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1 2drag PDF
1 2drag PDF
(1)
where d the particle diameter, is the coefficient of viscosity and U is the relative
velocity of the fluid with respect to the particle. Equation (1) may be restated as
CD =
FD
1
U 2 A
2
24
Re
(2)
d 2
is cross sectional area of the
4
is the Reynolds number. The Stokes drag is applicable to the creeping flow regime
(Stokes regime) with small Reynolds numbers (Re < 0.5). At higher Reynolds numbers,
the flow the drag coefficient deviates from Equation 2. Figure 1 shows the variation of
drag coefficient for a sphere for a range of Reynolds numbers.
Re =
Eq. (4)
CD
Eq. (2)
Re
Figure 1. Variations of drag coefficient with Reynolds number for a spherical particle.
ME437/537
G. Ahmadi
Oseen included the inertial effect approximately and developed a correction to the
Stokes drag given as
CD =
(4)
CD =
(5)
or
CD =
24
4
+ 0.33
Re Re
(6)
1000
CD
100
Experiment
Oseen
10
Eq. (5)
Stokes
Newton
0
0
10
100
1000
10000
Re
Figure 2. Predictions of various models for drag coefficient for a spherical particle.
ME437/537
G. Ahmadi
For 10 3 < Re < 2.5 10 5 , the drag coefficient is roughly constant ( C D = 0.4 ). This
regime is referred to as the Newton regime. At Re 2.5 10 5 , the drag coefficient
decreases sharply due to the transient from laminar to turbulent boundary layer around
the sphere. That causes the separation point to shift downstream as shown in Figure 3.
For a particle moving near a wall, the drag force varies with distance of the
particle from the surface. Brenner (1961) analyzed the drag acting on a particle moving
toward a wall under the creeping flow condition as shown in Figure 4a. To the first
order, the drag coefficient is given as
CD =
24
d
(1 + )
Re
2h
(7)
ME437/537
24
9 d
1 d
45 d 4 1 d 5 1
[1 ( ) + ( ) 3
( ) ( ) ]
Re
16 2h 8 2h
256 2h
16 2h
(8)
G. Ahmadi
For very small particles, when the particle size becomes comparable with the gas
mean free path, slip occurs and the expression for drag must be modified accordingly.
Cunningham obtained the needed correction to the Stokes drag force:
FD =
3Ud
,
Cc
(9)
2
(10)
[1.257 + 0.4e 1.1d / 2 ]
d
Here denotes the molecular mean free path in the gas. Note that C c > 1 for all values
of d and . Figure 5 shows the variation of Cunningham correction factor with Knudsen
number. It is seen that C c is about 1 for Kn <0.1 and increases sharply as Kn increases
beyond 0.5. Table 4 illustrates the variation of Cunningham correction factor with
particle diameter in air under normal pressure and temperature conditions with = 0.07
1000
Cc
100
10
1
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
Kn
Figure 5. Variation of Cunningham correction with Knudsen number.
ME437/537
G. Ahmadi
Cc
1.018
1.176
3.015
23.775
232.54
10 m
1 m
0.1 m
0.01 m
0.001 m
Compressibility Effect
For high-speed flows with high Mach number, the compressibility could affect the
drag coefficient. Many expressions were suggested in the literature to account for the
effect of gas Mach number on the drag force.
expressions for drag force acting on spherical particles for subsonic and supersonic flows.
Accordingly, for subsonic flow
Re
0.5M 4.5 + 0.38 0.03Re+ 0.48 Re
M
+ exp
+ 0.1M 2 + 0.2M 8 + 1 exp 0.6S
Re 1 + 0.03Re+ 0.48 Re
Re
(11)
where M is Mach number based on relative velocity, V = V V p , and S= M
is
the molecular speed ratio, where is the specific heat ratio. For the supersonic flows
with Mach numbers equal to or exceeding 1.75, the drag force is given by
CD =
0.34
M
0.9 + 2 + 1.86
M
Re
2 1.058 1
4
2 + 2 +
S
S
S
1 + 1.86
Re
(12)
For the flow regimes with Mach between 1 and 1.75, a linear interpolation is to be used.
ME437/537
G. Ahmadi
0.427
3
0.88 }
4.63
M
Re
M
Re
1+
{3.82 + 1.28 exp(1.25 )}
Re
M
1 + exp(
(13)
Droplets
For drag force for liquid droplets at small Reynolds numbers is given as
FD = 3 f Ud
1 + 2 f / 3 p
1 + f / p
(14)
where the superscripts f and p refer to the continuous fluid and discrete particles
(droplets, bubbles), respectively.
Non-spherical Particles
For non-spherical (chains or fibers) particles, Stokes drag law must be modified.
i.e.,
FD = 3Ud e K ,
(15)
where d e is the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the chain or fiber. That
is,
6
d e = ( Volume)1 / 3
(16)
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G. Ahmadi
Cluster
Shape
oo
Correction
ooo
K = 1.27
o
oo
K = 1.16
oooooo
o
o
K = 1.64
K = 1.12
Correction
K = 1.17
K = 1.19
K = 1.17
Ellipsoidal Particles
For particles that are ellipsoids of revolution, the drag force is given by
FD = 6UaK'
(17)
b
a
(a)
(b)
ME437/537
G. Ahmadi
K' =
4 2
( 1)
3
( =
( 2 1)
ln[ + ( 2 1)1 / 2 ]
( 2 1)1 / 2
2
b
)
a
(18)
K' =
8 2
( 1)
3
( =
( 2 3)
ln[ + ( 2 1)1 / 2 ] +
2
1/ 2
( 1)
2
b
)
a
(19)
Similarly for the motion of an oblate ellipsoid of revolution along the polar axis as
shown in Figure 7a,
K' =
4 2
( 1)
3
( =
( 2)
tan 1 ( 2 1)1 / 2 ] +
2
1/ 2
( 1)
2
a
)
b
(20)
b
a
(a)
(b)
ME437/537
G. Ahmadi
K' =
8 2
( 1)
3
( =
(3 2)
tan 1 ( 2 1)1 / 2 ]
( 2 1)1 / 2
2
a
)
b
(21)
By taking the limit as in Equations (17)-(21), the drag force on thin disks
and needles may be obtained. These are:
Thin Disks of Radius a
(22)
(23)
a
(a)
(b)
4Ub
,
ln 2
( =
b
)
a
(24)
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8Ub
ln 2
(25)
G. Ahmadi
(a)
(b)
For a cylindrical needle with a very large ratio of length to radius ratio, moving
transverse to its axis as shown in Figure 10, the drag per unit length is given as
FD =
where R e =
4U
(2.002 ln R e )
(26)
2aU
and a is the radius. It is understood that
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10
G. Ahmadi
The ratio of the resistance of a given particle to that of a spherical particle having
the same volume is called the dynamic shape factor of the particle, K. The radius of an
equal volume sphere is referred to as the equivalent radius r e . Clearly
re = 1/ 3 for prolate spheroids,
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
Hence,
The Stokes (sedimentation radius) of a particle is the radius of a sphere with the same
density, which is settling with the terminal velocity of the particle in a quiescent fluid.
Values of shaped factors for a number of particles are available (Hidy, 1984; Lerman,
1979).
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11
G. Ahmadi