14.1 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM The ability to land an aircraft under low or zero visibility conditions is probably the most vital factor, which determines the reliability of air travel. An electronic system now in use provides a solution to this problem. This system is known as Instrument Landing system (ILS). The function of Instrument Landing system is to enable the pilot of an aircraft to make a safe approach to, and landing on, a runway even under adverse conditions of weather and visibility. It is essential that our system should also be reliable enough so as to make the landing safe. That is why reliability analysis is important and considerable efforts are made to obtain a high system reliability 14.11 System Details The function of an ILS is accomplished by the provision of azimuth guidance, elevation guidance and distance from threshold information. The essential elements of the Instrument Landing System, illustrated in Fig. 14.1,consist of a runway localizer for azimuth guidance, glidepath equipment for elevation guidance, and marker beacons. (@) PLAN VIEW Eauiignal Path of Gleepaih Egsipment yer Milo inner ~~’ Marker Marker == Marker Patho eo Deacon Beacon pane aT” Imtencton po v VV N @ swe VIEW Fig 14.1 Schematic diagram showing essential features (of the Instrument Landing System. The runway localizer provides the lateral or azimuth guidance that enables the airplane to approach the runway from the proper direction. Signals carrying azimuth guidance information are produced by a VHF Localizer equipment. The glidepath equipment provides an equisignal path type of Guidance in the vertical plane analogous to the guidance in azimuth provided by the equisignal path of the localizer. The combination of runway localizer and glidepath equipment provides the pilot with sufficient information to approach the runway in the correct direction, and to bring the aircraft down to earth along a glidepath that will provide a safe landing. In addition three VHF marker beacons are sited along the extended centre-line of the runway to provide distance from threshold information to an aircraft making an instrument approach. These three beacons are referred to as the outer, middle and inner markers, and are located nominally at 3.9 nautical miles, 1050 meters and 75-480 meters respectively from the landing threshold. The marker beacons provide indications to the pilot of an aircraft that these specific points along the approach path have been reached. The marker beacons radiate a horizontally polarized signal at 75 MHz. This carrier signal is modulated by a codedaudio tone, the frequency of the audio tone and the code depending on the position of the marker beacon. The outer marker modulation is a tone of 40 Hz coded two dashes per second. The middle marker modulation is a tone of 1300 Hz coded alternate dots and dashes, the dashes keyed at the rate of two dashes per second and the dots at the rate of six dots per second. The inner marker modulation is a tone of 3000 Hz coded six dots per second. The vertical radiation pattern of each marker beacon is adjusted to provide coverage over the following distances measured on the ILS glidepath and localizer course line. “ Inner marker : 150 + 50 Metres. (i) Middle marker : 300 + 100 Metres. (i) Outer marker: 600+ 200 Metres. In this study, we consider the reliability analysis of localizer and glidepth equipment only as beacons can be assumed failure free with reasonably good degree of confidence. Also we assume the installation of category II (Cat I) level equipment for highlighting few salient points in reliability analysis. 14.12 Reliability Analysis Reliability Analysis of equipment is necessary to have a quantitative knowledge of the reliability so that further improvement in reliability can be made. This study deals with reliability and MTBF calculations for ILS ground equipment -Localizer, and Glidepath . Reliability is the probability that an equipment functions satisfactorily for a given period of time under specified operating and environmental conditions. It can be expressed in terms of the failure rate and MTBF as follows: R= eat = etm a4) Where, R Reliability of the system 2 Failure rate of the system. t Time m MTBF of the system. Several methods of reliability and MTBF prediction have already been discussed and each one of them depends upon the degree of theoretical and technical data available and the degree of accuracy required for prediction.In this study, Parts Count Method has been followed which involves the counting of each generic type of component such as fixed film resistors, ceramic capacitors, silicon NPN transistors, etc. The counted number is multiplied by a generic failure rate for each part type and then these products are added to obtain the failure rates of each functional block of the system. The failure rates for this study were taken from MIL-HDBK-217. 14.13 Localizer The runway localizer radiates a horizontally polarized composite field pattern modulated by 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones. (The radiated wave consists of a Equsgnat coune 150H2, ‘90 Hz CVs Cbs Fig.14.2 Directional pattern used in runway Localizer of Instrument Landing System, single carrier wave which is simultaneously associated with two sets of continuously radiated amplitude -modulated sidebands represented by modulated frequencies of 90 Hz and 150 Hz, respectively). The composite field pattern, shown in Fig.14.2, comprises of two patterns which correspond to the relative strengths of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz sidebands as a function of direction. Further, the equisignal course directions are indicated by equality in the strength of the two modulations which are separated by suitable filters in receiver output, separately rectified and then applied with opposite polarity to a zero centermeter. This radiation pattern produces a coarse sector, about the extended centre line of the runway, in which the 90 Hz tone predominates on the left hand side of the approach to the runway and the 150 Hz tone predominates on the right. The difference in the depth of modulation ( DDM) of the two tones is zero along the course line. The localizer carrier frequency is within the band 108 MHz to 112 MHz. The Localizer is a static installation which provides the azimuth guidance to an aircraft. The localizer aerial system is sited on the extended centre line of the runway at a distance which is consistent with safe obstruction clearance practice from the stop end of the runway. The localizer transmitter cabinet and ancillary equipment are housed in a building at the rear of, and within a radius of 90 meters from the centre of the aerial system. A remote control facility is provided in the airfield control building. In category-Il, onetransmitter provides power to the aerial, while the other transmitter remains off. The radiated signals are continuously checked by a duplicated monitoring system. A Cat Il system has two channels, each consisting of main transmitter Unit, Motor Drive Unit and Mechanical Modulator in addition to Coaxial Distribution Unit, Aerial Distribution Unit, Localizer Aerial Arrays, Monitor Aerials and Associated Equipment, Control Unit (local) and Control Unit (remote). 14.14 Glidepath Signals carrying elevation guidance information are produced by UHF glidepath equipment which produces a horizontally polarized composite field pattern modulated by 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones. This radiation field pattern produces a glidepath sector about a straight line descent path in a vertical plane containing the centre line of the runway, in which the 90 Hz tone predominates above the descent path and the 150 Hz tone predominates below. As a result of the predominance of one tone above and one tone below the descent path, difference in the depths of modulation are apparent in the glidepath sector. The DDM is zero along a straight line descent path, providing the glidepath and increases with increasing vertical displacement from the descent path. The glide path transmitter carrier frequency is the band 328 MHz to 336 MHz. The glidepath equipment is static installation which provides the elevation guidance of the Instrument Landing System. The glidepath equipment provides a range of at least 10 nautical miles (18.5 km) within the sectors, 8° either side of the glidepath course line, bounded by upper and lower planes 1.750 and 0.308 respectively where 0 is the glidepath angle. In order to ensure that there will be only one equisignal glidepath, the lower antenna is so excited that its lobe maximum is larger than the maximum of the upper antenna and is so placed that its pattern has a maximum that is at a relatively large angle above the horizon as shown in Fig.14.3. Different side band frequencies are radiated from these antennas in the same manner as indicated for localizer in Fig.14.2. The proper alidepath is in the range of 2 degree to 5 degree. Since the glidepath equipment must be placed at the side of the runway so. that it will not present a hazard, the antenna patterns in the horizontal plane must be carefully controlled so. that the glidepath will have the correct slope along the azimuth course defined by the localizer. The category-Il equipment is identical to that of localizer equipment.Tor Insiument Lanting System. 14.15. Localizer Reliability Calculations The functional performance of the localizer equipment of the ILS has been described. Based on this functional performance we obtain the Reliability Logic Diagram (RLD) for Cat Il system which has been shown as RLD -1 in EHELSHH fs LDA MRE. Dectiatee Unt it Local Ceara Gat erect tteldaat rg Mowe itn ARR ORRET ER Comal Debtor Unt ca RLD-LA Rips LAL $0 tte Mater Ut 1154 Fenton Moi 2 Woke Meta 2133 Mabe 3 Ma Speed en $12 Steere i | fisia {isis} fis | fins }— {a isa Hiss + Fig 144 RLD for Lacalizer.Fig.14.4. Some of the blocks (*) namely 1.2, 1.7 and 1.9 do not contribute to the failure of the equipment and are therefore not analyzed further. Some other blocks, namely 1.1, 1.3, 1.6, 1.8 and 1.10 are simple and their failure rates can be directly estimated by finding out the failure rates of the constituent components. Blocks such as 1.4, 1.5 and 1.11 require further decomposition in separate sub-blocks and are indicated by (+). The numbering of the blocks has been done in such a way that it clearly shows that this is the sub block of which particular block. The following points have been kept in view while analyzing Fig.14.4. ti) RF distribution unit and localizer aerial arrays do not contribute to the failure rate of the system. i) The components of the coaxial distribution unit have not been included in the analysis (based on experience) except for four switchover relays. The remote control unit has only some switches and all other functions are confined to the local control unit only. Therefore, remote control unit is not considered in the reliability analysis. (iv) Inthe local control unit , identity tone detectors have not been considered into reliability analysis as their failure does not result into the failure of the equipment. (v) The failure rates of Aperture Monitor Combining unit in the Aerial Distribution Equipment and of the monitor dipoles in Monitor Aerials and Associated equipments have been taken as equal to zero. (vi) In cat Il system the stand by channel B comes into operation when the main channel A fails. In practice channel A is operated for some time, then channel Bis operated for some time, then channel A and so on. Therefore, the effective failure rate of each channel would be the half of each channel's failure rate, calculated on the assumption of continuous operation. Nearfield | monitor & Nearfield 11 monitor are in active parallel redundancy. Each monitor unit comprises of position monitor, width monitor, clearance monitor and alarm unit as shown in RLD - 1.5. Each of these three monitors comprises of five units as shown in RLD -1.5.1. This figure is drawn for position monitor. For other monitors, the first four units will remain the same and the fifth one will be replaced by appropriate attenuator (position/width/ clearance). The failure rate calculations for localizer are shown in the respctive tables.The failure rate given in these tables refer to the values per million parts and therefore are to be multiplied by 10-6. They have been taken from Mil-HDK- 217. The following notes will be helpful in understanding these tables. a Reference Note No. has been included in the tables for each entry. Its significance is: (a) Note No. 1 indicates that the value has been estimated using the Handbook. (b) Note No. 2 indicates that the value has been estimated by referring to Part Stress Method in the Handbook. (c) Note No. 3 indicates that the failure rate for this item has been calculated in another table. The numbers of the tables and the numbers in the Reliability Logic Diagrams are self explanatory. (i) Ground fixed environment (Gr) has been assumed for failure rate calculations. (iii) Resistors are of carbon composition type. They have been assumed classified according to a style with 2 letters. For resistors and capacitors, commercial, non-mil quality has been assumed and the value of quality factor mq is taken as 3. {iv) Diodes have been divided into two categories - General purpose (silicon) and Zener & Avalanche. Both these and transistors are assumed to be of non-mil hermetic type with %q =5. (v) Connections of PCBs with coaxial cable are taken to fall in the category of coaxial connectors. Control panel with coaxial cable fall in the category of circular, rack & panel arrangement. Wiring Board connectors fall in the category of printed wiring Board. Sockets, Plugs, etc. are considered similar to coaxial type of connectors for failure rate estimation, Transformers are categorized into two types- Audio transformers and RF transformers. They are assumed to be of non-mil type and mq =3. Inductors are also assumed to have xq =3. (vi). Switches are assumed to be of non-mil type. Key switch and jack switch are assumed to have the failure rate equal to that of push button type. xq is taken to be as 20. Master switch is assumed to be of toggle type and xq=20. For rotary switches tq = 50, for general purpose relays nq = 6. (vii) Quartz crystal, fuses, lamps (neon and incandescent) are assumed to be of MIL-C-3098 specification and meters are assumed to be of MIL-M-10304 specification.(viii) Warning devices, batteries and all the elements of Aerial Distribution unit except the resistors and capacitors are assumed to have zero failure rate. 14.151 Reliability expression and MTBF determination Table 14.1 summarizes the failure rates of all the constituent units of localizer. These failure rates have been obtained as shown in the subsequent tables. The actual values for all components could not be reproduced for obvious reasons. TABLE 14.1 Failure Rates for Units of Localizer Sr.No | Name of the Component Failure Rate 1,__| Main Transmitter Unit fy 2._| R.F. Distribution Unit fo 3.__| Motor Drive Unit _ts 4. | Mechanical Modulator Unit fa 5. | Monitor Unit fs 6.__| Coaxial Distribution Unit fe 7.__| Remote Control Unit fy 8._| Local Control Unit tg 9. | Aerial Arrays fy 10. _| Aerial Distribution Equipment fio 11._| Monitor Aerials and Associated Equipment fi The block diagram is shown in Fig. 14.4. Let Ry be the reliability for both the channels, each comprising of blocks 1.1 to 1.4. Let Rg be the reliability for parallel combination of blocks 1.5. Let R3 be the reliability of blocks 1.6 to 1.11 in series. Then, the localizer reliability Ry is given by Ry= R; * R2 * R3 Ry= (142, *% thexp (Ay * th As each channel works for only about half the time, Ay =(1/2) (f) + fo +3 + fq) Also, Ra = 2expl -fs * t) -exp (-2f5 * t)TABLE 1.1 Main Transmitter Unit Sr. Name of the Component | Ref. | Qty. | Generic TIg Failure No Note failure rate No i Fixed resistor 1 112 [0.0110 [3 | 3.6960 2 Variable resistor 1 17 0.1400 [3 7.1400 3___| Fixed paper capacitor [1 [11 | 0.0260 [3 | 0.8580 4 | Fixed ceramic capacitor [1 | 37 | 0.0180 [3 | 1.9980 5 Fixed tantalum capacitor | 1 22_ [0.2800 [3 | 18.480 6 Variable air trimmer 1 13 1.9000 |3 74.100 capacitor 7 n npn transistor__|1 | 21 | 0.0160 |6 | 1.6800 8 Si N_pnp transistor, 1 8 0.0240 |5 0.9600 9 | Fixed inductor 1__|21 [0.0110 [3 | 0.6930 10__| Variable inductor 1_|5 [0.0230 [3 [0.3450 11__| General purpose diode_ [1 [15 [0.0031 [5 | 0.2325 12 | Zener diode 1 {6 [0.0120 [5 [0.3600 13 R.F. Transformer 1 1 0.1500 _| 3 0.4500. 14 | Quartz crystal 2 {1 | 0.2000 [- [0.2000 15 _| Thyristor 1__|4 0.1000 _[s | 2.0000 16 | Rotary switch 1__|2 [0.9600 | 50_| 96.000 17 Socket 1 3 0.0170 |3 0.1530 18__| Plug 1_|3 0.0170 [3 | 0.1530 Total 209.4985 The total failure rate for blocks 1.6 to 1.11 in series is given by : dg = fo + fy + fe + fo + fio + fi Therefore, Rg = exp (-A3 * t). As the reliability expression is not a simple exponent, we derive the MTBF by integrating this expression from 0 to 2. Therefore, MTBF for the localizer m, is given by :TABLE 1.3 Motor Drive Unit Sr. Name of the Component | Ref. | Oty. | Generic | Tg | Failure No Note failure rate No rate 4. 1. Fixed resistor 1 37 0.0110 | 3 1.2210 2. Fixed ceramic capacitor | 1 onl 0.0180 _|3 0.5940 3. | Fixed tantalum capacitor | 1 15__[ 0.2800 [3 | 12.600 4. Silicon npn transistor 1 2 0.0160 | 5 0.1600 5. Fixed inductor 1 1 0.0110 | 3 0.0330 6.__| General purpose diode | 1 16_| 0.0031 [5 [0.2480 7.__| Zener diode 1 2 {0.0120 [5 [0.1200 8. | R.F. Transformer 1 1 {0.1500 [3 [0.4500 9. | Thyristor 1 6 [0.1000 [5 [3.0000 10. _| Jack switch i 1 [0.0029 [20 0.0580. wu. Meter 2 1 10.000 _| - 10.000 12. Lamp (Incandescent) 2 1 1.0000 | - 1.0000 13. General purpose relay 1 1 0.3300 | 6 1.9800 14. Plug 1 3 0.0170 |3 0.1530 Total 31.5150 TABLE 1.4 Mechanical Modulator Unit Sr. | Name of the Component | Ref. | Oty. | Generic | fq | Failure No Note failure rate No. rate 1. 90 Hz Modulator Unit 3 1 18.249 | - 18.2490 2 150 Hz Modulator Unit 3 1 18.249 | - 18.2490 3 Motor Speed Alarm Unit | 3 1 11.760 | - 11.7600 Total 48.2580 TABLE 1.4.1 90 Hz Modulator Unit. ‘Sr. Name of the Component | Ref. Qty. | Generic Tg Failure No Note failure rate No rate 1. Fixed paper capacitor 1 7 0.0260 [3 0.5460 2 | Variable air trimmer 1 3 [1.9000 [3 | 17.100 capacitor 3__| R.F. Transformer 1 1 [0.1500 |3 | 0.4500 4 Socket 1 3 0.0170 |3 [0.1530 | Total 18.2490 |14.16 Glidepath reliability calculations The functional performance of the glidepath equipment of the ILS has already been described. Based on the functional performance we obtain the Reliability Logic Diagram for the Cat Il system which is shown as RLD-2 in the Fig. 14.5. The blocks in this diagram are numbered as 2.1 to 2.11. Some of the blocks {*) namely 2.2, 2.7,2.9 and 2.10 do not contribute to the failure of the equipment and are therefore not analyzed further. Some other blocks namely 2.1, 2.3, 2.6, 2.8, and 2.11 are simple and their failure rates can be directly estimated by using the failure rates of the constituent components. Blocks such as 2.4 and 2.5 are decomposed into various sub-blocks and it is indicated by( +). The failure rate evaluation of the glidepath equipment has been carried out assuming the points as indicated in the case of localizer except for the followin, i) The number of switch over relays in the coaxial distribution unit is now 3 instead of 4. (ii) In the local control unit, identity tone detectors are not used in this case. (iii) Based on experience the aerial distribution unit is assumed failure free and therefore not included in the reliability analysis. (iv) All the associated units except the RF amplifier in the monitor aerials and associated equipments have zero failure rate. 14.161 Reliability expression and MTBF determination Table 14.2 summarizes the failure rates of all the constituent units of the glidepath equipment. These failure rates have been obtained as shown in the subsequent tables. The block diagram is shown in Fig.14.5. Let Ry be the reliability for both the channels, each comprising of blocks 2.1 to 2.4. Let Rz be the reliability for parallel combination of blocks 2.5. Let Rg be the reliability of blocks 2.6 to 2.11 in series . Then the glidepath reliability Rg is given by Rg = Ry * Re * Ro Ry = (1 +g * t) expl- Ag* tPILL, a5} = LETHE HEe Hae Har THEHB Hip Uns mp2 21 Main Trnesiter Ut 1917 Remote Cote Urit “22. RF Duetbuion Unt 2 Local Gontel Usk 23 Notee Deve Unt is! Aenat Arye "1 Coma tiation it epee eae eas si} ps2 as} mp2 mips 24190 Mogae 1231 Fontan Moor Ag Wotton Une 2 water 443 Never See lam Ui $33 Gennac Monte TESU Atta fia }fas13 }-B513 |_fesia } isis J ipa 25.11 RF and AGC Anphier 2813 Ande Amplifier i313 sottead ote rier 2517 Baansed DC. Ape 2513 Pontion uenator san Hpsaa Hasas + RLD234 2541 tntrconmectin Bord 25542 Subic law Saply Ut Buiieboed Fig.14.8 RLD for Glidepath. As each channel works for only about half the time, 43 = (1/2) (gy +92 +03 +94) Also, Rz = 2 exp (-9s5 * t) -exp (-2 gs * t) The total failure rate for blocks 2.6 to 2.11 in series is given by : 4a = G6 +07 +98 +99 +910 +911 Therefore, Rg = exp (-Ag * t)TABLE 14.2 Failure Rates for Units of Glidepath r.No | Name of the Component Failure Rate Main Transmitter Unit a1 R.F, Distribution Unit 92 23 94 9s 9s Motor Drive Unit Mechanical Modulator Unit Monitor Unit Coaxial Distribution Unit Remote Control Unit 7 Local Control Unit Oz . Aerial Arrays go 0. _| Aerial Distribution Equipment ‘gio 1. | Monitor Aerials and Associated Equipment a1 afofr]=]o =[s]e|2]xJolo As the reliability expression is not a simple exponent, we derive the MTBF by tegrating this expression from o to =. Therefore, the MTBF for the glidepath mg is given by ~ mg=J Rg dt ° It may be observed that the localizer as well as the glidepath make use of active parallel as well as standby redundancy in some subsystems. Therefore, the failure rate will be the function of time. Hence, talking about a consolidated failure rate for these units is meaningless. Therefore, we have evaluated the reliability expressions and used them to evaluate the MTBF for these units