T h e M ys t e r y o f t h e M u r d e r e d R e p u b l i c

G a i u s J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d Au g u s t u s C a e s a r a r e n a m e s t h a t h a v e
e c h o e d l o u d l y t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y. Th e y a r e u n d i s p u t e d l y t h e m o s t
r e n o w n e d a n d w e l l - k n o w n n a me s t o c o m e t o u s i n t h e p r es e n t f r o m
R o ma n a n t i q u i t y. Th e i r f a me i s n o d o u b t w e l l e a r n e d . J u l i u s i s
regarded as one of the finest military leaders and one of the shrewdest
p o l i t i c a l m i n d s t h a t t h e h u ma n r a c e h a s e v e r p r o d u c e d . H is n e p h e w
a n d a d o p t i v e s o n Au g u s t u s t o o k t h e h u s k o f a d e a d r e p u b l i c a n d
t r a n s f o r me d i t i n t o a n e m p i r e t h a t d o m i n a t e d t h e w o r l d f o r c e n t u r i e s .

T h e r e i s o n e a s p e c t o f t h e i r f a me , o r p e r h a p s i n f a m y w o u l d b e
t h e b e t t e r w o r d , t h a t h a s b e e n m i s a t t r i b u t e d , h o w e v e r. Th e C a e s a r s ,
p r i ma r i l y J u l i u s , h a v e l o n g b e e n c o n s i d e r e d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e
d o w n f a l l o f R o m e s R e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t . Th a t a c c u s a t i o n i s
u n t r u e . R o m e s C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e p u b l i c , w e l l b e f o r e t h e r i s e t o p ow e r
o f Au g u s t u s o r e v e n J u l i u s , w a s d e a d i n a l l b u t n a me , a n d t h e k i l l e r
was Gaius Marius.

Marius was born in 157 B.C.E. in the town of Cirrhaeaton in

Arpinum to, according to Plutarch, parents who were altogether

obscure.1 Plutarch goes on to say that Marius first military service

w a s a g a i n s t t h e C e l t i b e r i a n s u n d e r S c i p i o Af r i c a n u s , h e r o o f t h e
S e c o n d P u n i c War a n d t h a t h e a t t r a c t e d t h e n o t i c e o f h i s g e n e r a l b y
e x c e l l i n g t h e o t h e r yo u n g m e n i n b r a v e r y. 2
M a r i u s t h e n e m b a r k e d o n a p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r, s e r v i n g a s t r i b u n e , l o s i n g
two elections in one day for the position of aedile, and serving as
praetor of Farther Spain. Upon his return to Rome, Marius married
J u l i a , t h e a u n t o f J u l i u s C a e s a r, a u n i o n w h i c h g r a n t e d M a r i u s t h e
s o c i a l c a c h e n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t i n u e h i s p o l i t i c a l a mb i t i o n s .
P o l i t i c a l a p p o i n t m e n t s a n d r o ma n t i c e n t a n g l e me n t s a s i d e ,
Gaius Marius was originally and primarily a military man, and it
w o u l d b e o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d t h a t h e w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o s e c u r e h i s p ow e r.
Serving as legate under the consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus in the
w a r a g a i n s t J u g u r t h a , M a r i u s s u r p a s s e d t h e offi c e r s o f h i s o w n r a n k
in giving good counsel and foreseeing what was advantageous, and
vied with the common soldiers in frugality and endurance, thereby
w i n n i n g mu c h g o o d w i l l a m o n g t h e m . 3
C o mb i n i n g t h a t s w e l l i n p o p u l a r i t y w i t h t h e s o c i a l l e g i t i ma c y p r o v i d e d
by his marriage, Marius ran for and won the position of consul, despite

1 Plutarch. "The Life of Marius." Life of Marius. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2015.
2 Plutarch. "The Life of Marius." Life of Marius. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2015.
3 Plutarch. "The Life of Marius." Life of Marius. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2015.

a lack of support from Metellus. Upon his appointment, Marius

i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n mu s t e r i n g a l e g i o n f o r t h e w a r a g a i n s t J u g u r t h a ,
despite the fact that Metellus had, according to Plutarch, nothing
further to do except to seize the person of Jugurtha, 4 In reading
Plutarch, one gets the distinct impression that Marius goal was to
steal the glory from Metellus, a goal at which he failed when
J u g u r t h a s s o n - i n - l a w B o c c h u s b e t r a ye d J u g u r t h a a n d t u r n e d h i m o v e r
t o L u c i u s C o r n e l i u s S u l l a F e l i x , M a r i u s l e g a t e , i n s t e a d . Th i s w a s t h e
first seed of that bitter and incurable hatred between Marius and
Sulla,5 a hatred that would lead to a series of civil wars that would
e v e n t u a l l y s h a t t e r t h e R o ma n R e p u b l i c .
I n 1 0 7 B . C . E . , M a r i u s w a s e l e c t e d t o c o n s u l a s e c o n d t i me a f t e r t h e
C i mb r i a n d t h e Teu t o n e s , t w o G e r ma n i c t r i b e s , i n v a d e d I t a l y a n d
d e f e a t e d C o ns u l L u c i u s C a s s i u s L o n g i n u s . Th i s e l e c t i o n w a s d es p i t e
the fact that a consul could not be elected in absentia, as Marius was,
n o r c o u l d a m a n b e e l e c t e d t o t h e p os i t i o n o f c o n s u l a s e c o n d t i me
w i t h o u t a d e c a d e p a s s i n g i n t h e i n t e r i m. Th i s w o u l d b e j u s t o n e o f
m a n y t i me s t h e r u l e s a n d l a w s o f R e p u b l i c a n R o me w o u l d b e b r o k e n o r
ignored for Marius benefit.
Marius would go on to be elected to the position of consul a
l a n d m a r k s e v e n t i me s , a n d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t i me s i n o ffi c e h e
4 Plutarch. "The Life of Marius." Life of Marius. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2015.
5 Plutarch. "The Life of Marius." Life of Marius. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2015.

w o u l d m a k e s e v e r a l c h a n g e s t o R o m a n l a w a n d p r a c t i c e . Th e s e
c h a n g e s w o u l d i n c r e a s e h i s ow n p e r s o n a l p o w e r a n d u l t i m a t e l y t e a r
d o w n a r e p u b l i c t h a t h a d s t o o d f o r f o u r h u n d r e d ye a r s . H ow e v e r, I d o
n o t c o n s i d e r M a r i u s t o b e t h e g r e a t v i l l a i n o f R o m e . Th o u g h t h e y d i d
a g g r a n d i z e h i ms e l f , a n d ma y e v e n h a v e b e e n u n d e r t a k e n w i t h t h a t
a g g r a n d i z e me n t as t h e g o a l , t h e c h a n g e s w r o u g h t b y, a n d a s a r e s u l t o f ,
M a r i u s w e r e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n e ns u r i n g R o m e w a s c a p a b l e o f s p r e a d i n g
its influence first across the Mediterranean and eventually throughout
Europe and the Middle East as well. A republic cannot rule an empire,
a n d d es p i t e R o me s c l a i m s t o t h e c o n t r a r y, a n e mp i r e i s w h a t R o m e
became with the fall of Carthage in 149 B.C.E.
I have written repeatedly of the changes to Rome due to Marius,
b u t a s ye t , I h a v e ma d e o n l y v a g u e r e f e r e n c e s . I w i l l b e g i n t o r e c t i f y
t h a t n o w b y e x p l a i n i n g i n f u l l e r d e t a i l t h e M a r i a n r e f o r ms t o R o m e s
m i l i t a r y.
P r i o r t o M a r i u s , t h e r e w e r e s t r i c t r e q u i r e me n t s t h a t h a d t o b e me t
b e f o r e a R o ma n c i t i z e n w a s a l l o w e d t o j o i n t h e a r m y. Amo n g t h e s e
r e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p a n d l a n d o w n e r s h i p . Th i s w a s
thought to ensure that only those who actually had a stake in the
R e p u b l i c s f a t e w o u l d h a v e a r o l e i n i t s d e f e n s e . An o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t
was that the prospective soldier had to provide his own arms and
a r mo r.

T h a t l a s t r e q u i r e me n t a l s o d i c t a t e d R o ma n m i l i t a r y t a c t i c s . Th e
p o o r e s t a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y mo s t l i g h t l y a r m e d a n d a r m e d s o l d i e r s w e r e
t h e h a s t a t i . Th e s e s o l d i e r s w o u l d a d v a n c e i n f r o n t o f t h e l i n e s ,
peppering the enemy formations with thrown javelins while the rest of
t h e a r m y a d v a n c e d . Af t e r w a r d s , t h e y w o u l d r e t r e a t b e h i n d t h e ma i n
line, which consisted of higher class citizen-soldiers who were called
p r i n c i p e s a n d w e r e mo r e h e a v i l y a r mo r e d . B e h i n d t h e p r i n c i p e s w e r e
t h e t r i a r i i , w h o w e r e a r me d , a r mo r e d , a n d f o u g h t i n t h e m a n n e r o f t h e
G r e e k p h a l a n x . Th e t r i a r i i w e r e t h e mo s t e x p e r i e n c e d i n f a n t r y s o l d i e r s
a v a i l a b l e t o R o m a n c o m ma n d e r s . I n f a c t , t h e us e o f t h e t r i a r i i w as
c o n s i d e r e d s o m e t h i n g o f a m a r k o f s h a m e . R e m a d Tri a r i o s red i s s e
i t h a s c o me t o t h e t r i a r i i w as a c o m m o n e x p r e s s i o n d e n o t i n g
d e s p e r a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e c o m ma n d e r. 6
All this changed under Marius.

Not only did he relax the property

r e s t r i c t i o n s , h e d i d a w a y w i t h t h e m c o m p l e t e l y, o p e n i n g u p R o ma n
m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e t o t h e l a n d l e s s a n d p e n n i l e s s . As a c o n s e q u e n c e ,
R o ma n s o l d i e r s w e r e n o l o n g e r r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e t h e i r ow n
e q u i p m e n t . Th a t w o u l d n o w b e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e a r m y i t s e l f .
T h e a r m y r a n k s w e r e a l s o s t a n d a r d i z e d . Th e r e w e r e n o mo r e h a s t a t i ,
p r i n c i p e s , o r t r i a r i i . Th e r e w a s o n l y t h e l e g i o n .

6 Smith, William (1859). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Little,

Brown, and Co.. Retrieved 2008-09-21.

A l o n g w i t h n e w s t a n d a r d s o f a r ms , a r mo r, r e c r u i t m e n t , a n d
o rga n i z a t i o n c a me n e w s t a n d a r d s o f t r a i n i n g a n d mu s t e r a s w e l l .
B e f o r e M a r i u s , a r m i e s w e r e r a i s e d a t n e e d , w h i c h t h e c o m ma n d i n g
c o n s u l r e c r u i t i n g t h e a r m y a n d t r a i n i n g i t w h e n R o me w as ( o r R o ma n
i n t e r e s t s w e r e ) t h r e a t e n e d . At t h e e n d o f t h e c a mp a i g n , t h e s o l d i e r s
would return home. Under Marius, the legions transformed from a
r e a c t i o n a r y e me rge n c y f o r c e t o a s t a n d i n g a r m y t h a t e x i s t e d a n d
t r a i n e d a l l ye a r r o u n d a n d n o t j u s t i n r e s p o n s e t o a c r i s i s .
An additional change that Marius made to the military was to
alter how spoils were distributed. Prior to Marius, the commanders
r e c e i v e d a l i o n s s h a r e o f t h e b o o t y, w i t h t h e l o w e r o ffi c e r r a n ks
r e c e i v i n g p r o g r e s s i v e l y s ma l l e r p i e c e s a n d t h e r a n k a n d f i l e g e t t i n g t h e
s c r a p s . M a r i u s f l i p p e d t h i s e q u a t i o n , w i t h t h e c o m mo n t r o o p s
receiving a full half of the spoils (most of that going to the
c e n t u r i o n s ) a n d t h e o ffi c e r c o r p s s h a r i n g t h e r e s t . H e a l s o t h e
i n s t i t u t e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f l a n d g r a n t s a t t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o mp l e t i o n o f
t w e n t y ye a r s o f s e r v i c e ( i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e n e w l e g i o n a r i e s w e r e
n o l o n g e r r e q u i r e d t o b e l a n d e d c i t i z e n s a t t i m e o f e n l i s t me n t ) .
M a r i u s r e f o r ms p r o v i d e d t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s w i t h n o t o n l y t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y b u t a l s o t h e i m p e t u s t o j o i n R o me s a r m y, a s f o r ma n y o f
t h e m t h i s w a s t h e o n l y m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e y c o u l d mo v e u p i n t h e
w o r l d , o r i n s o me c a s e s e v e n e a t . Th e s e c h a n g e s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e
s i z e o f t h e f o r c e t h a t R o m e c o u l d mu s t e r a n d c h a n g e d t h e R o ma n

m i l i t a r y f r o m a n a l l - v o l u n t e e r c i v i l i a n mi l i t i a t o a s t a n d i n g r e a d y
f o r c e , a p r o f e s s i o n a l a r m y.
T h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l a r m y, h o w e v e r, u n l i k e i t s m i l i t i a p r e d e c e s s o r,
w a s n o t l o ya l t o t h e S e n a t e a n d P e o p l e o f R o m e , f i r s t , p r i m a r i l y, a n d
e x c l u s i v e l y. C o n s i s t i n g l a rge l y o f l o w e r c l a s s R o m a n s , t h e l e g i o n s
q u i t e n a t u r a l l y b e g a n t o s h i f t t h e i r l o ya l t y t o t h e c o m ma n d e r s o n w h o m
t h e y d e p e n d e d f o r t h e i r s o c i a l m o b i l i t y, t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d s a n d t h e i r
l i v e s . M a r i u s a n d h i s s u c c e s s o rs a s F i rs t M a n i n R o m e , S u l l a ,
P o mp e y, a n d C a e s a r w o u l d m a k e g r e a t u s e o f t h a t l o ya l t y, n o t o n l y
m i l i t a r i l y b u t p o l i t i c a l l y, a s t h e y w o u l d o n m u l t i p l e o c c a s i o n s us e t h e
l o ya l t y o f t h e i r v e t e r a n s t o p us h t h r o u g h l e g i s l a t i o n a t t h e b us i n e s s
end of a club, using coercion, threats of violence, and actual violence
t o i n t i mi d a t e n o t o n l y t h e i r p o l i t i c a l e n e mi e s b u t o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n s a s
well.
I n 9 1 B . C . E . , R o m e s I t a l i a n a l l i e s r e b e l l e d i n w h a t h a s c o m e t o
b e c a l l e d t h e S o c i a l War. 7 Th e c a u s e o f t h i s r e b e l l i o n w as R o me s
i n s i s t e n c e o n t h e p r e e mi n e n c e o f h e r o w n c i t i z e n s . Al l i e d c i t i e s w e r e
obliged to fight and die in defense of Rome and were often subject to
w h a t t o t h e m w e r e r u i n o u s t a x e s . Th e y w e r e , h o w e v e r, a ffo r d e d n o s a y
i n R o m a n a ffa i r s . N o t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s s u r e l y a
f a mi l i a r r e f r a i n .

7 Appian. "The Civil Wars." N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Dec. 2015.

B y t h i s t i me , t h e R o ma n S e n a t e h a d b e g u n t o f e a r M a r i u s p o p u l a r i t y
a n d p ow e r, a n d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e g a v e t h e c o m ma n d t o S u l l a . S u l l a
would prove to be a fine general in his own right, bringing the Social
War t o a c l o s e b y 8 8 B . C . E .
B e f o r e t h e S o c i a l War w as e v e n o v e r, t h e r e w o u l d c o me a n o t h e r
c h a l l e n g e t o R o ma n p o w e r a n d a n o t h e r s p a r k t o t h e t i n d e r d r y e n m i t y
between Marius and Sulla. In 89 B.C.E, Mithridates VI, King of
P o n t u s , d e s i r i n g t o e x p a n d h i s k i n g d o m a n d s u r r o u n d e d b y R o ma n
allies, waged war against his neighbors.
T h e E a s t h a d l o n g b e e n h o me t o v a s t r i c h e s , a n d m a n y R o m a n
c o m ma n d e r s h a d ma d e m a n y f o r t u n e s c a m p a i g n i n g i n As i a M i n o r.
M a r i u s , f o r t u n e a l r e a d y ma d e , s e t h i s e ye s u p o n a n o t h e r a n d s o u g h t t h e
c o m ma n d . Th e S e n a t e , h ow e v e r, s e l e c t e d S u l l a a g a i n . U n d e t e r r e d ,
M a r i u s c o n v i n c e d t h e t r i b u n e P u b l i u s S u l p i c i u s R u f us t o c o n v e n e a n
A s s e mb l y t o o v e r t u r n t h e S e n a t e s d e c i s i o n . R i o t i n g t h e n b r o k e o u t a s
f o r c e s ( mo s t l i k e l y m o b s ) l o ya l t o R u f u s f o r c i b l y e j e c t e d s e n a t o r s f r o m
the Forum in order to keep them from voting.
S u l l a l e f t R o m e , f l e e i n g t o h i s v e t e r a n s o f t h e S o c i a l War, w h o
were waiting to leave for Greece under his command and told them of
t h e e v e n t s o f R o me . Wh e n e n v o ys f r o m t h e As s e mb l y c a m e t o i n f o r m
t h e l e g i o n s t h a t t h e i r c o m ma n d h a d b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o M a r i u s , t h e
e n v o ys w e r e s t o n e d .

S u l l a w o u l d t h e n d o s o me t h i n g t h a t n o R o ma n g e n e r a l h a d d o n e
i n r e c o r d e d h i s t o r y. H e ma r c h e d h i s a r m y t o R o m e i t s e l f . S u l l a s
battle hardened legions made quick work of the gladiatorial army
Marius had raised by promising them their freedom in exchange for
f i g h t i n g f o r h i m. O n c e i n c o n t r o l o f t h e c i t y, S u l l a q u i c k l y d e c l a r e d
b o t h M a r i u s a n d S u l p i c u s o u t l a w s ( a mo n g o t h e r s ) a n d i n t r o d u c e d ma n y
c h a n g e s t o R o ma n l a w t h a t w o u l d s t r e n g t h e n s e n a t o r i a l p o w e r. H e
then continued with his original goal of fighting Mithridates, the First
M i t h r i d a t i c War.
M a r i u s , h o w e v e r, w a s n o t d o n e . Wit h S u l l a o c c u p i e d i n t h e E a s t ,
h e t o o w o u l d ma r c h o n R o m e , w i t h a n a r m y h e h a d r a i s e d i n Af r i c a .
M a r i u s f o r c e s r a mp a g e d t h r o u g h t h e c i t y, s l a u g h t e r i n g S u l l a s
s u p p o r t e r s . D e c l a r i n g S u l l a s r e f o r m s i n v a l i d , M a r i u s h a d h i ms e l f
d e c l a r e d c o n s u l f o r a s e v e n t h a n d f i n a l t i me . H i s v i c t o r y w o u l d b e
s h o r t l i v e d , h o w e v e r, as h e d i e d a me r e t w o w e e k s l a t e r, e ffe c t i v e l y
dragging the Republic into death with him.
After defeating Mithridates, Sulla returned to Rome, defeating
G a i u s M a r i u s t h e You n g e r a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e M a r i a n s i n w h a t h as
c o me t o b e c a l l e d S u l l a s S e c o n d C i v i l War. S u l l a t h e n r e v i v e d t h e
o ffi c e o f d i c t a t o r, a p o s i t i o n t h a t b e e n u n f i l l e d s i n c e f o r o v e r a
h u n d r e d ye a r s . U n l i k e t h e f o r m e r d i c t a t o r s , h ow e v e r, t h e r e w as n o
l i m i t t o t h e l e n g t h o f S u l l a s t e r m .

Wit h S u l l a s a s c e n t t o t h e p os i t i o n o f d i c t a t o r, t h e R e p u b l i c o f
R o me w as m e r e l y a n a m e . C i v i l d i s c o u r s e a n d p o l i t e ( o r a t l e a s t
p o l i t i c a l ) d e b a t e w e r e n o l o n g e r t h e t o o l s b y w h i c h R o ma n p o l i c y
w o u l d b e c r a f t e d a n d i mp l e m e n t e d . N o w R o m a n p o l i t i c s w o u l d b e
d e c i d e d b y t h e s t r e n g t h o f o n e s l e g i o n s , t h e r e g a r d i n w h i c h t h e y h e l d
yo u , a n d t h e a u d a c i t y w i t h w h i c h yo u w i e l d e d t h e m.

Wor k s C i t e d
P l u t a r c h . " T h e L i f e o f M a r i u s . " N . p . , n . d . Web . 1 2 D e c . 2 0 1 5 .
S mi t h , Wil l i a m ( 1 8 5 9 ) . A D i c t i o n a r y o f G r e e k a n d R o m a n
A n t i q u i t i e s . L i t t l e , B r ow n , a n d C o
A p p i a n . " T h e C i v i l War s . " N . p . , n . d . Web . 1 6 D e c . 2 0 1 5 .