0.5
<5
< 0.2
<2
520-690
75-100
310-450
45-65
310-410
45-60
850
125
820-1050
120-150
8000-8700
0.29-0.31
10,000-15,000
0.36-0.54
5500-5800
0.2-0.22
4000-4500
0.14-0.16
3500
0.13
3500
0.13
10-20
70-90
100
95
95
1400
2550
1400
2550
2000
3600
1300
2400
700
1300
42-125
17
29
13
500-2000
4.8
1.5-4.8
4-6.5
7.5-9
6-8.5
are generally lower, except impact strength, which is higher.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Single
Crystal
Diamond
7000-8000 HK
600
HRA 92.4 1750
500
Co
mp
res
sive
Ha
stre
r dn
ngth
es s
400
300
nsv
a
r
T
200
e rs
100
0
t ur e
e - ru p
s t r e n gt h
88.5 1250
85.7 1000
750
r
Wea
0
90.5 1500
10
15
20
25
Cobalt content (% by weight)
Vickers hardness (HV)
Wear (mg), compressive and transverserupture strength (kg/mm2)
Properties of Tungsten-Carbide Tools
500
30
FIGURE 8.31 Effect of cobalt content in tungsten-carbide tools on mechanical properties. Note
that hardness is directly related to compressive strength (see Section 2.6.8) and hence, inversely
to wear [see Eq. (4.6)].

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Inserts
Toolholder
Clamp
screw
Shank
Insert
Lockpin
Seat
Clamp
Insert
Seat
or shim
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 8.32 Methods of mounting inserts on toolholders: (a) clamping, and (b) wing lockpins. (c)
Examples of inserts mounted using threadless lockpins, which are secured with side screws. Source:
Courtesy of Valenite.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Insert Strength
Increasing strength
100
90
80
60
55
35
Increased chipping and breaking
Positive
sharp
Positive
with hone
Negative
sharp
Negative
honed
Negative
with land
Negative
with land
and hone
FIGURE 8.33 Relative edge strength and tendency for

chipping and breaking of inserts with various shapes.
Strength refers to that of the cutting edge shown by the
included angles. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
Increasing edge strength
FIGURE 8.34 Edge preparations for inserts to improve edge

strength. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Historical Tool Improvement
Machining time (min)
100
26
15
6
Carbon steel
High-speed steel
Cast cobalt-based alloys
Cemented carbides
3
1.5
1
0.7
0.5
Improved carbide grades

First coated grades
First double-coated grades
First triple-coated grades
Functionally graded triple-coated
1900 !10 !20 !30 !40 !50 !60 !70 !80 !90 !00
Year
FIGURE 8.35 Relative time required to machine with various cutting-tool materials, with
indication of the year the tool materials were introduced. Note that, within one century,
machining time has been reduced by two orders of magnitude. Source: After Sandvik Coromant.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Coated Tools
TiN
Rake
face
TiC + TiN
Tool
TiN coated
Uncoated
Al2O3
TiN
Al2O3
TiN
Al2O3
TiC + TiN
Carbide substrate
Flank wear
FIGURE 8.36 Wear patterns on high-speed-steel

uncoated and titanium-nitride-coated cutting
tools. Note that flank wear is lower for the
coated tool.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 8.37
Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide
substrate. Three alternating layers of aluminum oxide are
separated by very thin layers of titanium nitride. Inserts with as
many as 13 layers of coatings have been made. Coating
thicknesses are typically in the range of 2 to 10 m. Source:
Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
Properties of Cutting Tool Materials

Hot hardness and wear resistance
Diamond, cubic boron nitride

Aluminum oxide (HIP)
Aluminum oxide + 30% titanium carbide
Silicon nitride
Cermets
Coated carbides
Carbides
HSS
Strength and toughness
FIGURE 8.38 Ranges of properties for various groups of cutting-tool

materials. (See also Tables 8.1 through 8.5.)
Tungsten-carbide
insert
Braze
Polycrystalline
cubic boron nitride
or diamond layer
Carbide substrate

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 8.39 Construction of polycrystalline cubicboron-nitride or diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide

insert.
Characteristics of Machining
Process
Turning
Boring
Drilling
Milling
Planing
Shaping
Broaching
Sawing
Characteristics
Turning and facing operations are performed on all types of
materials; requires skilled labor; low production rate, but
medium to high rates can be achieved with turret lathes and
automatic machines, requiring less skilled labor.
Internal surfaces or profiles, with characteristics similar to
those produced by turning; stiffness of boring bar is important to avoid chatter.
Round holes of various sizes and depths; requires boring and
reaming for improved accuracy; high production rate, labor
skill required depends on hole location and accuracy specified.
Variety of shapes involving contours, flat surfaces, and slots;
wide variety of tooling; versatile; low to medium production
rate; requires skilled labor.
Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on large surfaces;
suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill required depends on part shape.
Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on relatively small
workpieces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill
required depends on part shape.
External and internal flat surfaces, slots, and contours with
good surface finish; costly tooling; high production rate; labor
skill required depends on part shape.
Straight and contour cuts on flats or structural shapes; not
suitable for hard materials unless the saw has carbide teeth
or is coated with diamond; low production rate; requires only
low skilled labor.
TABLE 8.7 General characteristics of machining processes.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Commercial tolerances
(mm)
Fine: 0.05-0.13
Rough: 0.13
Skiving: 0.025-0.05
0.025
0.075
0.13-0.25
0.08-0.13
0.05-0.13
0.025-0.15
0.8
Lathe Operations
Depth
of cut
Tool
Feed, f
(a) Straight turning
(b) Taper turning
(c) Profiling
(d) Turning and

external grooving
(e) Facing
(f) Face grooving
(g) Cutting with

a form tool
(h) Boring and

internal grooving
(i) Drilling
Workpiece
(j) Cutting off
(k) Threading
(l) Knurling

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 8.40 Variety of machining operations

that can be performed on a lathe.
Tool Angles
Side rake
angle (RA)
Back rake
angle (BRA)
End cutting-edge
angle (ECEA)
FIGURE 8.41
Designations and
symbols for a right-hand cutting tool.
The designation right hand means
that the tool travels from right to left,
as shown in Fig. 8.19.
Rake face
Wedge
angle
Side relief
angle (SRA)
(a) End view
Shank
Flank face
End relief
angle (ERA)
Nose
radius
Nose
angle
Side cutting-edge
angle (SCEA)
(b) Side view
(c) Top view
Material
TA B L E
8.8
General
recommendations for tool angles
in turning.
Aluminum and
magnesium alloys
Copper alloys
Steels
Stainless steels
High-temperature
alloys
Refractory alloys
Titanium alloys
Cast irons
Thermoplastics
Thermosets
High-speed steel
Side End
Side Side and end
rake relief relief cutting edge
Back
rake
Side
rake
20
5
10
5
0
15
10
12
8-10
10
12
8
5
5
5
10
8
5
5
5
5
5
15
15
15
0
0
-5
-5-0
5
5
5
-5
-5-5
0
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
15
15
15
15
45
0
0
5
0
0
20
5
10
0
0
5
5
5
20-30
20-30
5
5
5
15-20
15-20
5
15
15
10
10
0
-5
-5
0
0
0
-5
-5
0
15
5
5
5
20-30
5
5
5
5
15-20
5
15
5
15
10
15
Back
rake

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Carbide inserts
End
Side Side and end
relief relief cutting edge
Turning Operations
N
d
Fc
Workpiece
Df
Chuck
Tool
Feed, f
(a)
Ft
Fr
Do
Feed, f
Tool
(b)
FIGURE 8.42 (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation, showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. Cutting speed
is the surface speed of the workpiece at the tool tip. (b) Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning. Fc is the
cutting force; Ft is the thrust or feed force (in the direction of feed); and Fr is the radial force that tends to push
the tool away from the workpiece being machined. Compare this figure with Fig. 8.11 for a two-dimensional
cutting operation.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cutting Speeds for Turning

0.10
mm/rev
0.20 0.30
3000
0.75
900
Cubic boron nitride,
diamond, and
600
ceramics
2000
Cermets
1000
300
Coated
carbides
500
m/min
0.50
150
Uncoated
carbides
100
300
200
0.004
0.008 0.012
Feed (in./rev)
0.020 0.030
50
FIGURE 8.43 The range of applicable cutting

speeds and feeds for a variety of cutting-tool
materials.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cutting Speed
Workpiece Material
m/min
ft/min
Aluminum alloys
200-1000
650-3300
Cast iron, gray
60-900
200-3000
Copper alloys
50-700
160-2300
20-400
65-1300
Steels
50-500
160-1600
Stainless steels
50-300
160-1000
Thermoplastics and thermosets
90-240
300-800
Titanium alloys
10-100
30-330
Tungsten alloys
60-150
200-500
Note: (a) The speeds given in this table are for carbides and ceramic cutting tools. Speeds for high-speed-steel tools are lower
than indicated. The higher ranges are for coated carbides and cermets. Speeds for diamond tools are significantly higher than any
of the values indicated in the table.
(b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 0.5-12 mm (0.020.5 in.).
(c) Feeds, f , are generally in the range of 0.15-1 mm/rev (0.0060.040 in./rev).
TABLE 8.9 Approximate Ranges of Recommended

Cutting Speeds for Turning Operations
Lathe
Tool post
Compound
rest
Spindle (with chuck)

Headstock assembly
Spindle speed
selector
Cross slide
Clutch
Feed selector
Apron
Carriage
Dead center
Tailstock quill
Ways
Tailstock
assembly
Handwheel
Longitudinal &
transverse feed
control
Bed
Lead screw
Split nut
Feed rod
Chip pan
Clutch
FIGURE 8.44 General view of a typical lathe, showing various major components. Source: Courtesy of
Heidenreich & Harbeck.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
CNC Lathe
CNC unit
Chuck
Round turret for

OD operations
Drill
Multitooth
cutter
Tool for
turning
or boring
Reamer
Individual
motors
Drill
End turret for ID operations
Tailstock
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.45 (a) A computer-numerical-control lathe, with two turrets; these machines have higher power and
spindle speed than other lathes in order to take advantage of advanced cutting tools with enhanced properties;
(b) a typical turret equipped with ten cutting tools, some of which are powered.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Typical CNC Parts
67.4 mm
(2.654")
87.9 mm
(3.462")
98.4 mm
(3.876")
235.6 mm
(9.275")
50.8 mm
(2")
23.8 mm
(0.938")
53.2 mm
(2.094")
85.7 mm (3.375")
32 threads per in.
78.5 mm
(3.092")
Material: Titanium alloy
Number of tools: 7
Total machining time
(two operations):
5.25 minutes
Material: 52100 alloy steel

Number of tools: 4
(two operations):
6.32 minutes
Material: 1020 Carbon Steel

Number of tools: 8
(two operations):
5.41 minutes
(a) Housing base
(b) Inner bearing race
(c) Tube reducer
FIGURE 8.46 Typical parts made on computer-numerical-control machine tools.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Typical Production Rates

Operation
Rate
Turning
Engine lathe
Very low to low
Tracer lathe
Low to medium
Turret lathe
Low to medium
Computer-control lathe
Low to medium
Single-spindle chuckers
Medium to high
Multiple-spindle chuckers
High to very high
Boring
Very low
Drilling
Low to medium
Milling
Low to medium
Planing
Very low
Gear cutting
Low to medium
Broaching
Medium to high
Sawing
Very low to low
Note: Production rates indicated are relative: Very low is about
one or more parts per hour; medium is approximately 100 parts
per hour; very high is 1000 or more parts per hour.
TABLE 8.10 Typical production rates for various cutting operations.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Boring Mill
Cross-rail
Tool head
Workpiece
Work table
Bed
Column
FIGURE 8.47 Schematic illustration of the components of a vertical boring mill.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Drills
Chisel-edge
angle
Neck
Straight
shank
Shank length
Web
Chisel edge
Flute length
Body
Margin
Lip
nd
a
L
Overall length
(b) Crankshaft-point drill

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Core drilling
(a) Chisel-point drill
Drilling
Shank
diameter
Lip-relief
angle
Gun drilling
Flutes Helix angle
Clearance
diameter
Center drilling
Body diameter
clearance
Reaming
Tang drive
Countersinking
Drill
diameter
Counterboring
FIGURE 8.48 Two common types of

drills: (a) Chisel-point drill. The function
of the pair of margins is to provide a
bearing surface for the drill against
walls of the hole as it penetrates into
the workpiece. Drills with four margins
(double-margin) are available for
improved drill guidance and accuracy.
Drills with chip-breaker features are
also available. (b) Crankshaft drills.
These drills have good centering ability,
and because chips tend to break up
easily, they are suitable for producing
deep holes.
Point angle
Taper shank
Step drilling
Tang
High-pressure
coolant
FIGURE 8.49 Various types of drills and drilling operations.
Speeds and Feeds in Drilling

Surface
Speed
Feed, mm/rev (in./rev)

Spindle speed (rpm)
Drill Diameter
Drill Diameter
Workpiece
1.5 mm
12.5 mm
1.5 mm
12.5 mm
Material
m/min ft/min
(0.060 in.)
(0.5 in.)
(0.060 in.)
(0.5 in.)
Aluminum alloys
30-120 100-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 6400-25,000 800-3000
Magnesium alloys 45-120 150-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 9600-25,000 1100-3000
Copper alloys
15-60
50-200
0.025 (0.001) 0.25 (0.010) 3200-12,000 400-1500
Steels
20-30
60-100
0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012)
4300-6400
500-800
Stainless steels
10-20
40-60
0.025 (0.001) 0.18 (0.007)
2100-4300
250-500
Titanium alloys
6-20
20-60
0.010 (0.0004) 0.15 (0.006)
1300-4300
150-500
Cast irons
20-60
60-200
0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-12,000 500-1500
Thermoplastics
30-60
100-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.13 (0.005) 6400-12,000 800-1500
Thermosets
20-60
60-200
0.025 (0.001) 0.10 (0.004) 4300-12,000 500-1500
Note: As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. Selection of speeds and
feeds also depends on the specific surface finish required.
TABLE 8.11 General recommendations for speeds and feeds in drilling.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Reamers and Taps

Chamfer angle
Radial rake
Chamfer length
Margin
width
Chamfer relief
FIGURE 8.50 Terminology for a helical reamer.
Land width
Helix angle, Primary
relief angle
Chamfer
relief
Chamfer
angle
Tap
Land
FIGURE 8.51 (a) Terminology for a tap;

(b) illustration of tapping of steel nuts in
high production.
Nut
Rake angle
Heel
Flute
Cutting edge
Hook angle
(a)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(b)
Typical Machined Parts
(a)
(b)
(c)
Stepped
cavity
(d)
(e)
Drilled and
tapped holes
(f)
FIGURE 8.52 Typical parts and shapes produced by the machining processes
described in Section 8.10.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Conventional and Climb Milling

D
Cutter
tc
N
Workpiece
(a)
lc
Workpiece
Conventional
Climb
milling
milling
(b)
Cutter
(c)
FIGURE 8.53 (a) Illustration showing the difference between conventional milling and climb
milling. (b) Slab-milling operation, showing depth of cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth of
cut, tc and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach
full depth of cut.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Face Milling
lc
Insert
Workpiece
Workpiece
v
D
l
d
Cutter
Cutter
Machined surface
FIGURE 8.54 Face-milling operation

showing (a) action of an insert in face
milling; (b) climb milling; (c) conventional
milling; (d) dimensions in face milling.
lc
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Peripheral relief
(radial relief)
End cutting-edge angle
Axial rake, 1
FIGURE 8.55 Terminology for a facemilling cutter.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
End relief
(axial relief)
Corner
angle
Radial
rake, 2
Cutting Mechanics
Lead
angle
Insert
FIGURE 8.56 The effect of lead angle on the

undeformed chip thickness in face milling. Note that as
the lead angle increases, the undeformed chip
thickness (and hence the thickness of the chip)
decreases, but the length of contact (and hence the
width of the chip) increases. Note that the insert must
be sufficiently large to accommodate the increase in
contact length.
Undeformed chip thickness

Depth of cut, d
f
Feed per tooth, f
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 8.57
(a) Relative
position of the cutter and the
insert as it first engages the
workpiece in face milling, (b)
insert positions at entry and exit
near the end of cut, and (c)
examples of exit angles of the
insert, showing desirable (positive
or negative angle) and undesirable
(zero angle) positions. In all
figures, the cutter spindle is
perpendicular to the page.
Workpiece
Exit
Re-entry
Entry
Exit
Cutter
Milled
surface
Undesirable
Desirable
Cutter
(a)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(b)
(c)
Milling Operations
Arbor
(a) Straddle milling
(b) Form milling
(c) Slotting
(d) Slitting
FIGURE 8.58
Cutters for (a) straddle
milling; (b) form milling; (c) slotting; and (d)
slitting operations.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cutting Speed
Workpiece Material
m/min
ft/min
Aluminum alloys
300-3000
1000-10,000
Cast iron, gray
90-1300
300-4200
Copper alloys
90-1000
300-3300
30-550
100-1800
Steels
60-450
200-1500
Stainless steels
90-500
300-1600
Thermoplastics and thermosets
90-1400
300-4500
Titanium alloys
40-150
130-500
Note: (a) These speeds are for carbides, ceramic, cermets, and diamond cutting
tools. Speeds for high-speed-steel tools are lower than those indicated in this table.
(b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 1-8 mm (0.04-0.3 in.).
(c) Feeds per tooth, f , are generally in the range of 0.08-0.46 mm/rev (0.003-0.018
in./rev).
TABLE 8.12 Approximate range of recommended cutting

speeds for milling operations.
Milling Machines
Head
Work
table
Overarm
Column
Arbor
Work table
Column
Workpiece
Saddle
T-slots
Workpiece
Saddle
T-slots
Knee
Knee
Base
Base
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.59 (a) Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee-type milling

machine. (b) Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle column-and-knee-type milling machine.
Source: After G. Boothroyd.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Broaching
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 8.60 (a) Typical parts finished by internal broaching. (b) Parts finished by surface
broaching. The heavy lines indicate broached surfaces; (c) a vertical broaching machine. Source:
(a) and (b) Courtesy of General Broach and Engineering Company, (c) Courtesy of Ty Miles, Inc.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Broaches
Rake or
hook angle
Chip gullet
Land
Pitch
Backoff or
clearance angle
Tooth
depth
Cut per
tooth
Workpiece
(a)
FIGURE 8.61 (a) Cutting action of a

broach, showing various features. (b)
Terminology for a broach.
Root radius
(b)
Semifinishing teeth
Pull end
Front
pilot
Roughening
teeth
Finishing
teeth
Rear pilot
Follower
diameter
FIGURE 8.62 Terminology for a pull-type

internal broach, typically used for enlarging
long holes.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Root diameter
Shank length
Cutting teeth
Overall length
Saws and Saw Teeth

Tooth set
Back edge
Tooth
spacing
Straight tooth
Width
Tooth face
Tooth back
(flank)
Tooth back
clearance angle
Gullet
depth
Tooth rake
angle (positive)
Raker tooth
FIGURE 8.63 (a) Terminology for

saw teeth. (b) Types of saw teeth,
staggered to provide clearance for
the saw blade to prevent binding
during sawing.
Wave tooth
(a)
(b)
M2 HSS 64-66 HRC

Carbide
insert
Electron-beam weld
FIGURE 8.64
(a) High-speed-steel teeth
welded on a steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts
brazed to blade teeth.
Flexible alloy-steel
backing
(a)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(b)
Gear cutter Base circle
Pitch circle
Cutter spindle
Spacer
Gear blank
Pinion-shaped
cutter
Base circle
Pitch circle
Gear blank
(a)
Gear
Manufacture
Gear
teeth
(b)
Top view
Gear blank
Hob
Rack-shaped cutter
Hob
Gear blank
Gear
blank
(c)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(d)
FIGURE 8.65 (a) Schematic illustration

of gear generating with a pinion-shaped
gear cutter. (b) Schematic illustration of
gear generating in a gear shaper, using a
pinion-shaped cutter; note that the
cutter reciprocates vertically. (c) Gear
generating with a rack-shaped cutter. (d)
Three views of gear cutting with a hob.
Source: After E.P. DeGarmo.
Machining Centers
Tool storage
Tool-interchange arm
Traveling column
Tools (cutters)
Spindle
Spindle carrier
Computer
numerical-control panel
Index table
FIGURE 8.66 A horizontal-spindle machining center,

equipped with an automatic tool changer. Tool magazines
in such machines can store as many as 200 cutting tools,
each with its own holder. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati
Machine.
Pallets
Bed
1st Turret head

2nd Turret head
1st Spindle head
FIGURE 8.67
Schematic illustration of a
computer numerical-controlled turning center.
Note that the machine has two spindle heads
and three turret heads, making the machine
tool very flexible in its capabilities. Source:
Courtesy of Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
2nd Spindle head

3rd Turret head
Reconfigurable Machines
Magazine unit
Rotational
motion
Arm unit
Functional unit
Rotational motion
Linear motion
Linear motion
Bed unit
Base unit
Arm unit
FIGURE 8.68 Schematic illustration of a reconfigurable modular machining center, capable of

accommodating workpieces of different shapes and sizes, and requiring different machining
operations on their various surfaces. Source: After Y. Koren.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Reconfigurable Machining Center
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 8.69
Schematic illustration of assembly of different components of a
reconfigurable machining center. Source: After Y. Koren.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Machining of Bearing Races

Tube
Form tool
1. Finish turning of
outside diameter
2. Boring and grooving

on outside diameter
3. Internal grooving
with a radius-form tool
Form
tool
4. Finish boring of internal

groove and rough boring
of internal diameter
5. Internal grooving
with form tool
and chamfering
Bearing
race
6. Cutting off finished
part; inclined bar
picks up bearing race
FIGURE 8.70 Sequences involved in machining outer bearing races on a turning center.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Hexapod
Hexapod
legs
Spindle
Cutting tool
Workpiece
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.71 (a) A hexapod machine tool, showing its major components. (b) Closeup view of the cutting
tool and its head in a hexapod machining center. Source: National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cast iron
0
1000
Bed
only
Bed +
carriage
Bed +
headstock
2000
10-5 s
(a)
3000
4000
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
20.4
20.8
21.2
21.6
22.0
Epoxy/graphite
0
1000
2000
10-5 s
3000
4000
(b)
FIGURE 8.73 Relative damping capacity of (a) gray cast iron and (b) epoxy-granite
composite material. The vertical scale is the amplitude of vibration and the
horizontal scale is time.
Increasing damping
FIGURE 8.72 Chatter marks (right

of center of photograph) on the
surface of a turned part. Source:
Courtesy of General Electric
Company.
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
-1.6
-2.0
10-1 V
10-1 V
Chatter & Vibration
Bed +
carriage +
headstock

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Complete
machine
FIGURE 8.74
Damping of vibrations as a
function of the number of components on a
lathe. Joints dissipate energy; thus, the greater the
number of joints, the higher the damping. Source:
After J. Peters.
Cost per piece
Total cost
Machining Economics
Machining cost
Tool-change cost
Nonproductive cost
Tool cost
Cutting speed
(a)
High-efficiency machining range
Time per piece
Total time
Machining time
Tool-changing time
Nonproductive time
Cutting speed
(b)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 8.75 Qualitative plots showing (a) cost per piece,

and (b) time per piece in machining. Note that there is an
optimum cutting speed for both cost and time, respectively.
The range between the two optimum speeds is known as the
high-efficiency machining range.
Case Study: Ping Golf Putters
FIGURE 8.76 (a) The Ping Anser golf putter; (b) CAD model of rough machining of the putter outer surface; (c) rough machining
on a vertical machining center; (d) machining of the lettering in a vertical machining center; the operation was paused to take the
photo, as normally the cutting zone is flooded with a coolant; Source: Courtesy of Ping Golf, Inc.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

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Common Machining Processes

(c) Slab milling

(d) End milling

FIGURE 8.1 Some examples of common machining processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Secondary shear zones

FIGURE 8.5 Shiny (burnished) surface

Hardness in Cutting Zone

FIGURE 8.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip

FIGURE 8.8 Various chips produced in

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Right-Hand Cutting Tool

Side-cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 8.11 (a) Forces acting on a

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 8.2 Data on orthogonal cutting of 9445 steel.

FIGURE 8.12 Thrust force as a function of rake

Shear Force & Normal Force

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Shear Stress on Tool Face

Stresses on tool face

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Shear angle, # (deg.)

Merchant [Eq. (8.20)]

Shaffer [Eq. (8.21)]

Mizuno [Eqs. (8.22)-(8.23]

TABLE 8.3 Approximate Specific-Energy Requirements in

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Work material: AISI 52100

Feed: 0.0055 in./rev

.008 .016 .024 .032 .040 .048 .056

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

FIGURE 8.2 Temperature distribution in turning as a function of cutting speed:

FIGURE 8.18 Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred to the

FIGURE 8.1 Typical temperature

Flank surface temperature (F)

Local temperature at tool-chip interface (F)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Taylor tool life equation:

TABLE 8.4 Range of n values for various cutting tools.

FIGURE 8.20 Examples of wear in cutting tools. (a) Flank

Effect of Workpiece on Tool Life

Tool life (min)

Tool life (min)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Tool life (min)

Tool life (min)

1500 1800 2100 2400

Work material: Heat-resistant alloy

Crater wear rate

TABLE 8.5 Allowable average wear lands for

Allowable Wear Land (mm)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 8.23 Interface of chip (left) and rake

Mean flank wear

Mean RMS (mV)

Maximum crater depth

Acoustic Emission and Wear