.

.
.

, 2008.

1. .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. ..............................................................................

1.2. .................................................................................. 4
1.3. .....................................................................................

1.4. ......................................... 8
2. A (SI)...................................................... 9
2.1. ...............................................................................

2.1.1. ...................................

10

2.1.2. .................................................................................. 11
2.1.3. .............................................................. 12
2.1.4. .................................................. 13
2.2. ........................................................................................ 14
2.2.1. SI ............................................... 15
2.2.2. SI ..................................................................... 17
2.2.3. SI ....................................................................

18

2.2.4. SI ................................................

18

2.2.5. SI ............................................................... 19
2.2.6. ..... 21
3. ....................................................................................

23

3.1. ...............................................................................

23

3.1.1.
............................................................................. 26
3.2. ......................

28

3.3. ..............................................................................

30

3.3.1. ................................................................................. 31
3.3.2. .......................................................................... 32

3.3.3. ................................................................

33

3.3.3.1. ............................................................................ 33
3.3.3.2. ..................................................................................

34

3.3.3.3. ()...............................

34

3.3.3.4. ....................................................................

34

3.4.
....................................................... 35
3.4.1. ..............................................................................

36

3.4.1.1.
.................................................

38

3.4.2. ...................................................................................

45

3.4.1.1.
.......................................................

45

3.5. ..................................................................................

53

3.5.1. .............................................................................................

53

3.5.1.1. .................................................................................

54

3.5.1.2. Q .........................................................

55

3.5.2. .......................................................................................... 56
4.

........................................................................ 59
4.1. .....................................................................

59

4.1.1. .............................................................................. 60
4.1.2. .........................................................................

61

4.1.3. ....................................................................

63

4.1.4. ............................................................. 64
4.1.5.
...................................................................................... 65
4.2. ................................................................ 66
4.2.1. .................................... 66
4.2.2. ITS 27........................................ 67
4.2.3. ITS 48........................................ 67
4.2.4. ITS 68................... 68
4.2.5. ITS 90........................................ 68
4.3. .................................................................................................. 70

ii

4.3.1. .......................................................... 71
4.3.1. ............................................................. 73
4.4. ............................................................................................. 74
4.4.1. ..........................................................................................

75

4.4.2. ()...................................................

76

4.4.3. ..........................................................

78

4.5. ............................................................................................ 81
4.5.1. .....................................................................................

82

4.5.1.1.
...............................................................

82

4.5.1.2.
...........................................................

84

4.5.1.3. ........................................

88

4.5.2. ..............................

89

4.5.2.1. ...............

89

4.5.2.2. .......................... 91
5. ..................................................................................

94

5.1. ..........................................................................

97

5.2. ..............................................................................................

104

5.3. ..........................................................................................

106

.....................................

108

6.

6.1. ................................................................... 110

7.

6.1.1. ..........................................................................................

110

6.1.2. ..........................................................................................

111

6.1.3. .................................................................................................

111

6.1.4. .................................................................................................

112

6.2. ....................................................................

112

6.3. .........................................................................

117

6.3.1. ...........

120

............................................... 122
7.1. ........................................................................

122

7.1.1. ..................................................... 122

7.1.2. ............................. 126

iii

7.2.

129

7.2.1. ..................................................................... 129

7.2.2. ................................
7.3.

131
133

7.3.1. .................. 133

8.

7.4. .......................................................................................

135

7.4.1. ......................................

135

..........................................................................................

137

8.1. , ...................................................... 138

8.1.1. .......................................................... 138
8.1.2. .............................................................. 140
8.1.3. ................................................. 140

9.

8.2. ..........................................................................................................

141

8.2.1. .........................................................................................................

141

8.2.2. .....................................................................................

142

8.2.2.1. ................................................................................................

143

8.2.2.2. ...........................................................................

144

....................................................

147

9.1. ................................................... 148

10.

9.2. .......................................................................

149

9.2.1. ...............

149

.........................................................................................................

152

iv



,

.
. (1564 1642)

1.

( , , + , , )
,
, .

.
.
,
.
:
1. ( )
2. (, )
3. ()

,
.
,
,
.

,
.
, 12 1955.

(Convention instituant une Organisation International de Mtrologie
Lgale OIML) ,
,

, ,

OIML .

OIML ,
(Comit International de Mtrologie Lgale CIML)
OIML , (Bureau
International de Mtrologie Lgale BIML) OIML
.

1.1.

.
.
, ,
,
.
: , ,
.
( ).
.
, .
110.35 cm 41.5 kg.
51.72 cm. .
1.0048 kg
. 4.8 dm3.
.
60. 24 60 .
,
(, , .),
.
2

,
,
52 cm
45 cm. , .
.
91 g .
, 365
.
.
,
. ,
. 30.83 cm,
600 . , , .
, 10000
, 950 m2.
.
( ).
7 kg, 26.196 kg,
150 kg.
1 : 60 : 6000 : 36000. ,
.
,
. ,
.
29.6 cm, 600
. , , ,
(1.85 cm) (28.725 km), .
(26.26 dm3), .
,
.
240 120 .
12 11/12 1/12
27.29 g.

. ,
, .
, ,
.

1.2.

18.
.
1791.
. ,
: , , ,


. ,
,
(+ 4 ).
, .
1791. 1798.
,
1799. .
4. 1837. 1.
1840.
19.
, 1816. (
, ), 1849. , 1860.
.
( ) 20. 1875.
(Bureau International des Poids et Mesures - BIPM),
,
(Comit International des
4

Poids et Mesures CIPM),

(Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Mesures CGPM).
( 30 42
) .

,
,
(, , , ).
.
,
,
.

1927.
.
.
1948.

.
1954.
: , , , , .

1960. (Le
systeme International d'unites SI). , 1971.
.
1879. .
1889. , .

30. 1888. 1889.
, + 2.26 m 1920. 1922.
, + 0.23 m.
29.
.

,

, ,
. ,
,
.

1.3.

, 1.1.

1.1.
:

;
;
;

.
,
.
:

;
;
.


. :
;
;

, ;

;
;
.


. :
(CCEM)
(CCPR)
(CCT)
(CCL)
(CCTF)
(CCRI)
(CCU)
(CCM)
(CCQM)

1.4.

,
.
, ,
.
19.
,
. 1887.
(Physikalisch Technische Bundesanstalt, PTB)
, .
(National
Physical Laboratory, NPL) 1900. .
(National Institute of Standards and
Technology, NIST) 1901. .

(Vsesojunzij Nauno
Isljedovateljsij Institut imeni Mendeljejeva, VNIIM) ,
(National Standards Laboratory, NSL) ,
(National Research Council, NRC) ,
(National Research Laboratory of Metrology) ,
, , .

2. (SI)

2.1.

, (),
.
(
, , ). ,

.

( : , , , .).
,
[].
,
, .
( , k =

min
= 60 ).
s

{}.
1.
e:
= {}[].

(2.1)

[] [] = k[], k
, a, :
= {}[] ={}[]

(2.2)

:
{A} =

1
{A}.
k

(2.3)

:
t = 240 s =

240
min = 4 min
60

{t}s = 240, {t}min = 4

,
, .
,
( ) :
a) {t}s, {t}min (
, ).
b)

t
t
, t / s,
, t / min (
s
min
).

(
1).
( ),
, .
:
a) (
) , , , , .
b) (
1)
Re =

vd

, : v

, d (
), .

2.1.1.

:
A1 A2 = {A1}[A1] {A2}[A2] = {A3}[A3],

(2.4)

10

:
[A1] = [A2] = [A3],
{A3} = {A1} {A2}.
(2.4)
() .

.
:

AB ={A}[A]{B}[B]={C}[C],

(2.5)

:
{C}={A}{B},
[C]=[A][B].
:

A {A} [A]
=
= {D}[D] ,
B {B} [B]

(2.6)

:
{D} =

{A}
,
{B}

[ D] =

[A]
.
[B]

,
"" .
, ,
.

2.1.2.

( )
.

( ).
:
11

l
v= .
t

(2.7)

.
:
m
l 8m
=4 .
v= =
t 2s
s

(2.8)

( ).
:

Ek =

1 2
mv .
2

(2.9)

C=fAaBb

(2.10)

f .

2.1.3.

. (2.10) :
{C}[C] = f{A}a{B}b[A]a[B]b.

(2.11)

:
[C]=[A]a[B]b.

(2.12)

:
{C}=f{A}a{B}b.

(2.13)

.

12

. ,
: m = 5 kg v = 4 m/s, :

Ek = {Ek}[Ek] = 40 kgm2/s2;

(2.14)

:
[Ek] = kg m2/s2;

(2.15)

:
{E k } kgm 2 =
s2

Ek
= 40 .
[Ek ]

(2.16)

.
,

( ).

,
( ).
, ,
.

2.1.4.

,
,
( ).
.
() :
1. ()
2.
3.
N ,
N ( N
N ).

13

() ( N) (
) , ()
.
()
, .

,
.
,
.
( ) (
).
, .
:
Q = fA B C
:

(2.17)

dim Q = A B C
(2.18)
,

. ,
(L), () ().
(2.9) LTM :
dim E k = L2 T 2 M

(2.19)

.
.

2.2.

SI :
1.
2.
3.

14

,
, .
. SI
. O SI ,
2.1.
SI

kg

()

mol

( )

cd

2.1. SI
SI
.
SI
. SI .

2.2.1. SI

O SI :
1.

.
1/299792458 .

15

2.

. .
3.

. 9 192 631 770

133.
4.

.

1 ,
2107
.
5.

.
1/273.16
.
6.

.
0.012 kg 12.
7.

. ,
5401012 ,
1/683 .

16

2.2.2. SI

SI
SI (
, ). ,
( )
, , .
SI

,
, ,

,

,

(),

SI

SI
s-1

Hz

N
Pa
J

N/m
Nm

m kg s-2
m-1 kg s-2
m2 kg s-2

J/s

m2 kg s-3

W/A

m2 kg s-3 A-1

S
T
Wb
H
o
C

C/V
V/A
A/V
Wb/m2
Vs
Wb/A

m-2 kg-1 s4 A2
m2 kg s-3 A-2
m-2 kg-1 s3 A2
kg s-2 A-1
m2 kg s-2 A-1
m2 kg s-2 A-2
K

lm
lx
Bq
Gy

cd sr
lm/m2
J/kg

cd
m-2 cd
s-1
m2 s-2

Sv

J/kg

m2 s-2

( )

( )

sA

2.2. SI
SI
SI ( ).
17

(
). ,
, SI
2.2.

2.2.3. SI

2.3 SI
. ,
.

SI

rad

mm-1 = 1

sr

m2m-2 = 1

2.3. SI
.
.
.
,
.

2.2.4. SI

, SI . ,
SI
.
18

1024

10-1

1021

10-2

1018

10-3

1015

10-6

1012

10-9

109

10-12

106

10-15

103

10-18

102

10-21

da

101

10-24

2.4. SI

SI . SI ,
.
, .
SI
. 2.4 SI .

SI (g),
SI (g, mg).
SI , , ,
. : (
), km, m,
mm, kW, W .

2.2.5. SI

SI
.
19

,
SI . SI
, .
SI (, , , ).
SI

SI

1 852 m

11

1.495 978 710 m
15

9.460 73010 m
15
pc

30.856 7810 m

a
100 m

ha
10 000 m2

l, L
10-3 m3

()

(/180) rad
()
'
( /10 800) rad
()
"
( /648 000) rad

gon
( /200) rad

t
103 kg

u

1.660 540 210-27 kg
()

tex
10-6 kg/m

min
60 s

h
3 600 s

d
86 400 s

1 852/3 600 m/s

bar
105Pa
mmHg 101 325 / 760 Pa

eV

1.602 177 3310-19

VA

var

2.5. SI
20

, , SI .
2.5 SI
.

2.2.6.

,
.
: ,
. .
,
. , ,
,
, .
(
)
.
.
,
, . .
.
, .
. SI .
SI .
.
(ab, ab,

a b).

, , (
), ,
(Nm, N m).
21

,
() (/),
, (

a
, a/b a b-1).
b

,
(

ab
a/b
= (a / b)/ c,
= ab / c = abc 1 ).
c
c

. :
50 g mAl = 50 g, a je m = 50 gAl.
, ,
:

Pravilno:
100 5 , (100 5)
2 kg, 3 kg i 4 kg
80 mm x 25 mm x 50 mm
20 kg do 30 kg

Pogreno:
100 5
2, 3 i 4 kg
80x25x50 mm
20 30 kg, 20 kg 30 kg

, , ,
. ( , ""),
. ,
, . .
. ,
.

22

3.

.
( )
, , ,
. ,
,
. , : , , , , ,
, .
.
1015 m (
) 1026 m ( )
.

.

3.1.

, ,
, .
M ,

.
, 1799.
. ,
(4 mm x 25 mm), 0 C
23

. K,
, , 1872. ,
,
.
10 % , ,
X, () ,
( 5 mm )
,
.
:

.
, 1927. ,
, , 0 C,
() -

. ,
1 cm, ,
571 mm .
,
, .
.
107.
( 8 m),
.

.
,
.
, ,
, ,
, .
1859.

24

. 1892. ,
,
(643.8 nm).
1960.
, :
1 650 763.73
2p10 5d5 86.
2p10 5d5
.
,

.
/ 2. 1 / 100 / 2
( 0.2 m 0.35 m)
109 m. 4109 m,
.
,
.
,
.
, 1962. 12
86r,

114

Cd

198

Hg

( ). 1973.
-
( )
( = 0.633 m) ()
( = 3.39 m)
,

.

. , 1975.
,

25

c = 299792458 m/s, a
. 1983.
, :
M
1/299 792 458 .
, ()
1013,
, .
( ).

3.1.1

1983. , o ,
:
1. = 3 392 231 397.0 fm ( f = 88 376 181 608 kHz), He-Ne
(CH4),
; 3, P(7), F2;
2. = 576 294 760.27 fm (f = 520 206 808.51 MHz),
He-Ne

127

I2,

, 17-1, P(62), ;
3. = 632 991 398,1 fm (f = 473 612 214.8 MHz), He-Ne

127

I2,

; 11-5, R(127), i;
4. = 611 970 769.8 fm (f = 489 880 355.1 MHz), He-Ne

127

I2,

; 9-2, R(47), ;
5. = 514 673 466.2 fm (f = 582 490 603.6 MHz), Ar+

127

I2,

; 43-0, P(13), 3 ( s).

26

3,
.

,
,
,
1992.
.
() :
1. = 3 392 231 397.327 fm (f = 88 376 181 600.18 kHz) =3 392 231 397.31 fm
(f = 88 376 181 600.5 kHz), He-Ne
CH4, ;
3, P(7), F2;
2. = 657 459 439.3 fm (f = 455 986 240.5 MHz),
; 40Ca, 3P1-1S0, mj = 0;
3. = 640 283 468.7 fm (f = 468 218 332.4 MHz), He-Ne

127

I2,

; 8-5, P(10), 9;
4. = 632 991 398.22 fm (f = 473 612 214 705 kHz), He-Ne

127

I2,

; 11-5, R(127), i;
5. = 611 970 770.0 fm (f = 489 880 354.9 MHz), He-Ne

127

I2,

; 9-2, R(47), ;
6. = 576 294 760.4 fm (f = 520 206 808.4 MHz),
( He-Ne )

127

I2,

; 17-1, P(62),
;
7. = 543 516 333.1 fm (f = 551 579 482.96 MHz),
( He-Ne )

127

I2,

; 26-0, R(12), a9;

27

8. = 514 673 466.4 fm (f = 582 490 603.37 MHz), Ar+

127

I2,

; 43-0, P(13), 3.

1997. . :
1. = 243 nm, 1S-2S
(1H);
2. = 532 nm, Nd : YAG
127

I2;

3. = 674 nm, 52S1/2 - 42D5/2,

88Sr+;
4. = 778 nm,
85Rb, 5S1/2 (F=3) - 5D5/2 (F=5);
5. =10.3 m, CO2 OsO4, -.

3.2.

, ,
, () .

. ()
:
1. .
2.
.
3. , 1000 mm 1 m 1 20 min,
.
4. (300 + 0.35x)106 mm, x mm.
5. (),
, ,
, .

28

3.1.
( )
( .).

. (
), .
, ,
1 1/3 1,
2/3 1, 45.
2, .
2,
2 3.
. 90
, .
(
). (
)
/ 4.

3.1.
29

,
, , , ,
( 3.2).
.
,
5108,
, .
(20 0.1) , (50 2) %.
x :

x = n N

+ ,

(3.1)

: n , , N
/4 , .

3.2.

3.3.

1 m.
:

30

1. (
, );
2. ( )
.

3.3.1.

(
, ,..) (, , ,...).
.
(, ,...)
(,
, ). ()
0.2 m. ( )
2000 . ,
,
d dmin.

d min =

0.61
,
n sin

(3.2)

,
nsin
1.4, :
d min 0.4

(3.3)

= 600 nm dmin 0.2 m.

( ) (25 cm)
0.1 mm 0.2 mm ( 0.4 mm),
2000 (20000.2 m = 0.4 mm).
.

,
.

31

3.3.2.

( )
.
. :

h
mv

(3.4)

.
,
U:
eU =

1
1 h2
,
me v 2 =
2
2 2 me

(3.5)

h
2me eU

1.50
nm.
U

(3.6)

3.1 U:
U [V]

[nm]

1000

3.9

10000

1.2

50000

0.53

100000

0.37

1000000

0.085

3.1

. ,
, .
.

32

(1 m) (100 000)
.

(1000 /mm),

.

3.3.3.

,
, , .
:
1. ;
2. ,
( );
3. .

3.3.3.1.

.
,
(). .
0.1 N

. 1 nm
.

33

3.3.3.2.

,
:
h=

m
,
S

(3.7)

m ;
S ;

( ).
1%
m, S .

3.3.3.3. ()

,
:
R=

a
,
bh

(3.8)

:
h=

a
,
Rb

(3.9)

: ; b ; R
.

3.3.3.4.

, X .
34

.

)

:
I = I o e m M ,

(3.10)

m ;
cm2.

I I, m, , .
) X

, ,
(1 m 100 m), 1 %
. X
.

3.4.

. ( 3.3),
,
, ,
, ,
.
, ,

35

.
, ,
.

3.3.
,
, ,
, , .
.
( ),
,
( ), , .

3.4.1.

,
,

36

106 V/cm
107 V/cm (, i, Zr, Zn, Y, W), .
(

)
106 V/cm 107 V/cm.
,
,
.
,
( ),
( , ).
3.5.

3.5.

M 1.
.
2 .

.

37

3.4.1.1.

. 3.6 ()
().

3.6.
x
1 b1 .
, ,
,
.
.
1, , :
E a1 = ( 1 r )Eo exp( it ) ,

4n 2 d
4n2 d
E a2 = (1 r )(rR ) E o exp i t +
,
= rRE a1 exp i

38

8n2 d
4n2 d
2
E a3 = ( 1 r )( rR ) 2 Eo exp i t + 2( )
,
= ( rR ) Ea1 exp 2i

.
.

4n 2 d
4n2 d
E a(p+1) = ( 1 r )( rR ) p Eo exp i t + p( )
p = ( rR ) p Ea1 exp pi

;
r .
r=

n2 n1
,
n2 + n1

n2 (n2 1.65), n1
.
R :
R=

( n n2 )2 k 2
( n n2 )2 + k 2

0.92 0.95 ,

n k ,
(n* = n ik).
(), :

2n2 k
.
n2 + k 2 n2
2

= arctg

:
E a = lim

p +1

Eai = Ea1 n ,

p i =1

n =0

= rR exp i

4n2 d
.

< 1, :

n = 1 ,

n =0

39

:
Ea =

( 1 r )E o exp( i t )
.

4n2 d
1 r Re xp i

(3.11)

b1, , :

2n 2
E b1 = REa1 exp i
2 x ,

4n2 d
E b2 = E b1 ( rR ) exp i
,

4n2 d
E b3 = E b1 ( rR ) 2 exp 2i
,

.
.

4n2 d
E b(p+1) = E b1 ( rR ) p exp pi
.

E b = lim

p +1

E bi

p i =1

4n2 x
( 1 r )Eo R exp i t +

=
.

4n2 d
1 rR exp i

(3.12)

4n2 x
( 1 r )E o exp( it )1 + R exp i

.
E t = Ea + E b =

4n2 d
1 rR exp i

(3.13)

:
I ( x ) E t E *t ,

(3.14)

:
4n2 x

1 + R 2 2 R cos +

.
I ( x )
4n2 d

2
1 + ( rR ) + 2rR cos +

(3.15)

40

:
xa

4n2 x

2 R cos +
dx

,
4n2 d

2
1 + ( rR ) + 2rR cos +

I o, nc ( x )1 + R
0

(3.16)

:
x ;
nc(x) .

t
d (d t). 3.6. I (t),
(3.16) dm:

4n 2 d m

= ( 2m + 1 ) ; m = 0 ,1,2...

(3.17)

m (m + f) :
d m +f d m =

f
2n 2

(3.18)

d = a j t ,

(3.19)

: , , (3.18)
(3.19) :

a=

2n 2 j t m + f t m

2n2 jt

(3.20)

, (3.19)
, t.
)

( 3.7).
, :

41

n2 sin = n1 sin n1 .

(3.21)

3.7.
x
1 b1 .
,
,
.
.
(s) ,
, () .

s,

.
,
.
.
(s) , 1, :

E a1 = ( 1 rs )Eo exp( it ) ,

42

E a2 = ( 1 rs )(rs Rs )Eo exp[i ( t + s K s d )] = rs Rs E a1 exp[i ( s K s d )] ,

E a3 = ( 1 rs )( rs Rs ) 2 Eo exp[i ( t + 2( s ) 2 K s d )] = ( rs Rs ) 2 Ea1 exp[2i ( s K s d )]
.
.
.

E a(p+1) = ( 1 rs )( rs Rs ) p Eo exp[i ( t + p( s ) pK s d )] = ( rs Rs ) p Ea1 exp[ pi ( s K s d )]

:
p +1

i =1

n =0

Eai = E a1 n ,

E a = lim
je:

= rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )].
< 1, :

n = 1 ,

n =0

:
Ea =

( 1 rs )E o exp( i t )
.
1 rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )]

(3.22)

b1, , :
E b1 = Rs Ea1 exp[i ( s K s x )] ,
E b2 = E b1( rs Rs ) exp[i ( s K s d )] ,
E b3 = E b1( rs Rs ) 2 exp[2i ( s K s d )] ,
.
.
E b(p+1) = E b1( rs Rs ) p exp[ pi ( s K s d )] .
:
p +1

E bi
p

E b = lim

i =1

( 1 rs )Eo Rs exp[i (t + s K s x )]
.
1 rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )]

(3.23)

:
E t = Ea + E b =

( 1 rs )Eo exp( it ){1 + Rs exp[i ( K s x )]}

1 rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )]

(3.24)

43

I ( x ) E t E t* ,

(3.25)

:
I s ( x )

1 + Rs2 2 Rs cos( s + K s x )

1 + ( rs Rs ) 2 + 2rs Rs cos( s + K s d )

(3.26)

()
:
I p ( x )

1 + R 2p 2 R p cos p + K p x

1 + ( r p R p ) 2 + 2r p R p cos + p + K p d

(3.27)

:
Ks =

Kp =

n22s n12 ,
n22p n12 ,

.

(3.26) (3.27):

I o , nc ( x )[1 + Rs

xa

I ,s

2 Rs cos( + K s x ) dx

1 + ( rs Rs ) 2 + 2rs Rs cos( + K s d )

(3.28)

I o , nc ( x )[1 + R p 2 R p cos( + K p x )]dx

xa

I ,p

1 + ( r p R p ) 2 + 2r p R p cos( + + K p d )

(3.29)

s
:
Ksdm + s = (2m+1); m=0,1,2,...,

(3.30)

:
Kpdm + p + = (2m+1); m=0,1,2,...

(3.31)

:
a=

2 j n22s n12 t s

2 j n 22 p n12 t p

(3.32)

44

: ts = ts = t, : n2s = n2p = n2 Ks = Kp,

:
a=

2 j n22 n12 t

(3.33)

3.4.2.

, ,
,
, .

, ,
, .

3.4.2.1.

) M

d,
. 3.8.
,
x
. x
1 b2 .

,
,

45

. m
, .

3.8.
1, , :
E a1 = ( 1 r )Eo exp( it ) ,

4n 2 d
4n2 d
E a2 = (1 r )(rR ) E o exp i t +
= rRE a1 exp i
,

8n2 d
4n2 d
2
E a3 = ( 1 r )( rR ) 2 Eo exp i t + 2( )
= ( rR ) Ea1 exp 2i
,

.
.
.

4n 2 d
4n2 d
E a(p+1) = ( 1 r )( rR ) p Eo exp i t + p( )
p = ( rR ) p Ea1 exp pi

;
r ;
r=

n2 n1 n2 1
=
,
n2 + n1 n2 + 1

46

n2 , n1 = 1.
R ;
() .
:
E a = lim

p +1

Eai = Ea1 n ,

p i =1

n =0

je:

= rR exp i

4n2 d
.

< 1, :

n = 1 ,

n =0

:
Ea =

( 1 r )Eo exp( i t )
.

4n2 d
1 r Re xp i

(3.34)

b1, , :

4n2

E b1 = REa1 exp i
( d x ) ,

4n2 d
E b2 = E b1 ( rR ) exp i
,

4n2 d
E b3 = E b1 ( rR ) 2 exp 2i
,

.
.

4n2 d
E b(p+1) = E b1 ( rR ) p exp pi
.

E b = lim

p +1

E bi

p i =1

4n2 ( d x )
( 1 r )Eo R exp i t +

=
.

4n2 d
1 rR exp i

(3.35)

:
47

4n2 ( d x )
( 1 r )E o exp( it )1 + R exp i

.
E t = Ea + E b =

4n2 d
1 rR exp i

(3.36)

:
E R2 = E t E t* ,

(3.37)

:
4n2 ( d x )

1 + R 2 2 R cos +

.
2
2
E R Eo
4n2 d

1 + ( rR ) 2 + 2rR cos +

(3.38)

E R2
, x
. E o2 ()
, x I ex ( o , x )
x.
I ex ( o , x ) I o ( o )
, , :

4n2 ( d x )

1 + Ro2 2 Ro cos o +

,
I ex ( o , x ) I o ( o )

4n 2 d

1 + ( rRo ) 2 + 2rRo cos o +

(3.39)

,
r = r n2, = n2.
IR (),
d :

4n 2 ( d x )
1 + R 2 2 R cos + 4n 2 ( d x )
1 + Ro2 2 Ro cos o +
o

dx
I R ( ) I o ( o ) n( x )
n
d
4

4n 2 d
2
0
1 + ( rR ) 2 + 2rR cos +

1 + ( rRo ) 2 + 2rRo cos o +

n(x) x.
, :

48

4n 2 ( d x )

A( ) + B( ) sin +
+ ( )

,
I R ( ) I o ( o )
4
n
d

2
1 + ( rR ) 2 + 2 rR cos +

(3.40)

A(), B() () .
,
IR (), :
4n2 d

= ( m ) + 2 m ,

(3.41)

() m, m
. 3.9
.

3.9.
(3.41) m m +1 :
1
1
= 2 m ( m+1 ) ( m ) .

4n2 d
m m +1

(3.42)

( m+1 ) ( m ) << 2 ,

(3.43)

:
d=

1
,
2n2 C em

(3.44)

49

C em =

m+1

(3.45)

) M

( 3.10), :
n2 sin = n1 sin n1 .

(3.46)

3.10.
x
1 b1 .
,
,
, .

.
(s) , ,
() .
s, ,
.
50

,
.
.
(s) , 1
:
E a1 = ( 1 rs )Eo exp( it ) ,
E a2 = ( 1 rs )(rs Rs )E o exp[i ( t + s K s d )] = rs Rs E a1 exp[i ( s K s d )] ,
E a3 = ( 1 rs )( rs Rs ) 2 Eo exp[i ( t + 2( s ) 2 K s d )] = ( rs Rs ) 2 Ea1 exp[2i ( s K s d )]
.
.
E a(p+1) = ( 1 rs )( rs Rs ) p Eo exp[i ( t + p( s ) pK s d )] = ( rs Rs ) p Ea1 exp[ pi ( s K s d )]
:
p +1

i =1

n =0

Eai = Ea1 n ,

E a = lim
:

= rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )].
< 1, :

n =0

1
,
1

:
Ea =

( 1 rs )Eo exp( i t )
.
1 rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )]

(3.47)

b1, , :
E b1 = Rs Ea1 exp[i ( s K s x )] ,
E b2 = E b1 rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )] ,
E b3 = E b1( rs Rs ) 2 exp[2i ( s K s d )]
.
.
E b(p+1) = E b1 ( rs Rs ) p exp[ pi ( s K s d )] ,
:

51


p +1

E bi
p

E b = lim

i =1

( 1 rs )Eo Rs exp[i (t + s K s x )]
.
1 rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )]

(3.48)

:
E t = Ea + E b =

( 1 rs )Eo exp( it ){1 + Rs exp[i ( K s x )]}

.
1 rs Rs exp[i ( s K s d )]

(3.49)

E R2 = E t E t* ,

(3.50)

:
E R2 Eo2

1 + Rs2 2 Rs cos( s + K s x )

1 + ( rs Rs ) 2 + 2rs Rs cos( s + K s d )

(3.51)

E R2
, x
. E o2 ()
, x I ex ( o , x )
x.
I ex ( o , x ) I o ( o )
, , :

4n2 ( d x )

1 + Ro2 2 Ro cos o +
o

,
I ex ( o , x ) I o ( o )

4n 2 d

1 + ( rRo ) 2 + 2rRo cos o +

o

(3.52)

,
r = r n2, = n2.
IR () (s)
d :

4n2 ( d x )
2

R
R
cos
1
2
o
o
o

1 + Rs2 2 Rs cos( s + K s x )
o

dx
I Rs ( ) n( x )

4n2 d 1 + ( rs Rs ) 2 + 2rs Rs cos( s + K s d )

2
0

1 + ( rRo ) + 2rRo cos o +

IR () () :
52

4n2 ( d x )

1 + Ro2 2 Ro cos o +
o
1 + Rs2 2 Rs cos( s + K s x )

p
dx

I R ( ) n( x )

4n2 d 1 + ( rs Rs ) 2 + 2rs Rs cos( s + + K s d )

2
0

1 + ( rRo ) + 2rRo cos o +

o

n(x) x, o je:
d

Ks = K p =

n22 1 .

,
:
d=

1
,
2 n22 1 C em

(3.53)

:
C em =

1 1
1

f m m+ f

(3.54)

m m+f m m + f .

3.5.

( ).
a
,
.


.
3.5.1.

.
53

,
( ).
,
.
(
), (
)
.
:
) ( );
) ,
( );
) (
).

10 ,
Q .

3.5.1.1.

Cr3+ (Al2O3: Cr3+) 3.11.

( 0.05% ).
.
4F2 4F1
. (32 < 107s),

E 2A

E E ,

. 2 E 2A 2 E E 42
692.8 nm
694.3 nm, 694.3 nm
.

54

3.11. Cr3+

3.5.1.2. Q

(, )
1 ns 10 ns.
( )
.
Q ( 3.12) :
1. ,
2. ,
3. ,
4.
5. ""
(

(),

()
.
,
(
10 kV) 45, ,
45 ( 90),
55

.


.
.
,

.
10 ns 40 ns
( ).

3.12. Q

3.5.2.

, .
() .
1109 s ()

56

0.510-10 s, 0.15 m, , ,
.

v :
v = nc

(3.55)

: n , .
n
, , , (
<n> ).
300/106,
106 1/300, 1 C
.
<n>
( ,
). :
:
nG L = L + S

(3.56)

:
nG ,
L ,
S .
:
L

S = ( nG 1 )dx = nG dx L = L nG L
0

(3.57)

:
L

S = S R S i = ( nG ,R 1 )dx ( nG ,i 1 )dx =
L

= ( nG ,R
0

n 1
dx = 1 ( nG ,R 1 )dx
1 ) 1 G ,i
nG ,R 1
A

0 R

(3.58)

:
AR =

nG ,R 1
nG ,R nG ,i

(3.59)

57

R (
)
. :
1 L
S =
( nG ,R 1 )dx ,
< AR > 0

(3.60)

S R =< AR > S .

(3.61)

< nG ,R > L = L + S R = ct R ,

(3.62)

< nG ,i > L = L + S i = ct i .

(3.63)

(3.61), (3.62) (3.63) :

S = S R S i = c(t R t i )

(3.64)

S R =< AR > c(t R t i )

(3.65)

:
L + S R = ct R ,

(3.66)

L = ct R c(t R t i ) < AR > .

(3.67)

58

4.

4.1.

, oja je
, .
, (
) ,
. ,
,
, .
1597. (),

. , .
.
,
, .

. .
,
,
. ,

.
. (
)
(, ). ()
( ). ,
59

. .
, ,
.

4.1.1.

(
, , , , ,
, , .).
.
I II (
I , II
).
I II ,
.
(. ),

(. ).
,

= f(t) ( )
(). ,
().

.
. (: ).
:
( ), 0 ;
( ), 100 .
T
.

60

V(t ) = a + b t .

(4.1)

(4.1) t :
t=

V V0
100 .
V100 V0

(4.2)

0
100 () .
.
(: F).
:

( ), 32 F
( ), 212 F
.
:

t = (1.8t + 32) oF.

(4.3)

,
.
()
. , ,
, (
)
100 .

4.1.2.

:
PV = const .

(4.4)

(.
) .

61

(4.4) :
1
PV
= 1 1
2 P2V2

(4.5)

V .
,
(4.5).
1 = K ( ) 2 = L ( )
, :
K ( PV )K
=
= 1.3661
L ( PV )L

(4.6)

, . (100 ), :

K = L + 100

(4.7)

L + 100
= 1.3661
L

(4.8)

(4.8) L = 273.15 . je
,
,
273.15 .
:

(
).

.
.
:

( )
(He, N2, H2),
. .

,
.

62

4.1.3.

(
),
1 Q1 Q2
2. :
A = Q1 Q2 .

(4.9)

A Q1 Q2
.
=
Q1
Q1

(4.10)

T1 T2 Q1 Q2
,
=
T1
Q1

(4.11)

:
T1 Q1
.
=
T2 Q2

(4.12)

.
,
.
( ), (
) ( ).
(
).
(: ).
.

273.16 (
).
. :

63

. ( ).

4.1.4.

(, ),

, ,
,
.).
N

1, 2,...i,.. ( ).
N ,
ni i - .

ni =

g i N exp( i / )
,
g i exp( i / )

(4.13)

: gi = 2+1
,

, :

= k,

(4.14)

: , k .
(4.13) (4.14) :
ni =

g i N exp( i / kT )
.
gi exp( i / kT )

(4.15)

mV 2 3
= kT
2
2

(4.15)

i :

64

g i N exp( i / kT )
g i exp( i / kT )

j i
ni
g
= i
= i exp
g j N exp( j / kT ) g j
nj
kT
g j exp( j / kT )

(4.17)

,
.

4.1.5.

. (
) L(,) ( ) ,

, .

( )
. :

Lc , ( ,T ) =

c15
,
c2
exp
1
T

(4.18)

L,(,) ,
1 ,
2 .
:

c1 =

c2 =

2hc 2

=1.91911016 Wm2sr1,

hc
= 0.014388 Km,
k

h = 6.62607551034 Js
65

c = 2.99792458 ms1
k = 1.38056581023 JK1
1 2,
:
c
exp 2 1
Lc1, ( ,T1 )
T2 .
=
Lc 2 , ( ,T2 )
c
exp 2 1
T1

(4.19)

. ,
(4.19).
.

4.2.

ITS 90
.
,
.

4.2.1.

1889. .
: .
.
25 100 . 1913.
.

66

4.2.2. ITS 27

,
( ) ,
,
.

Pt Rh(10%)/Pt , .

: (0 )
(182.97 ), (100 ) (444.60 ).
90 ,
.
Pt Rh(10%)/Pt :
(960.5 ) (1063 )
(630.5 ), ITS 27.

.

4.2.3. ITS 48

ITS 27 :
,
Pt Rh(10%)/Pt
, 960.8 ,
,
.
ITS 48 1960.
IPTS 48. :
0.01
, 419.505 .
67

4.2.4. ITS 68

IPTS 68
.
,
IPTS 48.
13.81 .
: (13.81 ),
33330.6 (17.042 ), (20.28 ),
(27.102 ), (54.361 )
(231.9681 ). IPTS 68,
: (90.188 ),
(419.58 ), (961.93 )
(1064.43 ).

4.2.5. ITS 90

ITS 90
1989. . ITS 90
(: 90) (: t90).
90 (: ), t90
(: ).
ITS 90 0.65
. ITS 90

90. ,

.
ITS 90
( )
(, , ) .
68

ITS 90

. 0 ITS 90
. 1
ITS 90.

90 ()

t90 (C)

3 5

-270.15 -268.15

13.8033

-259.3467

17.0

-256.15

24.5561

-268.5939

54.3584

-218.7916

83.8058

-189.3442

243.3156

-29.8344

273.16

0.01

373.15

100

302.9146

29.7646

429.7485

156.5985

505.078

231.928

692.677

419.527

933.473

660.323

1234.93

961.78

1337.33

1064.18

1357.77

1084.62

1. ITS 90
0.65 5.0 90
3 4.
.
3.0 (24.5561 ) 90
,
.

69

(13.8033 )
(961.78

) 90

.
.
.
.
W(90) R(90)
90 R (273.16 ) ,
:

W ( T90 ) =

R( T90 )
.
R( 273.16 K )

(4.20)

W(29.7646 oC) 1.11807

(4.21)

W(-38.8344 oC) 0.844235

(4.22)

,
:

W(961.78 oC) 4.2844

(961.78

(4.23)

) 90

:
(961.78 ) (1064.18 ) (1084.62 ),
.
.

4.3.

( ).
. :
T1 =

P1
273.16
P2

(4.24)

70

2 .
:
T1 =

V1
273.16
V2

(4.25)

V2 .

:

-- (H, H2, N2
0.1 1 ). .
,
( )
.
;

.

(, , , );

(
).

,
( ,
).

4.3.1.

4.1 . (4)
V (2) (3) ( ).
h .
(1) (4) 1 2.
(6) 4
5.

71

(5) .

.
.

4.1.
(t = 0 oC), :
t=

1 Pk

1
Po

(4.26)

1 / 273.15, 0 .
, = 133.322 k, : 3.6607103 1 / , 2
3.6622103 1 / , N2 je 3.6742103 1 / C, 3.66099103 1 / .
k t (4)
,
VS :

V 1+ t

Pk = P1 + t + kp + S
V
1
t
+

o
S

(4.27)

72

: t (),
(4),
, VS () ( ,
2 ), tS (
) V (4) 0 .
VS, .

4.3.2.

,
, .
4.2 . (1) V
(2) 2 .
(3) ,
( ) 1 2.

4.2.
(2) Vd ( t,
) , , ,
73

(2) . (t = 0 oC),
:
1
V
t =
1

Vo

(4.28)

1 / = 1 / 273.15, V 0 .
V t :

T 1+ t
V
= Vo + V ' d Vd + ( V 'S VS ) o
Vo
TS Vo

(4.29)

: Vd t, Vd
0 , VS t, VS 0 , TS
( ).
(1) (2)
.
( ).

4.4.

. .
, .

1:1032 ( ).


.
( t)

12 :
12 =

R2 R1
.
R1 ( T2 T1 )

(4.30)

T = 12 R1 ,

(4.31)
74

(
).
().
.

, :

1 R

,
R T

(4.32)

.
, , ,
.

4.4.1.

.
(
) (
).
,
:

R = RS 1 + 1( T TS ) + 2 ( T TS )2 + ,

(4.33)

i (i = 1,2n) , RS S
.
:
R = RS [1 + S ( T TS )],

(4.34)

S .
12
R :
1. ;
2. ( , )
;
75

3. ( );
4. ,
;
5. .
ITS 90
(13.8033 )
(961.78 ).
(0
150 ) ,
. 0 260 ,
.
0 260 .
230 260 12 ,
.
0 260 ,
60 150 .
12 , 0.01 0.1 .

(, , , ).
, ,
. ,
650 .
.
.

4.4.2. ()

),

:
1. ;

76

2.
;
3. R = f(t) .

( ),
.
, ( )
( ), .

( 3/2).

.
R
.
R = f() :
1 1
R = RS exp B ,
T TS

(4.35)

. :

1 dR
B
= 2
R dT
T

(4.36)

.
:
1. (.
100 0.001 25 ,
0.0004 ,
2 ( 46 );
2. ;
:
1. ( );
2. (
).
60 100 , ,
(l23,

77

g, B,...) . 1
35 , .
.

4.3.3.

.
.
.
:

4.3.
4.3. :
RT + RV1 + RV 2 =

R1
RS ,
R2

(4.37)

R1 = R2:
RT + RV1 + RV 2 = RS .

(4.38)

(4.38) .
.4.3. 4.3.. 4.3.
RT RS. ( R1 = R2) :
78

RT + RV1 + RV 2 = RS + RV1 + RV 2 ,

(4.39)

:
RT = RS .

(4.40)

4.3. ,
RV1 RV2. :
RT + RV1 = RS + RV 2 .

(4.41)

. 4.4
.

4.4.

104 , 104 .
RB R1 = R2, RS = RT.
( RT) . 1
V4. V1 RT, V2 RS.
:

79

RT + R V 1 = RS1 + R V 2 .

(4.42)

V1 V2 ,
V3. V1 RS, V2 RT.
:
RT + RV2 = RS 2 + RV1 .

(4.43)

(4.42) (4.43) RT:

RT =

RS1 + RS2
.
2

(4.44)

4.5. RT.
RT RS .

4.5.
1, RP
D . :
RT = RP1 = kl1 .

(4.45)

2 RP
D :
RS = RP2 = kl 2 .

(4.46)

:
RT = RS

l1
.
l2

(4.47)

80

4.5.

()
(), . .
1000 ,
,

,
,
.
.
, :
c15
,
Lc , ( ,T ) =
c2
exp
1
T

(4.48)

.
,
. ,
, .
,
, Lc,(,T)
:
c
exp 2 1
Lc , ( ,T )
T x ,
=
Lc , ( ,Tx )
c
exp 2 1
T

(4.49)

Lc,(,Tx)
, .
(4.49) ,
. ,
,
(4.49).
, ,
81

(4.49) (. ).

4.5.1.

XX ,

.
,
.
XX ,
,
.

4.5.1.1.

4.6. ,
,
. .

,
, ( 4.7).

,
.

0.01 m / 800 ,
0.1 m / 1350 .
.
82

, ,
,
,
5 C.

4.6.

4.7.

.

.

. ,

.
83

,

.
,
, , .
,
,
.
,
.
,
1350 C. ,

.

1 C
, 3 C 2000 C.
.
.

2% , 2 C
1100

4.5.1.2.

.
( ),

84

.
4.8.
.

, .
,

,
.
.

4.8.

:

= A Lc, ( ,T ) o ( ) f ( )d ,

(4.50)

A ;
;
A ;
Lc,(,T)
T;

85

o() ;
f() .

, ,

T 2.1 10 3 m K
0.1%):
c
Lc , ( ,T ) = c15 exp 2 .
T

(4.51)

I
:

I = A R( )Lc , ( ,T ) o ( ) f ( )d ,

(4.52)

R() :
R( ) =

dI
.
d

(4.53)

1 2 :

I T1
I T2

R( )Lc, ( ,T1 ) o ( ) f ( )d

(4.54)

R( )Lc, ( ,T2 ) o ( ) f ( )d
0

(4.54) :
c
I T1 = I T2 exp 2
1,2

1
1
,
T2 T1

(4.55)

1,2 1 2,
:

1,2 =

1
1
c 2
T2 T1

(4.56)

R( )Lc, ( ,T1 ) o ( ) f ( )d

ln 0

R( )Lc, ( ,T2 ) o ( ) f ( )d
0

86

1 2 ,
e(T), :

e ( T ) =

R( )Lc, ( ,T ) o ( ) f ( )d

(4.57)

R( )Lc, ( ,T ) o ( ) f ( )d

.
, (4.57), f() R(),
. :

1,2

1
1
c 2
T
T1
,
= 2
I1
ln
I2

(4.58)

I1 I2 1 2,
.
I1 = Ical
1 = cal ,
I2 = I 2 = ,
, :
T=

c2

I
1,2 ln cal
I

c2

1,2Tcal

1 + 1
e

(4.59)

(4.59)
:
T=

c2

I cal
1,2 ln
I

c2

1,2Tcal

1 + 1
e

(4.60)

,
,
1,2.

0.01 , 0.1
87

800 1400 , 1 2000 .

.
, 0.1
.

4.5.1.3.

, :

Lc1, ( 1 ,T )
Lc 2 , ( 2 ,T )

c2
1
2T

52 exp

= 1,
c I2
15 exp 2 1
1T

(4.61)

I1 I2 1 2 .
, (4.61)
:
T=

c 2 ( 2 1 )

I
1 2 5 ln 2 ln 1
I 2
1

(4.62)

.
,
:
L ( ,T ) = ( ,T )Lc , ( ,T ) = ( ,T )

c15
,
c2
exp
1
T

(4.63)

(4.62) :
T=

c 2 ( 2 1 )

1 2 5 ln 2
1

I
ln 1

I2

+ ln 1

(4.64)

88

1( 1 ,T ) 2 ( 2 ,T )

(4.65)

(4.62).

4.5.2.

.
,

. ,
, (
1000 ).
. ,
,
.

4.5.2.1.

.
,
.
,
(,
ITS 90),
. (g, u, Cu)
4.9.

89

0.99999,
0.01 C.

,
.
, .

,
.

4.9.

, ,

(c = 1).
.
,

90

.
:

c = 1

o (1 o )
L
1+
r

(4.66)

: , L , r
.

4.5.2.2.

.
: 1.2 mm 5.0 mm, 20 m 70 m
40 mm.

4.10. OSRAM Wi 17G

,
,
.
,
91

,
. , . ,
1/3 atm ,
. .
,

.

. , ,
,
.
.
, , 0 C / mm
5 C / mm, , .
.
1500 C,
900 C.
,
, .
, 1050 C,
1 C, 0.3 C.
,
.
,

. 1
0.5 C.
,
,
.
,
,
. ,

92

.
,
.
.

. 100
2400 , 20 2600 2
2800 . .
0.1 C
1500 C 1000 .

93

5.

t .
f.
t , = 1 / f f
.
t = Zto = Z / f, Z ,
, f ( )
Z .
, ,
. ,
.
,
.
(
) , ao
. 1/86400
.
(Universal Time UT). , ,

, .
e e :
UT0
;
UT1 ;
UT2
.

94

, ,
.
, ,
.
1960. :
1/31556925.9747 1900. 12
.
( 1.71010),
1900. .
(phemeric Time ET).

.
,
.
,
(11010 21011 24 ),
.
(

)
, .

,
. ,
,
, .
, .
, ,
,
:

W = h f ,

(5.1)

h (6.62607551034 s).

95

.
1967. :
9 192 631 770
133.

(International Atomic Time TAI). , , ,
. ,
, .
,
. ,

.
:
1.
2.

, ,

.
.
f , f
.
(, .).
5.1 .
f ( 5 Hz)
f
. 133
f = 9192631770 Hz,
f
. N
1 Hz.
.

96

.
f = 5 Hz 18, 102,
f1 = 9180 Hz, f2 = 12.631770 Hz f.
f
f2

f=f1+f2=Nf.

a 5.1

5.1.

133
.

.

. ,
2S1/2, ,
.
.
( = 0),

97

, ( 5.2).

J S :

F = J+ S .

(5.2)

F = F ( F + 1 ) .

(5.3)

F je I,
:
J I , J I + 1,...( J + I ) ,

(5.4)

: I ,
.
5.2
, I = 7/2 = 1/2. o je
F = 7/2 1/2, . F = 4 F =3.

5.2. 133

98

,
, .
:
W ( F ,mF ) =

W
2( 2 I + 1 )

+ mF g I B B

1
2 2

4 xm F
+x ,
1 +
2
2I + 1

(5.5)

+ F = 4, F = 3. W
= 0, gI j ,

, x:
x=

1
( g J g I ) B B .
W

(5.6)

F
:
Fz = m F .

(5.7)

mF :
F mF F ,

(5.8)

mJ
mI. (mF = 0)
(mF = 1). (F = 4, mF = 0) (F = 3, mF = 0)

.
. ( ) f
:
f = fo + A B2 + D =

W ( 4 ,0 ) W ( 3,0 )
,
h

(5.9)

f = 9127631770 Hz = 0,
4.274 1010 Hz / 2, D . 2
a f . f
f = 5 Hz = 0,
:

AB 2
f = 5MHz 1 +
.
f o

(5.10)

( ).
1010. 104,

99

1014. ,
,
1013.

,
( ) .
( 10-8 )
5.3. .
100
.
.
:

eff

W
=
= mF g I B B m B ( g J g I )
B

mF
x
+
2 2I + 1
1
2 2

(5.11)

4 xm F

+x
1 +
2I + 1

,
A/z:
F = eff

B
.
z

(5.12)

. F = 4 mF = 0 ,
F = 3 mF = 0 .
,
( 5.3).
(4,0) 1 1
1, 2 ,
. 2 (3,0).
1 (4,0) (3,0),
.
.
, ,
,
100

,
1 (4,0) 2 (3,0). ,
. , , ,
.
f, ,
. f
f (4,0) (3,0), (4,0)
(3,0),
hf. (3,0) hf
(4,0).
(4,0), (3,0), 1, 1
, .
hf (3,0) (4,0),
2 2.

5.3.

.
1000 .
.
,
.
, (4,0) (3,0), f
101

.
5.4.

f 5.1.

5.4.
,
1 2.
, ,
, , .
f t
, ft l.
L,
v = L / t, ,
L , .
90 m/s 200 m/s
0.8 m 3.75 m, f 50 Hz 100 Hz.
,
. ,
,
.
.
, (F = 0, 1; mF = 0, 1).
.

102

, .

. ( 5.5), (
1), ( 2),
, .

5.5.
5.6
.

5.6. .
1
Fg = 3 F = 4 23/2,
103

Fg = 3 Fg = 4. Fg = 3
Fg = 4. F = 4
Fg = 4, 13%
(4,0). ,
.
,
(4,0) (3,0).
2, Fg = 4
F = 5, Fg = 3 F = 2.
, .
,
.

4.410 14 (NIST 7).

5.2.

,
.
,
.
.
, (
+ ) . ,
0.852 m 3.5 mm / s.
,
,
. , ,
.

104

. .
.
fL, ( 5.7).
.
, , ,
, (
fL) .
.

(. ), .
2 , 1 cms 1.

5.7.
5.8. .
,
. ,
.
:
v = f ,

(5.13)

4 ms1.
, (3,0),
9.139 GHz,
(3,0) (4.0). ,

(4,0)
. .

105

71016.
1 s .

5.8.

5.3.

,
. ,
(Universal Time Coordinated UTC).
TAI UT1. TAI
,
TAI UT1 a 0.9 s.
UTC .
UTC
. GPS
(American Global Position System) GLONASS (Russian Global Navigation Satellite
System). UTC

106

.
10 ns.

107

6.

.
380 nm 780 nm,
.
()
,
.
( ),
. ,
,
,
, .
, .
. :
1. (),
, , ;
2. (),
, , ;
3. (),
.

.
,
, ,
,
.

108

.
, e
.
. ,
m
, ,
. m
.
:
, , .
,

V() V'(),
6.1.
.

6.1. V() V'()

V() 555 nm, V'()
510 nm. ,
, .

.

() , ,
( ), .

109

6.1.

,
, , ,
. (W).
:

d
d

(6.1)

(Wm1).

6.1.1.

. :

v = Km

830 nm

( )V ( )d ,

(6.2)

360 nm

v (lm);
(Wm1);
V() ;
Km :
Km = 863.002 lmW1 863 lmW1.

(6.3)

v,

K m,

830 nm

( )V

( )d ,

(6.4)

360 nm

V() ;
Km :
Km = 1700.06 lmW1 1700 lmW1.

(6.5)

(lm). :
110

5401012
1/683 .

6.1.2.

Iv .
:
Iv =

d v
,
d

(6.6)

d - . (cd),
(1 cd 1 lm 1 sr 1).
I() :

Iv = Km

830 nm

I ( )V ( )d .

(6.7)

360 nm

6.1.3.

. :
Ev =

d v
,
dA

(6.8)

dv dA
. (lx)
(1 lx = 1 lm 1 m2).
() ()
:

Ev = K m

830 nm

E ( )V ( )d .

(6.9)

360 nm

111

6.1.4.

()
.
:
Lv =

d 2 v
,
d dA cos

(6.10)

dv
d ;

d ;

.
L() :

Lv = K m

830 nm

L ( )V ( )d

(6.11)

360 nm

(6.6) (6.10) :
Lv =

dI v
dA cos

(6.12)

(cd m2).

6.2.

.
,
:

I v1 r12
=
,
I v 2 r22

(6.13)

Iv1 ;
112

Iv2 ;
r1 ;
r2 .
,
, .

. 1879.
1 cm2
, .
.
, 1909.
.
.
1948.
. :


(2046.6 ) .
1967.
.

.
1979.
.
, ,
5401012 1/683
.
, , ,
, .

.
.

113

V(). 6.1
.

lm

Iv

cd

W/sr

Ev

lx

W/m2

Lv

cd/m2

W/m2sr

6.1.
6.2 .

6.2.
(), r
, () io
.
V(), :

io = A E( )s( )d ,

(6.14)

s() .
:
114

s =

io

io
AK m E( )V ( )d

(6.15)

,
r, (6.14) (6.15) :

s =

E( )s( )d

K m E( )V ( )d

(6.16)

(6.17)

s =

s m E( )s* ( )d

K m E( )V ( )d

sm = s(555 nm) 555 nm;

s*() 555 nm,
V().
s*() V() (6.17)
:
s =

sm
.
Km

(6.18)

k
(6.18):
s =

sm ( 1 + k )
.
Km

(6.19)

. ,
555 nm .
, (6.8),
:
s E = A s .

(6.20)

:
115

Ev =

Iv
r2

io
i
= o .
s E As

(6.21)

(6.21) :
i o r 2 io r 2
Iv =
=
.
sE
As

(6.22)

(6.22)
io .
555 nm,
, Km k.

.
,
, .

0.3 %.
0.1 %,
0.5 %.

:

;

;

, ;

1 m
;

, .
s(555 nm) s*()
( 0.04 %
406 nm 920 nm).
0.1 %.

116

6.3.

,
,
(Wm2sr1m1).

.


:

Lc , ( T , ) =

c1 5
c
exp( 2 ) 1
T

(6.23)

, ,
( 1000 ).
,
.
(
).
S I ( 6.3).

6.3. .

117

TS
TW
:

Lc , ( TS , ) = ( TW , ) Lc , ( TW , )

(6.24)

(TW,) TW
( 6.4).

TW TS
(6.24), .

6.4.
6.5.
W

I.
R.
.

118

.
.

6.5.
TW

:
LW , ( TW , ) = ( TW , ) Lc , ( TW , ) ,

(6.25)

L,(TW,) TW
.
:

SW = LW , ( TW , ) R A ( ) ,

(6.26)

A ;
;
;

() ;
R ;
,
,

L :
L =

S
LW , .
SW

(6.27)

119

6.3.1.

Q()
,
,
.
(6.26)
:
Q( ) =

SW
,
( TW , ) LC ( TW , ) P T A

(6.28)

P

. ( 500 nm),
;

T
.
A
( 6.6),
:

A =

D1 H 1
l

p

(6.29)

: H1 , D1 , l
, p
.

A .

A:
2

p
A = Ar ,
l

(6.30)

120

r .

, :

D1 Pm D2

(6.31)

H 1 Pm H 2

(6.32)

: m , D2 , H2
a .

6.6.

:
=

r 2
p2

(6.33)

DS
:

= DS D2 .

(6.34)

121

7.

7.1.

(SI)
(: ).
.. . :
,
, ,
,
2107 .

a.
,
.
,
.

7.1.1. -

,
.

7.1.
(1)
(2) (3). ,
122

(3) (1), (2)

. ,
(5), (4).
, m.
F
Fm = mg, g .

7.1.
I W
:

W =

1
(L1 + L2 + L3 )I 2 + (M 12 + M 13 )I 2 = 1 LI 2 + MI 2 ,
2
2

(7.1)

L1, L2 i L3 1, 2 3, , 12
(1) (2), 13 (1)
(3), L = L1 + L2 + L3 M = M12 + M13.
(7.1) I
W, L M
. W
.
.

123

,
I, ,
dx . :
dW = F dx ,

(7.2)

F (1), dW
(1).
dx (1) :

F=

dW
d 1

= LI 2 + MI 2 .
dx
dx 2

(7.3)

(1) dx, I
L, M
. (7.3) :
F=

W
M
= I2
.
x
x

(7.4)

F m,
(Fm = mg), (7.4) :
mg = I 2

M
.
x

(7.5)

(7.5) :
I=

mg
.
M
x

(7.6)

m,
g, M,
x, . g m
,

M

x

, ,
,
.
e 1. F
l, d :
F = o

I 2l
,
2d

(7.7)

124

:
F
I2
= o
.
l
2d

(7.8)

I = 1, d = 1 m i l = 1 m,

(7.8) o = 4 10 7

F
N
= 2 10 7 .
l
m

N
A2

,
, a
.
4106,
103. ,
, I
U R ( 7.2).

7.2.
. Ja
r, R
U ( G
). :
U = RI = R

mg
.
M
x

(7.9)

125

U
(
R

U R), R
, U.

7.1.2.

(. )
,
:

(7.10)

: M G .

. M

B ( M B ), M B ( M B ).
.

v. v
.
:

W = 2 MB ,

(7.11)

B. ,
W = 2MB. W

v. ( )

W = hf ,

(7.12)

126

h . (7.11) (7.12)
:

f =

2 MB
.
h

(7.13)

v f,

M
, .
, :

G=

h
4

(7.14)

(7.13) (7.14) :

f =

1 M
1
1

B=
B =
p
2 G
2
2

(7.15)

p = B

(7.16)

, a f v.
v :

f =

p
2

(7.17)

(7.17) ,
.
(7.17) :

B = Kf ,
: K =

(7.18)

= 2.67522(1 5106)108 1s1, K = 2.348758(1 5106)108 Ts.

7.3. (1)
.
, , (2)
( ), (3)
v f,

127

.
v,
. (4) I
1, (3)
:

B = A o r

NI
,
L

(7.19)

: L , , r
, .

7.3.
(5) (6)
(3). 7.3.

U

R

( ). Ka
:

Kf = A o r

NI
,
L

(7.20)

I = Sf

(7.21)
128

S=

KL
,
o r NA

(7.22)

(6) . ,
, (7), (8)
(9),
, . I = Sf.
(10) f,
(11) (1)
(13).

:
) ( , ,
);
) ;
)
.
7.2.

, SI
(: V).
. :

,
.

7.2.1.

1893. , 1908. .

129

7.4. (1) , (2)

(12.5% Cd+87.5% Hg). j
e (3) (Hg2SO4), ,
(4) (CdSO4 + 8/3 H2O ).
,
.
H, (5) (CdSO4)
. 20 1.01865 V.
Ut ( t) :
8
8
Cd + Hg 2SO 4 + H 2 O = CdSO 4 H 2 O + 2Hg
3
3
CdSO4 (5)
, , .

:

Ut = U 20 K1( t 20 ) K 2 ( t 20 ) 2 + K 3 ( t 20 )3 ,
: K1 = (41 2.6)

V
o

, K 2 = 0.95

(7.23)

V
o

V
, K 3 = 0.01 o 3 , U 20 = 1.01865 V
C
C
2

7.4.

130

(
.), 0.01 .

:
) 5 , ,
24 2 V 5 V
;
) 0.1 3 ,
2 V 5 V .
.
300 1000 ,
1n 0.3 V 10 V.
.
, (
) 3 V
10 15 .
( n )

.
4 .
4 40 ,
,
.

7.2.2. E

1962. "
" 1 nm,
, f,
U. :

131

U =

h
f = cf
2e

(7.24)

1963.
.
(7.24)
1108 ( ).
" " (Sn - SnO - Sn, Ta - Ta,
Sn - SnO - Pb .) :
, (o,
).
" "
.
I, , :

Uo = c f =

h
f
2e

(7.25)

f ,
, Uo.

f = 10GHz, Uo = 20.68 V.
n = 50 , :

U = nU o 1034 V .

(7.26)

2.5.
132

f (n) , .:

U = nU o = n

h
f.
2e

(7.27)

:
1)
c =

h
,
2e

;
2) ,
;
3) c =

h
,
2e

7.3.

(SI)
(: ). .
. :

,
, .

7.3.1. E

1980. , Si
MOSFET ( 7.6) (18.9) (1.5),
.
1985. .

133

7.6. Si MOSFET
,
,
:

RH =

h
ne 2

(7.28)

: n = 1,2,3......
(GaAs/AlGaAs, InAs/AlSb .). Si MOSFET
7.7.

7.7. Si MOSFET
1980.
106 (

h
= 6453.204 0.005 ).
4e 2

1108. ,
, ,
,
.
134

7.4. E

(SI)

( F).
. . :


.

7.4.1. -

.


( 7.8), ,
( ):

C '
C '
exp 1 + exp 2 = 1
o
o

(7.29)

7.8.
C1' = C 2' = C ' , (7.29) :
135

C' =

o
ln 2 ,

(7.30)

, :
C = l C' = l

o
ln 2 .

(7.31)

7.9 -
. 1,2,3 4 .
, (5 6)
. 7.31
l,
5 6, .
:
C = C13 = C 24 =

o
l ln 2 .

(7.32)

7.9.

l
.
()
(), c 2 o o = 1 .
8109.
1107.

136

8.

, ,
. ,
, .
,
.
, 5000 ,
.
.
1030 kg (
) 1040 kg ( ).

1889.
. :
. .
,
( 39 mm 39 mm,
90% 10% ) .

.
,
.
.

(
)
( ), (10 12 )
(
137

).
1889. , 1939.
, 1946. 1988. ,
.

8.1. ,

: , .

, ,
.

( ,
, , .).

.
,
, , .

8.1.1.

mt .
mt, me ( ms)
, m
.
0 . mt
m. ms1
, ,
1 , 8.1.

138

8.1.
:
m t + ms1 + d ( A1 A0 ) = m

l1
,
l2

(8.1)

:
d ;
l1 l2 .
ms1
me ms2 .
2 , 8.1.
:
me + ms2 + d ( A2 A0 ) = m

l1
.
l2

(8.2)

,
(8.1) (8.2) mt:
m t = me + (ms2 ms1 ) + d ( A2 A1 ) .

(8.3)

. d

ms3 A3
. :
d=

ms3
.
A3 A2

(8.4)

139

8.1.2.

mt
.
0 .
, me .
ms1
, 1 .
, ,
ms2, 2.

mt:
m t = me

ms2
d ( A2 A1 )
ms1
.
2
2

(8.5)

(8.5) ms1 ms2 .

,
. d

ms3
A3 . (8.4).
.

8.1.3.

, ,

.
. ,
.

140

.
, .

8.2.

. , ,
, .
, , .
,
, .

, , , .

8.2.1.

, , , ,
, .
E1, E2, F1, F2, M1, M2 M3 (
M3).
.

( )
.
,
(, .).
.
,
.
141

.
,
:

m = m t

v
.
t

(8.6)

(, , ),
. mt
mk 8000 kg/m3
1.2 kg/m3 20 , :

8000 t
mk = m t 1 ( v 1.2 )
.
8000 t

(8.7)

. 20
1.2 kg/m3 (

750 m). 8000 kg/m3
(
8400 kg/m3 ).

8.2.2.

. , ,
.

( , ,
).
.
,
.
:

142

(
),
;

( 5 kg
50 g 100 g),
.
.

106 107,
.
1010.

8.2.2.1.

,
.
:
.

(e)
(n), 8.1.

II

, ,

. : , ,
.

III

( , , .) .

IIII

( )

,
, .

143

()

(n)

0.001 g e

50000

100 e

0.01 g e 0.05 g

100...100000

20 e

II

0.1 g e

5000...100000

50 e

0.1 g e 2 g

100...10000

20 e

III

5ge

500...10000

20 e

5ge

100...1000

10 e

IIII

8.1.

8.2.2.2.

.
(
). : ,
.
: , 107,

, ,

, , .
.
.
Fg = mg
, .
,
. , ,

.

144

20.
.
< 110-7 .
8.2 : , ,
; FT ; FR ; FB
; l1, l2, l ; S ; e
S C; .
: l1 l2
(l1 = l2 = l); ;
; e
C;
; .

8.2.
, ,
C , e:
lFT cos lFR cos eFB sin = 0 .

(8.8)

mR mB , , mT
(8.8) :
mT = m R +

e mB
cos .
l

(8.9)

145

I W I W = c W ( c W
), :
mT = m R +

e mB
I W .
l cW

(8.10)

mT mR I W

(emB ) / (lc W ) , :
S=

l cw
.
e mB

(8.11)

,
.

146

9.

()
.
12.4 eV. (
) (
, ,
.). 9.1 .
( ,
, )

(
)
(, )
( , )

( )

( )
(
)
( ,

9.1.

147

9.1.

.

() ,
.
, ,
, .
,
.
,
.

.
:

.
( 9.1)
,
, , ,
.

9.1.
,
,
148

( )
.
,
.
,
.

9.2.

( )
. :
;

;
, ;
.

9.2.1.

.
.
, ,
. .
(D) dE
dm ,
:

D=

dE
.
dm

(9.1)

(: Gy).
149

( D )
, :
.

D=

dD
.
dt

(9.2)

(Gy / s).
(X)
X . ,
X , ,
:

X =

dQ
.
dm

(9.3)

(C / kg).
.

( X )
, :
.

X =

dX
.
dt

(9.4)

(C / kgs).
(H)

.
DT,R R
WR, :

H T ,R = DT ,R WR .

(9.5)

WR
.
(: Sv).
, ,
, , ,
.
.
,
. ,

150

, .

,
.


. , ,
180

280

LiF, CaF2 Li2B4O7.

151

10.

[1] . : , , 1970.
[2] . , . , . , . , . :
, , 1996.
[3] . , . : , , , 2000.
[4] . , . : , , , 1993.
[5] . ,
, , , 1982.
[6] . :
ITS 90
1234.93 , , , 2000.
[7] . : ,
, , 2002.
[8] . , . , . , . : ,
, 1979.
[9] R.E. Beehler, R.C. Mockler, J.M. Richardson: Cesium beam atomic and frequency
standards, Metrologia, 1, 114 131, 1965.
[10] Barry N. Taylor, The International System of Units (SI), NIST Special Publication 330,
2001.
[11] Judah Levine, Introduction to time and frequence metrology, Review of Scientific
Instruments, 2567-2596, 1999.
[12] Andreas Bauch, Caesium atomic clocks, function, performance and applications,
Measurement Science and Technology, 1159-173, 2003.
[13] R. Litwak, D. Emmons, R.M. Garvey, P. Vlitas, Optically pumped cesium beam
frequency standard for GPS III, 33rdAnnual Precise Time and Time Interval (PTTI)
Meeting.
152

[14] D.B. Sullivan, Primary Atomic Frequency Standards at NIST, Journal of Research of the
National Institute of Standards and Technology 106, 47 63, 2001.
[15] J. Fischer, B. Fellmuth, Temperature metrology, Reports on Progress in Physics 68,
1043 1094, 2005.
[16] J.S. Beers, W.B. Penzes, The NIST Length Scale Interferometer, Journal of Research of
the National Institute of Standards and Technology 104, 225 252, 1999.
C.A. Hamilton, Josephson voltage standards, Review of Scientific Instruments 3611-3623,
2000.
[17] . . , Basic metrology and electrical measurements, Mir Publishers, 1987.

153