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    07 Chapter 2

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    23 CHAPTER 2 PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR, 21 INTRODUCTION A brushless DC motor is similar to that brushed DC motor in that it has an internal shaft position feedback which tells which windings to switch on and what exact moment. This internal feedback gives both the brushed DC motor and the brushless DC motor with their unique characteristics: linear speed-torque curves which are well suited for speed and position control and high starting torque. The internal feedback is accomplished in a brush type DC motor with the mechanical commutator (a series of copper bars which are insulated from each other) and the mechanical brushes through which the current is fed into the commutator bars and switched sequentially into the appropriate winding in the armature, In a BLDC motor, the internal feedback is accomplished by shaft position sensors of some type which gives the required shaft position information to the drive electronics. The drive electronies in turn switches on the appropriate windings exactly at the right moment. This internal shaft position feedback also gives the BLDC motor characteristics which are similar to the DC motor characteristics: Linear speed-torque characteristics and high starting torque. The power supplied to a BLDC motor can be DC power but it can also be AC if the drive electronics has the necessary circuitry to convert the AC power to DC. 24 The Brushless DC motor is actually a permanent magnet AC motor whose torque-speed characteristics. mimic the DC motor. Instead of commutating the armature current using brushes, electronic commutation is used. Having the armature on the stator makes it easy to conduct heat away from the windings, and if desired, having cooling arrangement for the armature windings is much easier as compared to a DC motor. A BLDC motor is a modified PMSM with the modification being that the back-emf is trapezoidal instead of being sinusoidal as in the case of PMSM. The position of the rotor can be sensed by Hall Effect position sensors, namely Hall A, Hall B, and Hall C, each having a phase lag of 120° with respect to the earlier one. Three Hall position sensors are used to determine the position of the rotor field. BLDC motor is the choice in many applications requiring precise control of speed. The BLDC motor model is explained as, the electromagnetic torque, Tem is linearly proportional to the armature current l,. ie., Tem = Kr 1,, where Kr is the torque constant. 22 GENERAL ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEM Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications like transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps, robots, washing machines ete, Systems employed for motion control are called drives and may employ any of the prime movers such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and electric motors, for supplying mechanical energy for motion control. Drives employing electric motors are known as electrical drives. 25 [Sef te | SJL | | Control Sensing Dit Unit I Input Command Figure 2.1 Block diagram of an electrical drive system Block diagram of an electrical drive system is shown in Figure 2.1 Load is usually machinery designed to accomplish a given task. e.g. fans, pumps, robots, washing machines, machine tools, trains and drills. Usually load requirements can be specified in terms of speed and torque demands. A motor having speed-torque characteristics and capabilities compatible to the load requirements is chosen. Power modulator performs one or more of the following four functions. iii, iv, Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load. During transient operations such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source and motor currents within permissible values; excessive current drawn from source may overload it or may cause a voltage dip. Converts electrical energy of the source in the form suitable to the motor, e.g. if the source is DC and an induction motor is to be employed, then the power modulator is required to convert DC into a variable frequency AC. Selects the mode of operation of the motor, i.e. motoring or braking, 26 Controls for power modulator are built in control unit which us ally operates at much lower voltage and power levels. In addition to operating the power modulator as desired, it may also generate commands for the protection of power modulator and motor. Input command signal, which adjusts the operating point of the drive, forms an input to the control unit. Sensing of certain drive parameters, such as motor current and speed may be required either for protection or for closed loop operation 2.2.1 Advantages of Electrical Drives Electrical drives are widely used because of the following advantages: 1. They have flexible control characteristics. The steady-state and dynamic characteristics of electrical drives can be shaped to satisfy load requirements. Speed can be controlled and if required, can be controlled in wide limits. Electric braking can be employed. Control gear required for speed control, starting and braking is usually simple and easy to operate. Availability of semiconductor converters employing thyristors, power transistors, IGBTs and GTOs, linear and digital ICs, and microcomputers have made the control characteristics even more flexible. It is possible to reshape characteristics of drives almost at will to meet load requirements in an optimum manner. Speed and torque, and transitions from one mode to another can be controlled smoothly and steplessly. Optimal control strategies can be implemented to achieve high dynamic performance, high efficiency or to minimize a suitable performance index. Drives can be provided with automatic fault detection systems. 27 Programmable logic controllers and computers canbe employed to automatically control the drive operations in a desired sequence. They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power. Electric motors have high efficiency, low no load losses and considerable short time overloading capability. Can be made in variety of designs to make them compatible with load. ‘Compared to other prime movers they have longer life, lower noise, lower maintenance requirements and cleaner operation They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive and radioactive environment, submerged in liquids, vertical mountings, and so on. Do not pollute the environment. Can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane. Electric braking gives smooth deceleration and increases life of the equipment compared to other forms of braking. When regenerative braking is possible, considerable saving of energy is achieved. These features are not available in other prime movers. Unlike other prime movers, there is no need to refuel or warm- up the motor. They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded. They are powered by electrical energy which has a number of advantages over other forms of energy. It can be generated and transported to the desired point economically and efficiently. Conversion of electrical to mechanical energy and vice versa and electrical energy from one from to another can also be done efficiently and economically. 28 2.3 PARTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES Electrical drive has the following major parts: load, motor, power modulator, control unit and source. There is large number of loads and each load has its own specific requirements. Here we examine four parts of electrical drives; viz. motors, power modulators, sources and control unit. 2.3.1. Electrical Motors Motors commonly used in electrical drives are: DC motors ~ Shunt, series, compound and permanent magnet; Induction motors — Squirrel cage, wound rotor and linear; synchronous motors — wound field and permanent magnet; Brushless DC motors; Stepper motors; and switched reluctance motors. In the past, induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly in constant speed drives. Variable speed drives consisting these machines were either too expensive or have very poor efficiency Consequently, variable speed drive applications were dominated by DC motors. AC motors are now employed in variable speed drives also due to development of semiconductor converters employing thyristors, power transistors, IGBTs and GTOs. Due to presence of commutator and brushes in DC motors have a number of disadvantages as compared to AC motors (induction and synchronous motors): higher cost, weight, volume and inertia for the same rating, need for frequent maintenance, unsuitable for explosive and contaminated environments and restrictions on maximum voltage, speed and power ratings. Squirrel cage induction motor, which costs nearly one third of the DC motor of the same rating, is extremely rugged, requires practically no 29 maintenance and can be built for higher speeds, torques and power ratings. Wound rotor motors are more expensive than squirrel cage motors. They are also available in high power ratings. Wound field and permanent magnet synchronous motors have a higher full load efficiency and power factor than induction motors. Wound field motors can be designed for a higher power rating than induction motors. However, compared to squirrel cage induction motors they have higher cost and size for the same rating and require more maintenance. The permanent magnet synchronous motors have all the advantages of squirrel cage induction motors except that they are available in lower power ratings. Because of numerous advantages of AC motors described above, AC drives have succeeded in replacing DC drives in a number of variable speed applications. Brushless DC motor is somewhat similar to a permanent magnet synchronous motor, but has lower cost and requires simpler and cheaper converter. It is being considered for low power high speed drives and for servo applications, as an alternative to DC servo motor which has been very poplar so far. At low power levels, the coulomb friction between the brushes and commutator is objectionable, as it adversely affects the steady state accuracy of the drive. Brushless DC Motor (BLDC) has been quickly demanded due to preciseness of industrial applications and increase of various kinds of control techniques. Recently, stepper motor has become popular for position control and switched reluctance motor drive for speed control. 30 2.3.2. Power Modulators Some drives may employ more than one of these power modulators. It can be classified into five categories. i, Converters (AC to DC) ii, Inverters (DC to AC) iii, AC voltage controllers (AC to AC) iv. DC choppers (DC to DC) v. Cyclo converters (Frequency conversion) 2.3.2.1 AC to DC converter Rectification is a process of converting an alternating current or voltage a direct current or voltage. This conversion can be achieved by a variety of circuits based on and using switching devices. The widely used switching devices are diodes, thyristors, power-transistors, power MOSFETS, ete, The rectifier circuits can be classified broadly into three classes; uncontrolled, fully controlled and half controlled. An uncontrolled rectifier used only diodes and the DC output voltage is fixed in amplitude by the amplitude of the AC supply. The fully controlled rectifier uses thyristors as the rectifying elements and the DC output voltage is a function of the amplitude of the AC supply voltage and the point on wave at which the thyristors are triggered called firing angle. The half controlled rectifier contains a mixture of diodes and thyristors, allowing a more limited control over the DC output voltage level than the fully controlled rectifier. The half controlled rectifier is cheaper than a fully controlled rectifier of the same ratings but has operational limitations. 31 Uncontrolled and half controlled rectifiers will permit power to flow only from the AC system to the DC load and are, therefore, referred to as unidirectional converters. However, with a fully controlled rectifier it is possible, by control of the point on wave at which switching takes place, to allow power to be transferred from the DC side of the rectifier back into the AC system, When this occurs, operation is said to be in the inverting mode. The fully controlled converter many therefore be referred to as a bidirectional converter. Here it is possible for the phase controlled converters to provide a one quadrant, two quadrant or four quadrant operation at its DC terminals. 2.3.2.2 Inverters Inverters are employed to get a variable frequency as supply from a DC supply. Stepped inverters can be designed to behave as voltage source or current source. Accordingly they are known as voltage source or current source inverters. For the control of AC motor, voltage/current should also be controlled along with frequency. Variation in output voltage/current can be achieved by varying the input DC voltage. This is achieved either by interposing a chopper in between fixed voltage DC source and the inverter or the inverter may be fed from an AC-DC converter. Output voltage and current have stepped waveform, consequently they have substantial amount of harmonics. Variable frequency and variable voltage AC i directly obtained from fixed voltage DC when the inverter is controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM). The PWM control also reduces harmonics in the output voltage. Inverters are built using semiconductor devices such as thyristors, power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs and power MOSFETs. They are controlled by firing pulses obtained from a low power control unit. In the past variable frequency supply used to be obtained from a frequency employing a rotating machine. Such schemes have become outdated due to numerous disadvantages. 32 2.3.2.3 AC Voltage Controllers AC voltage controllers are employed to get variable AC voltage of the same frequency from a source of fixed AC voltage. The auto transformers capable of giving variable output voltage are not employed due to sliding contacts. Variable AC voltage with few discrete steps is obtained from the controller. The control is exercised by a mechanical force. The output voltage and source current are sinusoidal. Converter employs a thyristorised voltage controller. Stepless control of the output voltage can be obtained by controlling firing angle of converter thyristors by low power signals from a control unit, Output voltage and source current have harmonics and power factor is poor at low output voltages. 2.3.2.4 Choppers They are used to get variable voltage DC from a fixed voltage DC and are designed using semiconductor devices such as power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs, power MOSFETs and thyristors. Output voltage can be varied steplessly by controlling the duty ratio of the device by low power signals from a control unit. The DC chopper offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, small size and smooth control. Solid state choppers due to various advantages are widely used in trolley cars, battery-operated vehicles, traction-motor control and control of a large number of DC motors from a common DC bus with a considerable improvement of power factor. 2.3.2.5 Cycloconverter Cycloconverter converts fixed voltage and frequency AC to variable voltage and variable frequency AC. They are built using thyristors and are controlled by firing signals derived from a low power control unit. A. cycloconverter is controlled through the timings of its firing pulses, so that it 33 produces an alternating output voltage. By controlling the frequency and depth of phase modulation of the firing angles of the converters, it is possible to control the frequency and amplitude of the output voltage. Thus, a cycloconverter has the facility for continuous and independent control over both its output frequency and voltage. 2.3.3. Sources In India single-phase and three-phase 50 Hz AC supplies are readily available in most locations. Very low power drives are generally fed from single-phase source. Rest of the drives is powered from three-phase source; except in the case of traction drives where even at very high power levels Single-phase supply is used because of economy. Most drives are powered from AC source either directly or through a converter link. When fed directly from 50 Hz AC supply maximum speeds of induction and synchronous motors are limited to 3000 rpm. For higher speeds, conversion to higher frequency supply becomes mandatory. Low and medium power motors (tens of kilowatts) are generally fed from 400 V supply; for high ratings, motors may be rated at 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV and higher. In case of aircraft and space applications, 400 Hz AC supply is generally used to achieve high power to weight ratio for motors. In main line traction a high voltage supply is preferred because of economy. In India 25KV, 50 Hz supply is employed. In underground traction, major expenditure is cost of the tunnel which should be minimized by keeping its cross-section just enough for the train, Consequently, clearance between live conductor and the earth has also to be minimum. In view of this, underground traction systems employ a low voltage (500 to 750 V) DC supply. In western India (Bombay to Igatpuri) 1500 V DC is used for main line and the suburban traction which is uneconomical and therefore future installations will not use it, 34 Some drives are powered from a battery, e.g. fork lift trucks and milk vans. Depending on size, battery voltage may have typical values of 6 V, 12 V, 24 V, 48 V and 110 V DC. Another example of drives fed from a low voltage DC supply is solar powered drives used in space and water pumping and low power transport applications. Although choice of a motor does depend on the type of supply but there are many other factors which are even more important, Therefore, a DC motor may be preferred over AC even the AC supply is available in most locations. 2.3.4 Sensing Unit i, Speed Sensing ii, Current Sensing Speed sensing is required for implementation of closed loop speed control schemes. Speed is usually sensed by using tachometers. When very high speed accuracies required, as in computer peripherals and paper mills ete., digital tachometers are used. Two commonly used methods of sensing the current (i) use of current sensor employing Hall Effect (ii) It involves the use of a non- inductive resistance shunt in conjunction with an isolation amplifier which has an arrangement for an amplification and isolation between power and control circuits. 2.3.5 Control Unit Controls for a power modulator are provided in the control unit. Nature of the control unit for a particular drive on the power modulator that is used. 35 When semiconductor converters are used, the control unit will consists of firing circuits, which employ linear and digital integrated circuits and transistors, and a microprocessor when sophisticated control is required. switching operations are required to achieve any one of the following (i) for changing motor connections to change its quadrant of operation, (ii) for changing motor circuit parameters in discrete steps for automatic starting and braking control, (iii) for operating motors and drives according to a predetermined sequences. When control of switching circuits is required for any of the purpose described above, function of control unit will be to provide sequencing and interlocking. As already stated, solid state relays are used and when control is complex programmable logic controllers can be used. 24 CONSTRUCTION OF BLDC MOTORS A BLDC motor is a Permanent magnet brushless DC motor that us position detectors and an inverter to control the armature currents. The BLDC motor is sometimes referred to as an inside out DC motor because its armature is in the stator and the magnets are on the rotor and its operating characteristics resemble those of a DC motor. Instead of using a mechanical commutator as in the conventional DC motor, the BLDC motor employs electronic commutation which makes it a virtually maintenance-free motor. There are two main types of BLDC motor: trapezoidal type and sinusoidal type. In the trapezoidal motor the Back EMF induced in the stator windings has a trapezoidal shape and its phases must be supplied with quasi- square currents for ripple-free torque operation, The sinusoidal motor on the other hand has a sinusoidally shaped Back EMF and requires sinusoidal phase currents for ripple-free torque operation. The shape of the Back EMF is determined by the shape of the rotor magnets and the stator winding distribution. 36 The sinusoidal motor needs a high resolution position sensor because the rotor position must be known at every time instant for optimal operation. It also requires more complex software and hardware. The trapezoidal motor is a BLDC motor attractive alternative for most applications due to simplicity, lower price and higher efficiency. It has usually 4 magnets around the perimeter. The stator of the motor is composed by the electromagnets, usually 4 of them, placed in a cross pattern with 90° angle between them, The major advantage of the brushless motors is that, due to the fact that the rotor carries only the permanent magnets, it needs of no power at all. No connection needs to be done with the rotor, thus, no brush-commutator pair needs to be made: This feature gives the brushless motor great increment in reliability, as the brushes wear off very fast. Figure 2.2 Construction of BLDC motor BLDC motors exist in many different configurations but the three phase motor is the most common type due to its efficiency and low torque ripple. This type of motor also offers a good compromise between precise control and number of power electronic devices needed to control the stator currents. Figure 2.2 shows the construction of BLDC motor. Position detection is usually implemented using three Hall Effect sensors that detect the presence of small magnets that are attached to the motor shaft. 37 24.1 Permanent Magnets Materials that retain magnetism are known as hard magnet materials. Various materials, such as Alnico-S, ferrites, samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron are available as permanent magnets for use in machines. Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make permanent magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth alloy magnets are gaining popularity. The ferrite magnets are less expensive but they have the disadvantages of low flux density for a given volume. Rare Earth magnets include Neodymium (Nd) ~ Iron (Fe)- Boron (B) types and Samarium (Sm) ~ Cobalt (Co) classes. The most commonly produced material is neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB). This group of magnetic material provides the highest available magnetic energies of any material. NdFeB magnets allow small shapes and sizes with high magnetic fields. Super strength Rare Earth Magnet Sintered NdFeB magnets, have the characteristics of: Extreme strong Br Resident induction, excellent demagnetization resistance capability, Good price relative to its high magnetic properties, coating is needed for NdFeB. Both NdFeB and Sm, Co are available in sintered as well as bonded forms. The cheapest permanent magnets are usually made from ferrite (have low coercive strength), whereas the more expensive and rare-earth type stronger ones contain Samarium-Cobalt or Neodium-Iron-Boron. Because the rare earth type magnets have a higher coercive strength, they usually withstand the demagnetization effects better than the ferrite magnets, and hence are usually preferred. The magnets are made into desired shapes, put in an appropriate jaw and then magnetized by a pulse of high current obtained from a capacitor bank. At low power ratings, especially the fractional horsepower range, permanent magnet motors are economical. As the rating of 38 the motor increases, the cost of permanent magnets and their manufacture becomes costlier relative to the motors in which the field is generated by applying an external source. The smaller of the permanent magnet motors, usually in the fractional horsepower range may have less than three phases. Motors with large ratings may contain more than three phases so as to distribute the power over more inverter legs, thus permitting the use of power semiconductor switches with smaller ratings. 2.4.2. Hall Sensor For the estimation of the rotor position, the motor is equipped with three hall sensors. These hall sens rs are placed every 120°, With these sensors, 6 different commutations are possible. Phase commutation depends on hall sensor values. Power supply to the coils changes when hall sensor values change. With right synchronized commutations, the torque remains nearly constant and high. Figure 2.3 shows the hall sensor signals for the clockwise rotation, Figure 2.3 Hall Sensor signals for CW rotation 39 Figure 2.4 Hall sensor image Figure 2.4 shows the Hall sensor image. The Hall sensor is this little component under the right electromagnet, When it senses the South pole, it keeps the coils tumed off, When the sensor senses no magnetic field (or could be also the South pole), then it turns on the coils. The coils have both the same magnetic polarity which is north, So they pull the opposite pole and torque is then created. If you put a probe to the Hall sensor and watch the signal, then you will discover that during a full rotation of the rotor, the Hall sensor is two times HIGH and two times LOW. Figure 2.5 shows the Back Emf, Current Waveforms and Hall position sensors for a BLDC motor drive. Motor commutation is usually related to Hall Effect sensor outputs. All of the electrical motors that do not require an electrical connection (made with brushes) between stationary and rotating parts can be considered as brushless permanent magnet (PM) machines, which can be categorized based on the PMs mounting and the back-EMF shape. The PMs can be surface mounted on the rotor (SMPM) or installed inside of the rotor (IPM), and the back-EMF shape can either be sinusoidal or trapezoidal. According to the back-EMF shape, PMAC synchronous motors (PMAC or PMSM) have sinusoidal back-EMF and Brushless DC motors (BLDC or BPM) have trapezoidal back-EMF. A PMAC motor is typically excited by a 40 three-phase sinusoidal current, and a BLDC motor is usually powered by a set of currents having a quasi-square waveform. Lae Pa ee Se zy Pisin al ‘A = ip fal Cd ot o om, on, Figure 2.5 Back emf, current waveforms and hall position sensors for a BLDC motor drive However, the BLDC motors are inherently electronically controlled and require rotor position information for proper commutation of currents in its stator windings. It is not desirable to use the position sensors for applications where reliability is of utmost importance because a sensor failure may cause instability in the control system. These limitations of using position sensors combined with the availability of powerful and economical microprocessors have spurred the development of sensorless control technology. 41 In recent years PWM techniques were effectively introduced to improve the performance of nonlinear systems. The application of PWM is very promising in system identification and control due to learning ability, massive parallelism, fast adaptation, inherent approximation capability, and high degree of tolerance. A single-phase uniform PWM DC-DC converter with only one switching device able to produce a controllable DC voltage ranging from zero to more than the maximum value of input de voltage has been used for armature voltage control method of a BLDC motor. 2.4.3. Phase Commutations To simplify the explanation of how to operate a three phase BLDC motor, a typical BLDC motor with only three coils is considered. As previously shown, phases commutation depends on the hall sensor values. When motor coils are correctly supplied, a magnetic field is created and the rotor moves. The most elementary commutation driving method used for BLDC motors is an ON & OFF scheme: a coil is either conducting or not conducting. Only two windings are supplied at the same time and the third winding is floating. Connecting the coils to the power and neutral bus induces the current flow. This is referred to as trapezoidal commutation or block commutation. Figure 2.6 shows the power circuit diagram for BLDC motor. 8 8 TT e

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