2

Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1,

first and second movements

Learning objectives:

44 Methods of study

44 to study the set work:

You will be able to take an unmarked copy of the score into the
examination room and will be required to write one essay from a choice
of two. Realistically, you will have about 35 minutes in which to plan and
write your essay, so it is essential that you take every opportunity to learn
how to plan and write essays. You will have a choice between two different
titles and you must consider carefully which of these will enable you to
give the better answer within the time available.

Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

in C major Op. 21, first and
second movements
44 to examine the structure of

sonata form
44 to look closely at the use of

sonata form in each movement

44 to look at the slow

introduction to the first

movement
44 to examine in detail the main

themes and ideas presented in

the exposition sections
44 to consider how Beethoven

varies, extends and alters his

ideas within the development
sections
44 to study how the themes

return within the

recapitulations and to compare
their return here with their
initial appearance in the
expositions
44 to examine how Beethoven

brings the movements to

a conclusion in the coda
sections, considering to what
extent these are based on the
codettas from the ends of the
expositions
44 to study Beethovens use of the

musical elements.

14

You will need to learn the techniques of musical analysis, starting probably
with simple piano pieces or, perhaps, utilising any music you and your
fellow students are currently learning for a concert or a grade examination.
From such pieces you will be able to appreciate phrase structure,
development of motifs, overall form, tonality, modulation, and so on.
You will need to understand the meaning of sonata form. You may well
be aware of this through KS3 and/or GCSE studies, though it is fully
explained below.
Phrase structure, tonality, modulation, use of instruments, awareness of
texture and form can also be integrated with compositional work.

44 Key musical features

Phrase structure
In the Classical period (Beethoven composed this symphony towards the
end of this period), phrasing was balanced and invariably regular. Examples
of questions and answer or antecedent/consequent phrasing can be
found in both movements under consideration, but there are also examples
of irregular-length phrases and these should be borne in mind in any
question focusing upon phrasing. It is certainly the case that Beethoven did
not restrict his writing to strictly regular phrase lengths.

Tonality
This includes consideration of the use of both major and minor tonalities.
(There is no modal writing in this symphony.) It also covers the possible
reasons behind the choices.

Modulation
During the Classical period, most modulation was to one of the closely
related keys of the original tonic, and you should be familiar with such
links, as shown:
Subdominant

Tonic

Dominant

Relative minor

Relative minor

Relative minor

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

For the first movement, in C major, this can be set out thus:

F major

C major

G major

D minor

A minor

E minor

The second movement has F major as its tonic key, and therefore the
closely related key chart for this movement is:

Bb major

G minor

F major

D minor

Things to do
44

Identify the key signatures of all

keys in each of these examples.

44

Note the differences in key

signature.

44

In the case of the minor keys,

work out the leading note and
both the harmonic and melodic
minor scales.

C major

A minor

However, study of Beethovens music in these two movements will

reveal that he did not confine himself to these keys, and was prepared
to modulate outside this scheme to accommodate his musics direction
and aspirations.

Use of instruments
The core of the Classical orchestra was the string section, with the
wind sections often having a more subsidiary role. However, although
the brass instruments were limited to notes of the harmonic series
(see explanation within the analysis on page 22), Beethoven was able
to use these and the woodwind instruments as an independent group
acting as a contrast to the predominant string sound. Despite some
limitations in his resources, Beethoven, like Mozart and Haydn, was
able to write for a wide range of combinations of instrumental timbres,
producing a great variety of textures.

Texture
This refers to whether the writing is homophonic or polyphonic:
these key musical terms are explained in the previous chapter on pages
910, where examples are given of each. The definitions are reproduced
here:
44 Homophonic and polyphonic derive from the Greek and mean one
sound and many sounds respectively.
Thus, homophonic music (sometimes referred to as a harmonic or
chordal texture) is where all parts have independent pitches but the
same rhythms.
44 Polyphonic or contrapuntal music is where each line has its own
melody and rhythm, although there are often close similarities
between the lines.

15

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

44 Analysing the music

After initial guidance on the process of analysis from your teacher,
you should analyse short pieces of music or sections of longer pieces.
Concentrating on a small number of features is likely to be beneficial at
first. Thus you might, with different works, analyse the composers use
of one of the following:
44 melodic shape/phrase structure
44 melodic/motivic development
44 use of texture
44 choice of timbre
44 choice of and use of tonality, including modulation
44 structure.

Examiners tip
If, during the course of your analysis,
you give letters to themes and/
or motifs, never simply use these
within an examination answer.
Always give a precise bar or beat
reference. Similarly, never refer
to sections within a movement
without again identifying their
location precisely.

You should never just describe what the composer is doing: rather, you
should comment on the effect of the modulation, melodic shape, choice
of timbre, and so forth, under discussion. It is a matter of observation
to be able to point out that the word-setting is syllabic; it is the role of
analysis to state, for example, that the use of syllabic setting has been
chosen at this specific stage because of its ability to accentuate the
individual words and make their delivery and impact more direct. It is
analysis which will gain you marks in the examination essay answers.
With this set work, musical quotations are not required just precise
reference to the score. However, any such reference should be to
illustrate or exemplify a point you are making. For example, if discussing
Beethovens use of contrasting dynamics, you might refer in movement
one to bars 14 and point out the precise and regular changes from forte
(f) to piano (p), then explain what effect this is having.

44 Background information
Beethoven was born in 1770, in Bonn, in the archbishopric of Cologne.
Although he was baptised on 17 December, there is no record of his
actual date of birth, though this is presumed to be the day before. His
father was a musician and singer at the Electoral Court of Bonn, with
something of a weakness for drink. He looked to Ludwig as a possible
prodigy in the same vein as Mozart. His mother was described as a
gentle, warm-hearted woman. Beethoven referred to her as his best
friend. He was one of seven children, but only the three boys survived,
Ludwig being the eldest.
Beethovens early musical education was from his father and he soon
showed tremendous ability as a pianist and violin (later viola) player.
His music education was taken over by C. G. Neefe (174898), the
court organist. While only eleven, he was able to deputise for Neefe
and was already composing. By 1784, he had been appointed assistant
court organist. He went to Vienna in 1787, but returned on hearing the
news that his mother was dying. He spent the next five years in Bonn,
strengthening his own position at the court chapel and opera, playing
viola in the opera orchestra and generally experiencing a wide range of
music. He was also gaining a reputation as a pianist and soon started
teaching piano. Five years later, he settled in Vienna and studied with
Haydn initially. However, the two did not get on: it is worth remembering
that Haydn would be 60 by this time and an established composer, while
Beethoven was a young man who was anxious to make an impression on
society. Beethoven also reported that Haydn was rather a lackadaisical

16

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

teacher, and Beethoven wanted to make progress quickly. Beethoven
received tuition from other composers during this period, notably from
Antonio Salieri (17501825).
Beethovens musical gifts gained him entry to the musical circles of
Vienna and from there to the salons of the aristocrats. Many musical
parties took place in such places, and it was Beethovens tremendous
ability as an improviser that impressed. It was with the arrival of works
from 1798 to 1800, such as the Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor, usually
referred to as the Pathtique, the Piano Concerto No. 3 in C minor
Op. 37 and the String Quartets Op. 18 that Viennese society recognised
his worth as a composer.

Did you know?

Antonio Salieri was a contemporary
of Mozart, though he outlived him by
many years. He was appointed both
Chamber Composer and Director
of the Italian Opera Company in
Vienna, having been taught initially
by Florian Gassman (172974),
whom he succeeded at the Court of
Emperor Joseph II. He was a prolific
and very popular composer, rather
different from his portrayal in the
film Amadeus. His contemporaries
regarded him as a true successor to
Gluck (171487) as a composer of
opera.

Ludwig van Beethoven at work at the grand piano

Beethoven had wealthy patrons, vital in those days and, having been
befriended by Prince Lobkowitz, he had an orchestra available to play his
works.

17

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

However, soon after the performance of this first symphony, Beethoven
noticed that his hearing was getting steadily worse and, by 1802, knew
that the condition was incurable. His conviction that this inevitably
meant his imminent death led to the document known as the
Heiligenstadt Testament, a passionate and moving piece of writing from a
man in the depths of despair. To understand fully Beethovens character,
and the way he eventually found the ability to carry on composing despite
this affliction, reading of this is strongly recommended.
Basil Deane, writing in The Beethoven Companion, commented that
Beethoven regarded the symphony as a public rather than a private work.
He saw Beethoven as wanting to proclaim what he perceived as the
common human concepts of delight in nature, in peace, in brotherhood
and in freedom, while being aware of defeat and triumph. This could be
expressed only through a new musical language, and this was what he
developed throughout his symphonic writing.

The Classical orchestra

Many symphonies of this period were written for what is widely referred
to as the Classical orchestra, which was characterised by a string section
with pairs of wind, brass and percussion instruments.
The Classical orchestra
Italian

English

Flauti

Flutes (2)

Oboi

Oboes (2)

Clarinetti

Clarinets (2)

Fagotti

Bassoons (2)

Corni

Horns (2)

Trombe

Trumpets (2)

Timpani

Timpani invariably tuned to tonic and dominant

Violino I

1st violins

Violino II

2nd violins

Viola

Violas

Violoncello

Cellos

Contrabasso

Double basses

This is exactly the orchestra for which Beethoven wrote this symphony,
with the clarinets, horns and trumpets being in C, meaning that they
are not transposing instruments but sound at the written pitch.

18

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

The Classical symphony

During the time of Haydn and Mozart, the symphony had settled into a
four-movement form, usually:

1 a lively opening movement, often in sonata form, sometimes with a

slow introduction

2 a contrasting slow movement, which could also be in sonata form, or

in binary, ternary, da capo aria, variations or rondo form

3 a minuet and trio, or scherzo and trio

4 a fast finale.

Sonata form
Not to be confused with compositions called sonatas, sonata form was
developed during the Classical period and was the mainstay of musical
form for a very long time because of its inbuilt flexibility.
There are three main sections:
44 exposition
44 development
44 recapitulation.
To these, composers would sometimes add:
44 a slow introduction
44 a codetta or short rounding-off section to the exposition
44 a coda or longer rounding-off section after the recapitulation.

Exposition
Here, the main themes or, as they are more usually named, subjects
are presented.
In its simplest form, the pattern is:
44 first tune or subject in the tonic key; this is usually a strongly
rhythmic melodic idea, or masculine tune
44 bridge passage, modulating and leading to
44 second tune or subject in the dominant; this is traditionally a gentler,
more cantabile or feminine melody.

Examiners tip
As you will have an unmarked
copy of the score with you in the
examination room and the examiner
will have a copy to refer to as your
answer is marked, there is usually no
need to write out musical quotations,
although precise reference is
essential, preferably giving bar and
beat numbers.

Development
Here, the composer uses material from the exposition and develops or
varies it, the music passing through a range of keys before returning
towards the tonic for the recapitulation.

Recapitulation
The main themes return, sometimes exactly as in the exposition,
sometimes varied:
44 first subject in the tonic
44 bridge passage, modified and leading to
44 second subject, also in the tonic (or tonic major if the original tonic
was minor).

Additional considerations
44 In the exposition, there may be more than one melodic idea within
the first or second subject.

19

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

44 The development section may use only part of the musical material
from the exposition. It might introduce new ideas.

Key terms
Dominant seventh: chord built on
the dominant or fifth note of the
key in C major, the chord of G
with a minor seventh added to
give the chord GBDF.
Perfect cadence: sometimes referred
to as a final cadence, though this
is less satisfactory, as a plagal
cadence can also be referred
to by the same term. A perfect
cadence consists of two chords
to end a phrase: these chords
are the dominant (V) and tonic
(I), though the dominant often
KT1a
appears as a dominant seventh
Reduce
to as small a size as is needed to
fit into
'Key important
Terms' box feature is that
(V7the
). The
the leading note, the seventh note
of the scale, rises to the tonic,
helping to ensure that the music
sounds completed or finished:

V7

V7

Interrupted cadence: as its

name suggests, this particular
cadence sounds as if it is moving
towards completion but is then
interrupted, resolving onto a
KT1b
different chord. Usually, this chord
Reduce to as small a size as is needed
toisfitthe
into
the 'Key Terms'
submediant
(VI),box
though
some composers do increase the
effect of a change of direction by
resolving onto the flat submediant
(bVI):

VI

V7

VI

44 The recapitulation will often vary the orchestration of the subjects.

44 The coda, where used, might extend ideas from the music already
used or introduce new material.
It is important to remember that audiences at this time would mostly be
hearing pieces at their first performances: composers liked to introduce
new pieces at concerts to maintain interest in their work. Therefore,
audiences were used to following the different sections of the music
purely by ear. Thus, in a piece in sonata form, even though many in
the audience would not apply such a term to it, they would expect
the beginning of a movement to establish the tonic key and then they
would be able to hear the introduction of new themes, changes of key,
development of material and the final return of the original key with its
restatement of the main themes. They would enjoy the contrast in style
between the main subjects; they would notice the changes of key and
delight in the ingenuity of a composer in the varying of the original ideas.
They would certainly notice should anything unusual occur, such as an
unexpected change of key or the main theme returning in the wrong key
(in other words, not the tonic).
There were plans and sketches for the first symphony as early as 1795,
but these were abandoned the following year, and this symphony received
its first performance on 2 April 1800 at the Burgtheater in Vienna. This
theatre was built in 1741 and became known as die Burg.
In the same concert as the first symphony, Beethoven premiered his
Septet Op. 20: this was an instant success and was performed again
during concerts when his next three symphonies received their first
performances.

44 Analysing Beethovens Symphony No. 1 in C major

Op. 21

The symphony is in four movements:

1. Adagio molto Allegro con brio (very slow fast and lively)
2. Andante cantabile con moto (at a steady speed but with movement
and in a singing style)

3. Menuetto and trio Allegro molto e vivace (very fast and lively)
4. Adagio Allegro molto e vivace (very slowly very fast and lively)
In the ensuing analysis, bar numbers are given to identify passages,
themes or quotations for example, 4553 refers to bars 45 to 53. Where
a small number follows a bar number, this refers to the actual beat in the
bar, so 77 means the first beat of bar 77.

Looking at the first movement Adagio molto Allegro con brio

Slow introduction, Adagio molto: bars 112
Bars 14
Starting with a slow introduction, as here, is one of the options available
within sonata form. Although the symphony is in C major, it does not
open by affirming this key, as was the norm. Indeed, it starts with a discord
(though not a strong one for modern ears): a dominant seventh the first
chord of a perfect cadence into F major. This is followed by an interrupted

20

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

cadence into A minor and then by a perfect cadence into G major. Thus,
within four bars, the music has cadenced into the subdominant, the relative
minor and the dominant of C major but not the tonic key itself: no wonder
that contemporary audiences were somewhat taken aback.
In these bars, Beethoven is creating a tension, not only by avoiding the
home key, but also by the use of the rising semitone, the te to doh of the
scale. This diatonic semitone from leading-note to tonic is one of the
I. Ex. 1 forces of this movement. Additional melodic tension is caused
generating
Ensure text is enclosed in the quotation; crop after the last note
by the fact that the interval connecting these pairs of cadential notes is a
tritone, a diminished fifth (or augmented fourth). The opening, with its
fp markings, is mysterious and somewhat tentative: a more triumphant
sense is achieved in bar 4 with the arrival of the dominant chord.

Fl.1

tritone

Fg.1

fp

fp

cresc.

Beethoven seems to be teasing us to expect the arrival of the tonic with

virtually a full bars dominant in bar 9 before the G moves up to G# and
the chord resolves onto A minor (chord VI, the submediant). Bars 1113
see the first full perfect cadence, with both melody and bass ending on
C (IcV7I) as the next section Allegro con brio begins:

f
Cor 1,2
Fg.1,2

Vl.I,II

f

f
Vla., Vc. e B

Dominant: the chord built on the

From this dominant chord, the violins have a short linking passage to a
more decorated passage which, again, avoids a definite perfect cadence
into C major, although there is a V7dIb cadence (third inversion to first
inversion) in bars 56 and a perfect cadence in bars 78, where the
tonic is finally heard in root position. However, the melody ending on the
third
of the chord makes for a slightly less-than-final ending.
I Ex.2

11

fp or fortepiano: literally, loud

quiet: a note or chord which is
played initially loudly and then
immediately reduces its dynamic
to quiet.

V7d: the dominant seventh chord in

its third/final inversion, i.e. with
the seventh of the chord as the
bass. For example, from bar 5:

Bars 42124

Fl.1,2, Ob.,
Clt.

Diatonic: a diatonic scale is one

where no note is chromatically
altered; diatonic music only uses
the notes of the prevailing key.

KT5 fifth note of the scale.

Reduce to appropriate size for 'Key Terms' box

tritone

Key terms

V7d

KT6
Ib:
the first inversion of the tonic
Reduce to appropriate size for 'Key Terms' box
chord, i.e. where the third of the
chord is the bass. For example,
from bar 6:

Ib

Did you know?

p
Vl.I

p
p

Tonic solfa (or tonic sol fa) is a

system for the teaching of sightsinging which gives a name to every
degree of the scale, thus: doh (or
do), re, mi, fah (or fa), sol (or
soh), lah, ti. Its most famous use
is probably in the song Do-Re-Mi
from the Rodgers and Hammerstein
musical The Sound of Music.

21

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

Exposition: bars 13109

Bars 1318

Key terms
Diminution: A rhythmic feature in
which note values are halved so
that an idea is played at double
speed.
sf (sforzandi): this derives from the
Italian word meaning forced
and means that the note should
be played with an accent.
Other composers might use fz,
abbreviated from forzato but with
the same meaning.
Harmonic series: The series of
notes that can be played on a
brass instrument just by altering
the pressure of the lips on the
mouthpiece. As the pitch gets
higher, so the available notes are
closer together.

 
 

  

The first main theme (bars 1317) incorporates the rising semitone
as IEnsure
aEx.3
keythat
feature.
the text Notice
is includedBeethovens predilection for presenting his
motif (bars 13 and 14) and then using a rhythmic diminution of it
(bar 15):
Allegro con brio
13

motif
Vl.1

Fl.1

diminution

semitone

The use of the semitone (BC) in bars 1316 is reinforced by the

chromatic rise in the flute (CC#D), pointing to the motivic use of
this interval. Note also that Beethovens theme is based on the notes
of the tonic triad (in this case, CEG), a characteristic of many of his
symphonic themes.


Bars 1933
The counterstatement is on the supertonic (bars 1923) rather than
I Ex.4
the
dominant
moves
from
D minor via a chord of F minor (the
Adjust
to match and
the size
of other
excerpts
submediant minor) in second inversion to V7b in bar 26. From here, the
emphasis is firmly on the dominant with frequent use of sf (sforzandi)
and, in bars 3133 a clear perfect cadence into C major, using the chord
progression IIVIcV7I:

31

During this passage, the restrictions faced by composers because brass

instruments were limited to the notes of the harmonic series are
noticeable: look carefully at the pitches written for horns and trumpets
during these bars (and elsewhere).

Bars 3352
A secondary idea is introduced at this point as the transition theme,
again firmly asserting the tonic and again based on the tonic triad.
Noticeable here is Beethovens use of the wind section to complement
the strings, giving them a clear identity and role within the
symphony:

22

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

Vl.1
34 Vl.2 8ve basso

sf

Fl.1,2
Cl.1,2
Fg.1

sf

sf

sf

As the woodwind answer the violins opening phrase, flutes, clarinets and
bassoon play at three different octaves, adding their distinctive colours.
This is all played over a tonic pedal played by 2nd bassoon, cellos and
double basses, lasting from bar 33 to 41.
A short sequential passage ensues, based on the quaver motif from this
theme and leading to further conversation between strings and woodwind
(bars 4548), accenting tonic and dominant before finally coming to
rest on the dominant in bar 52 with an imperfect cadence, rather than
actually modulating to the new key.
I Ex.6
Ensure
Bars
5288that all text above and below the excerpt is included
Enter as one complete excerpt
The second subject affords the woodwind another key role as strings
provide the accompaniment to this opening exchange between flute
and oboe:

53

Ob.1

Fl.1
p

Key terms
Tonic pedal: a sustained or repeated
note on the tonic, over which the
harmony changes. Here, the pedal
note is played as repeated quavers.
Syncopation: shifting the emphasis
KT11onto a note or beat that would
Reduce
as much
as needed; consider adjusting
normally
be weak.
horizontally as well as pro rata via the
corner
adjustment
Diminished
seventh: a diminished

seventh chord is built up of minor

thirds.
Bdim7: the diminished seventh chord
built on B:

sf
sf
Use of syncopation

Notice the rising fourth a link to the first subject and the staccato
arpeggio in the accompaniment a reminder of the last full bar of the
first subject. From bar 65, the use of the syncopation first heard in bars
5758 helps to give rhythmic drive to this section.
This theme is then restated with the violins taking the lead, answered
by flute and oboe. The use of diminished seventh chords (Bdim7 in bar
65 and G#dim7) and further sforzandi add to the dramatic nature of this
passage. A cadence into G major (first inversion) in bars 6869 heralds
the entry of a further idea:

Did you know?

The diminished seventh consists
of two interlocking tritones. SaintSens uses this interval between the
top two strings of the violin (A to
Eb) in the introduction to his Danse
Macabre rather than a perfect fifth
(A to E).

23

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

Vl.II

Vla.

f
f

69 Vl.I

Vc. e B. 8ve basso

Wind instruments emphasise the strong beats (1, 3 and 1) with

crotchets on the first playing and then played sustained minims for the
restatement. Flutes and oboes double the violins rising quavers, again
underlining the importance of the rising semitone.
An extension of the second subjects opening phrase in bars 73 and 74
leads to a perfect cadence in G major and a modulating bass melody,
also based on the second subject, descending for more than an octave
to the darkness of a low F, while the oboe sings a simple but plaintive
melody above (bars 7988). This use of the oboe, utilising its ability to
sustain notes and be heard through the texture, becomes very much a
characteristic of Beethovens writing.

Ex.1 7addit

77

Ob.1

pp
Vc.
eB

Editbars
the example
such
In bars 7488, the music modulates initially in consecutive
from
that it omits
the end
G major, by flattening the B to produce G minor and thenofmoving
this bar to
as shown
in my
'Comments'
From
this
chords of C minor and F7 to effect a modulation to Bb major.
document.
point, the bass rises chromatically through C minor and F major to D7
(bar 82) and on to G minor (bar 83) and then, via a chord which can be
seen as an A minor chord with a diminished fifth (ACEbG) or as C
minor with an added sixth, to A7 (first inversion) and on to D (bar 85),
which in turn leads to E minor (an interrupted cadence) before a II7b
V7I cadence restores G major (8788).

Codetta, bars 88109

At this point, the main theme of the exposition returns to be used as the
basis of the first part of the codetta in bars 88100. A final cadential
phrase ushers in the end of the exposition and is followed by a delightful
wind phrase which forms the link to the repeat and, on the second time,
to the development section. Here, the woodwind instruments play in
octaves over a G pedal in the horns.

24

I Ex. 8
Include all text and the dot below the last set of notes
Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1
Excerpt can be 'chopped' just after the last notes - i.e. before the end of the music lines.
The cadential phrase:

+Fl.
Vl.I
Fl.

p
sf
sf
sf
ff

101

Vl.I

Notice how Beethoven takes his initial six-beat phrase and shortens it to
just four beats, thus increasing the drive of the music.
The wind figure (bars 106109) is a slowly descending dominant-seventh
arpeggio with decreasing dynamics in preparation for the p return of the
first subject (exposition).
The same phrase is used to link the exposition to the development,
though the use of the dominant seventh in C major does not, this
time, lead to that key. Instead, there is a sudden f and the chord moves
unexpectedly to A major (first inversion) in bar 110 (a tertiary shift) to
herald the start of the development section.

Development: bars 110177

Bars 110136
Sections of the development show the fruits of Beethovens studies on
I Ex.9
counterpoint
with his teacher Albrechstberger. However, it starts with
Include all stave text
a direct reference to the first subject, though this is combined with the
syncopated rhythm from the second:

Syncopated rhythm from 2nd subject

Fl.1
p

110
Vl.I

Main motif from 1st subject

Key terms
Tertiary shift: a type of modulation
in which the music resolves not to
the expected key (as in dominant
to tonic), but to a key a third away
from this tonic. In this case, the
chord of G7 is followed not by the
expected C major but by A major.
Counterpoint: the layering or
interweaving of individual lines or
parts.
Cycle of fifths: a sequence of
modulations where each
successive key is a fifth lower than
the previous one, as in CFBbEb
Ab etc.

Vl.I

This combination of ideas dominates the first section of the

development, moving through a cycle of fifths from A to D (bars
114ff), to G (bars 118ff) and finally to C minor (bar 122). At this point,
it is the turn of the rising figure from the end of the first subject to
become the focus of various modulations. The staccato crotchet figure is
passed around the orchestra, notably contrasting string and woodwind
timbres. C minor gives way to F minor (bar 126) and to Bb major at bar
130. A further change takes place now as the rising figure is answered
by a balancing falling one, encompassing Eb major (bar 132) and minor
(bar 134) before coming to a half-close on Bb major, the dominant of the
current tonality (bar 136).

Bars 136160
A motif from the transition or bridge passage, first heard in bar 45, is
next to be used. Beethoven now uses this scalic motif to emphasise
Eb major:

25

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

136 Vl.I

p
Vl.II

WW.

After two linking bars (152153) from the first violins based on this
I Ex.11
Include all the text; trim after the last note; staccato
red notes quaver
will printmotif,
black a contrapuntal section follows, combining this
motif with the opening idea of the first subject and a further extension
of the syncopated idea from the second subject. This allows a dialogue
between strings and woodwind in bars 144160, with the opening
passage being typical:

Fl.1
Fl.1

Ob.1
p
p

Vl.I,II
Vl.I
Vl.I,II

Vc.
Vc.
e B.

e B.
Fg.1

Ob.1

Key terms
Augmented sixth: this chord is
formed by taking the sixth note of
the scale, flattening it, and adding
KT15(r) a major third and an augmented
Trim the excerpt
as closeitto(as
the shown
music below).
sixth
above
and text as
possible
Insert as There
one example,
including
the texttypes of
are, in
fact, three
augmented sixth: Italian, French
and German. The Italian also adds
a fourth, the German a fifth. So, in
C major:

Italian

French

German

Starting from this Eb major tonality, the music modulates through

F minor (bar 148), G minor (bar 152), D minor (bar 156) and on to
A minor (bar 159), this section coming to a close in bar 160 on E major,
the dominant of A minor, approached by an Italian augmented sixth.

Bars 160177
Beethoven marks this ff, as if underlining the fact that this is most
unusual, occurring as it does at a point in the movement where the
tonality
I Ex.12 should be returning to the dominant of C major, prior to the
Include all text
recapitulation.
However, A minor and its dominant remain until bar
173, the passage being based on a rising scale passage already a feature
of the slow introduction (bar 734 and bar 1213) and a presence within
the exposition (see bar 3940 and 7576), but here it follows as an
extension of the opening motif of the first subject:

ff

26

WW.

ff

ff

Strings
in octaves

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

Throughout this passage, horns and trumpets sustain a dominant
pedal. Only in bars 174177 does Beethoven effect the return to the
tonic C major: this is done very simply by having flutes, first oboe and
bassoons play a descending dominant-seventh arpeggio in a steady
semibreve pattern, stirring memories of the links at the end of the
exposition. This short phrase, marked p, heralds the arrival of the
recapitulation.

Recapitulation: bars 178259

Examiners tip
Passages such as this (bars
1782041) would be very useful
in an examination question which
requires a comparison between the
exposition and the recapitulation.

Bars 178204
I Ex.13 The first subject makes a triumphant return in C major, the melody now
Trim as close to the stave as possible;
played
in octaves
bythe
allfinal
woodwind
and string instruments while the brass
O.K. to trim
immediately
after
note

and timpani emphasise the tonic. The restatement on the supertonic is

orchestrated in the same way. However, from bar 188, the chromatically
rising wind chords are substantially extended, finally cadencing onto the
dominant (G major) in bar 198. Using a simple, rising chromatic scale
and this introductory motif from the first subject:

Examiners tip

Use such passages within answers

focusing on use of timbre.

Beethoven fashions a modulating passage which rises through F major

(bar 190), G major (bar 192), A minor (bar 193), Bb major (bar 194),
C major (bar 195), D minor (bar 196), back to F major (bar 197) and
finally on to G major again (bar 198) where, over this dominant pedal,
Beethoven fundamentally alters the transition/bridge passage.
Instead of the passage at bars 4552, where there are two basic motifs,
three
repeated
quavers followed by a falling phrase and also crotchet
Ex.I
13 addit
chords, Beethoven extends the use of the falling semiquaver phrase used
since bar 189 and adds to it repeated quavers in lower strings, sf minims
and crotchet chords, as in these first two bars of this passage:

WW

Vl.I
Vl.II
8ve.b

Vla.
Vc.

e B
sf

Bars 204230
A two-bar phrase is heard twice before a simple rising and falling staccato
quaver passage (bars 202203) leads to a chromatically decorated G (bars
203204) and a descent to C for the return of the second subject in the
tonic key.
On the return of the second subject on the last beat of bar 205, the
woodwind play their melodic motif in dialogue, further underlining the
important role given to this family of instruments by Beethoven:

27

Include all text

Trim immediately after the final note

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

Fl.1, Cl.1 8ve basso

Ob.1, Fg.1 8ve basso

Again, the rising, staccato crotchet figure derived from the last beats of
the first subject (bars 1617) forms the accompaniment and underlines
the chord sequence IIIV7I. The syncopated figure is then restated
with different orchestration before the second subject is restated from
the last beat of bar 213. On this occasion, the rising staccato crotchets
are harmonised: previously this happened only in bars 6465 of the
exposition, but now such harmonisation takes place in bars 214, 216
and 218.
The recapitulation proceeds in the manner of the expositions bars 6568,
leading, as there, to the dramatic passage of repeated string semiquavers
and loud chords from woodwind and brass (compare bars 222225 with
bars 6972). Contrary-motion scale passages lead to a perfect cadence
into C major (bars 229230).

Bars 230241
This tonality is immediately contradicted by the introduction of Eb,
darkening the key to C minor for a return of the bass melody, first heard
from bar 77. These passages correspond in length and, relative to their
initial tonality, to the range of keys visited. Here, the music moves to
the chord of F minor and onto Bb dominant seventh for a modulation to
Eb major (the flattened mediant). Again, the timbre of the oboe is used
to telling effect, sustaining a high Bb before descending to repeated Fs.
The softer, more mellow tone of the clarinet answers this from bar 235,
doubled an octave lower by the bassoon in its tenor register.
From bar 234, chords of F minor7 in first inversion (or they could be seen
as Ab with an added sixth), Bb and G7 (first inversion) lead the music back
to C minor. But this is a section of great tonal unrest and, immediately,
the tonal centre shifts again: a chord of F minor with an added sixth
(or, again, it could be regarded as a diminished chord: DFAbC in
first inversion) leads to an F# diminished seventh, rising to G7. The
chromatic rise continues as the G rises to G# (a diminished seventh) and
on to A minor before chords of II7b and V7 resolve to C major in bar 241.

Bars 241259
From this point until bar 259 the recapitulation corresponds with the
ending of the exposition, using the same codetta material.

Coda: bars 259end

Using a descending dominant-seventh triad in the woodwind
instruments (C7) as at the end of the exposition (where, of course, it was
a G7 chord), Beethoven makes use of a further development of the first
subject in bars 2614263. The C7 is also heard over a sustained C pedal
in the horns and trumpets (bars 261263), with timpani playing two
detached Cs, the whole phrase cadencing onto F major:

28

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

8ve
Vla.

p
Vl.I

261

Vl.II 8ve basso

Vc., B

Notice the echo in the lower strings. Beethoven repeats this passage
sequentially, using A7 to modulate to D minor by bar 267. One further use
of this idea effects a return to C major (bar 271). From this point, all but
the lower strings (violas, cellos and double basses) play on the beat, using
the progression CFGG#dim7 to modulate to A minor (bar 273) before
enforcing this key change with the progression FGG#dim7Am in bars
273275. A repeat of the chord of F in the second half of bar 275 suggests
a further repetition, but Beethoven continues this time with a cadential
64 into C major (bars 276277), thus regaining the tonic.
From this point, the only chord we hear is this tonic chord, an extended
blaze of C major triumph. Initially, Beethoven uses sustained chords and
the main first subject theme, altering just one note to transform the end
of it into a tonic triad (compare bars 1617 with bars 279280). From
bar 277, the highest note of the sustained chord (flute 1) rises at each
occurrence, first to E and then to G. From bar 288 to 293, the rising and
falling triad of C major is heard in octave crotchets, with some imitation
in the horns and trumpets and a C pedal in the timpani. Notice the use of
tremolo in some of the string parts from bar 277 as well as the use of sf and
ff, underlining the sense of climax.
The movement ends emphatically with five crotchet chords of C major.

44 Things to do

KT17
Include the text below the stave
Trim immediately after the last note

Key terms
Cadential 64: the use in a cadence
of chord I in second inversion
followed by chord V:

Ic

Tremolo or tremolando: the rapid

reiteration of a note (or the
KT18
rapid
alternation
Include
the text of two different
The red designated
notes will print
black
pitches)
by one
or more
lines drawn through the stem of
the note affected. The effect is
much used in orchestral music, for
sustained, emphatic passages or to
create an agitated effect:
Written

Played

1 Summarise the form of this first movement.

2 Make a chart of the different themes and motifs which Beethoven uses in

this movement; give each a name or reference letter and note the key of
each appearance.

3 Plot a diagram to show Beethovens use of keys and key relationships: relate

each key to the prevailing tonic.

4 Comment on the ways in which Beethoven has varied his musical ideas

within the development section.

5 Compare the recapitulation with the exposition, pointing out similarities

and differences.

6 Comment critically upon Beethovens use of texture and timbre in this first

movement. (Note: this exercise can be done for any of the other elements
of music as well.)

Looking at the second movement Andante cantabile

con moto
The second movement of this symphony is also in sonata form. Unusually,
Beethoven marks that there be only one flute for this movement.

Exposition: bars 164

Bars 126
The time signature for this movement is 3/8 and the first subject starts
with an anacrusis. As was the case with the first subject of the opening

Key term
Anacrusis: this is where one or more
unstressed notes is heard before
the main first beat and first full
bar; sometimes referred to as an
upbeat.

29

II Ex.1
Include text
Trim immediately after last note

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

movement, it is based on the tonic triad, this time the chord of F major,
as the movement is in the subdominant, and is played by second violins,
unaccompanied:

Key terms

fugue/fugal: a fugue is a contrapuntal

composition based on a main theme,
or subject. The first section in a fugue
Vl.II
is the exposition. During this, the
fugue theme enters initially in the
pp
tonic key, invariably unaccompanied,
and subsequently usually alternates
between dominant and tonic. If the
From the bars that follow, it is obvious that Beethoven first envisaged
second (i.e. dominant) entry is an
this as a fugal theme, with a subsequent tonal entry in violas and
exact transposition to this key, it is
cellos (bar 6), a false entry in bassoons and double basses (bar 10)
referred to as a real answer; if the
and a fourth full, real entry in the first violins, flutes and first oboe
fugue subject has been altered at
(bar 12). After an imperfect cadence in bars 1819, horns maintain
all to keep it in the tonic key, it is a
a dominant pedal as the harmony above alternates between F and C,
tonal answer. This is the case here
II Ex.2in the second movement. From this
with regular use of sf, and the phrase ends on the dominant in bars
Trim as close to the music as possible;
include the dots beneath the notes; red notes will print black
2526.
point, these initial entries would
normally lead to episodes, based
Bars 2653
on motifs from the fugue subject,
and middle and final entries. For
Although the previous phrase has simply ended on the dominant
further information, see pp 4647.
chord, Beethoven takes this as meaning that the dominant key has
A false entry is an incomplete
been reached, and the second subject follows without further ado from
statement.
bar 26 in the dominant key:

p
Vc.

Vl.I

II Ex.3
Trim as close to the music as

Vl.1

Vl.II,Vla.,Vc.

Notice the initial passing modulation to D minor before the

sequential return to C major and the extra colour added by bassoons
(from bar 31) and horns (from bar 33), closing on its dominant in
possible;
dots beneath
red
bar 34. A include
decoratedthe
restatement
begins atthe
barnotes;
34, with
thenotes
themewill
in
the flute and oboe and decoration in the first violins. Instead of the
dotted rhythm of the second bar of this subject, there is now some
chromatic decoration of the A (bar 36) and G (bar 38). A perfect
cadence in C (bars 4142) leads straight into a new dotted rhythm
idea, modulating from C to A minor and to D minor before returning
to C major:

print black

Oboes and bassoons instigate an apparent restatement of this theme

(bar 46) before a rising chromatic sequence ensues (bars 4952) and
the music cadences back into C major (the dominant) in bars 5253.

30

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

Bars 5364
A further new theme ensues, notable for the quietly persistent rhythm on
the timpani, utilising the fact that the timpani are tuned to C and G to
underpin this final section, or codetta. The Gs, simultaneously sustained
II Ex.4
in the trumpets, form a long dominant pedal, over which the staccato
N.B. Includefigure,
instrument
names
excerpt.
triplet semiquaver
first heard
in within
bar 45,
is now used extensively. The
accompanying chords, alternating between strings and wind, set up a twobeat rhythm against the three-beat phrasing of the melodic line (flutes and
first violins).
The final cadence harks back to the rising fourth that opened this movement
and leads either to the repeat of the exposition or on into the development.

3
54
3
3

3
Vl.I

Fl.8ve.

p 3
3
3
3
3
Ob.,

Cl.,Fg.

Vl.II

Vla.,Vc. p

Timps.

p

Development: bars 64101

A rising triad of C minor suddenly darkens the movements mood. The use
of the distinctive tone of the oboes to build the chords adds a melancholy
feel to this section. Beethoven contrasts the colour of the different woodwind
instruments throughout the next seventeen bars (6681.) At bar 68, the
harmony shifts to an Ab dominant seventh, and the music cadences into Db
major at bar 71. This is the flat supertonic of C major and, as such, is an
unusual key to move to.
Beethoven uses the dotted rhythm used earlier as a pedal in the timpani,
now fully harmonised as chords and V7b in Db major. This is orchestrated
for strings and second bassoon and is pitched quite low, contrasting with the
rising intervals in flute, first oboe and first bassoon. These rising intervals
are derived from the movements opening fourth, but here are varied and
emphasise the dominant seventh and major sixth at first (bars 7279).
IINotice
Ex.5 also his characteristic use of sfp on the first beat of each bar of the
Key terms
Include
the bar number
(82) and
the
dynamics
& f);oftrim
at the
of the
accompaniment
this section.
The
return
to the (p
chord
C major
atend
bar 81
lines in the lowerinclef
sfp (sforzandopiano): the note is
is achieved using an Italian augmented sixth (DbFB) in the previous bar.
Timpani now continue the dotted rhythm on C for eight bars, contrasting
dynamics between p and f, as the music cadences onto chords of F minor
and C major respectively:

82



p
f

p f

accented before the dynamic is

reduced to quiet.

p
p
f
f
Again, the different colours of the wind instruments are well
exploited

31

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

II Ex.6 Again the different colours of the wind instruments are well exploited
Include the
text;
the red
note
will print
black between strings and wind (bars
(bars
8185)
before
a section
of dialogue

Key term

Crescendo: to get gradually louder.

8589) leads to the climax of this passage and a crescendo culminating

in chromatic movement over a C (dominant) pedal and a dotted crotchet
chord of V7d (the dominant seventh in third inversion) in bar 93.
First violins play a one-bar melodic link to another dominant-seventh
chord for full orchestra with a marked contrast of dynamics. From bar
96, the first violins continue to play short melodic phrases while the first
oboe and first bassoon add notes from the dominant-seventh chord:

Vl.I Ob.1

f
p
95

This passage provides the link to the recapitulation.

II Ex.7
Include the text; trim as close as possible; end the example during the double black lines

Recapitulation: bars 100162

Bars 100126

The first subjects entry overlaps the first violins descending phrase in
bar 100. It is again played by the second violins, but this time the cellos
add a skittish countermelody:

Vl.II

pp

pp

Vc.

cresc.

cresc.

Another difference from the original statement in the exposition is the

addition of a sustained C (tonic) pedal in bars 105106 in the bassoon.
As in the exposition, the entries duly follow a tonal dominant answer in
violas (from bar 106, soon doubled by bassoon) and a tonic entry in oboe
from bar 112, later doubled by flute. Again in this section, the colours
of the wind instruments are fully exploited as they play the fugue subject
and double it at the third or sixth. The music ends on the dominant C in
bar 126.

Bars 126162

Examiners tip
Keep your answer focused on the
question. Do not make subjective
comments.

32

The second subject follows immediately, transposed up a perfect fourth

compared with the exposition so that it is now in the tonic key. From
here, the recapitulation follows the exposition until bar 162, save for
some slight changes of instrumentation in the last three bars.
However, instead of ending the phrase with the repeated Fs, Beethoven
treats this as a fresh statement of the first subject, though re-scored
and with decoration. This is the coda, overlapping from the end of the
recapitulation, just as the beginning of the recapitulation overlapped the
final phrase of the development.

Chapter 2 Set work Beethoven: Symphony No. 1

Coda: bars 162end

The first subject returns, with richer scoring and contrary motion in
the oboes in bar 165. This contibutes to the sense that the movement
is reaching its climax. After this the oboes take over the melodic line
from the first violins and first bassoon. The violins provide a staccato
semiquaver dominant pedal at the octave until repeated chords of C
in bars 169170 lead to a chromatic rise and a repeat of the second
phrase of the first subject a tone higher, in G major, with a repeated D
(dominant) pedal (bars 171174).
II Ex.8
Trim as
close asrise
possible;
the174
text leads to an apparent shift
A further
chromatic
at the include
end of bar
to Bb major, only for the modulating sequence to be reversed, using
merely the sixth bar of the theme, before cadencing into F major (the
tonic) at bar 182:

II Ex.9175
Include text; trim after final note

sf

sf

sf

The dotted rhythm returns in the second violins and violas from this
point, as, over tonic and dominant harmonies, Beethoven uses the rising
quaver figure and an extended version of bar 3 of the first subject to form
a cadence figure:

p
p

KT23
Trim close to the stave and
after the actual note

Ob.1

Key term
Acciaccatura: also known as a crush
note: a type of grace note where
the note is literally crushed in and
played in as little time as possible.
It is notated as a

small note with a line

through its stem.

II Ex.10

This phrase is repeated with the addition of a rising scale in the flute
(bars 188190). The final bars are light-hearted as Beethoven introduces
an acciaccatura in the strings followed by two quavers in the horns,
before the flute also plays the acciaccatura leading to the final forte
perfect cadence in F major and three chords of F major, piano.

p
Vl.I

Cor (F)

pp

Ob.
pp

pp
Vl.II

Fl. pp

pp

p
f

p
f

f
p


p
f

Vc. e B

33

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

44 Things to do
1 Listen to the slow movement of Beethovens String Quartet in C minor Op. 18,

No. 4, written in 1800, for an example of a similar theme and an ending on the
dominant taken as the cue to introduce the second subject in that key.

2 Summarise the form of this second movement.

3 Make a chart of the different themes and motifs that Beethoven uses in this

movement; give each a name or reference letter and note the key of each
appearance.

4 Plot a diagram to show Beethovens use of keys and key relationships: relate

each key to the prevailing tonic.

5 Comment on the ways in which Beethoven has varied his musical ideas within

the development section.

6 Compare the recapitulation with the exposition, pointing out similarities and

differences.

7 Comment critically upon Beethovens use of texture and timbre in this second

movement. (Note: this exercise can be done for any of the other elements of
music as well.)

8 Listen to the Linz Symphony by Mozart for an earlier example of using

timpani tuned to C and G in a movement in F major.

34

Chapter 2 Set work: exam-style questions

Examination-style questions
Questions in the examination will relate to Beethovens use of form,
tonality, instrumentation and the other elements of music. One, two
or three elements may be included within the scope of the question.
Alternatively, the question may take the form of a quotation or
statement that would engage you in a more general discussion, perhaps
relating to genre, context or a more general analysis of the use of the
musical elements.
Questions will focus on a movement, a large section of a movement
(such as exposition, development or recapitulation), a comparison of
two sections or, and this is less likely, may involve some comparison
between the two prescribed movements. Therefore, there will be no
questions focusing on very short passages.
You must make sure that you identify the precise meaning of the
question and keep it in mind as you plan and then write your essay.
Keep your comments succinct and try to find as many points as you
can, referring to specific bars, phrases or passages in the symphony to
support and illustrate your answer.

Exam practice question

For example, the essay question might be one of those suggested above
for the first movement, expressed here in the fuller way it is likely to
appear within the examination paper:
1 Comment critically upon Beethovens use of texture and timbre in the first

movement of Symphony No. 1 in C major Op. 21.

Key words here are:

44 Comment critically: this doesnt really mean Write all you can think
of about It is not enough merely to point out where the features
occur this is mere description. You need to comment on what
the use of a particular timbre, combination of timbres or texture
contributes within a context.
44 texture: you need to refer to each of the different types of texture you
have found, but also remember to explain what each term means.
44 timbres: here you will refer to use of orchestral families, to the
addition of individual instrumental timbres, to the contrast of
timbres, and so on.
In all cases, you must give precise locations.
A possible approach would be:
44 to identify the different types of texture found in the first movement
44 to locate one or two examples of each and comment on them in
detail
44 to summarise the different timbres used by Beethoven in the first
movement
44 to locate examples of his use of these timbres in different
combinations, commenting on their effect.

35

AS Unit 1 Influences on music

You should now plan your essay by making a list of what you consider
to be the salient points. These might well include the following:
Texture:
44 homophonic, or chordal/harmonic: parts play different pitches but
move in the same rhythm
44 polyphonic or contrapuntal: parts have different melodic lines and
their rhythms are independent, though often related
44 melody with accompaniment: a melody with accompanying chords
which are not in the same rhythm as the melody
44 octaves: where instruments play the same melody but at different
octaves
44 monophonic: these last two textures; in other words, a melody
without accompanying chords or harmonies, and a single-line melody
44 imitative: where a melodic idea is imitated in another part.
Timbres:
44 classical orchestra: two each of flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons,
horns, trumpets, timpani, plus string sections violins 1 and 2,
violas, cellos and double basses.
Here are some examples of the use of texture:
44 homophonic texture: bars 14, bars 271276: chordal movement
44 polyphonic: bars 124156: melodic ideas interweave, passed between
different instruments and inverted; bars 144159: different melodic
ideas combine and overlap
44 melody with accompaniment: bars 1316: the main theme/motif
accompanied by simple crotchet chords; bars 7788: bass melody
accompanied by repeated chords
44 octaves: bars 37451: various melodic ideas where the interest is
passed from strings to woodwind before both families combine;
from bar 106: the cadential figure which leads to the repeat of the
exposition or into the development
44 single-line melody: bars 1104111: short phrase from the first subject
played by the first violins alone, without accompaniment.
Here are some examples of the use of timbre:
44 use of full orchestra: for emphasis during the slow introduction, on
the chords of the dominant (bar 4) and tonic (bars 9 and 11); as
the culmination of a passage of contrasting timbres (bars 4952); to
mark the start of the recapitulation (bars 178181)
44 wind section: featured from bar 106, given the important role
of providing the link to repeat the exposition or lead into the
development
44 woodwind section: passing the rhythmic germ from the first
subject from bassoon to oboe to flute before all three combine
homophonically (bars 149160); carrying the main melodic idea
of the second subject (bars 52460); providing the link from
development to recapitulation in bars 172177; contrast between
instruments and/or instrumental pairs as in bars 205210
44 use of brass instruments: within a larger texture (bars 2932); to
provide pedal points (bars 7274, 160172); to have some limited
melodic input (horns bars 67 and 8410)

36

Chapter 2 Set work: exam-style questions

44 use of timpani: to underpin the root of the chords of C (bars 178
181) and G (202204); to point cadences (bars 228230)
44 addition of extra colour: examples might include the oboes piercing
tone and ability to sustain a line over movement elsewhere used,
before it is doubled an octave lower by the bassoon in its tenor
register (bars 7984); the addition of flutes at various points in bars
100106 to lend their silvery tone to the overall palette and to double
the melodic/cadential motifs at the higher octave; the contrast of
wind and string timbres in bars 162170, with each group having its
own musical figure
44 contrast of sustained notes in the woodwind and short, scurrying
phrases in the strings, as in bars 1884198.
There is enough information here to form the basis of a really good
response to this question, making judicious and precise references to the
score. Be sure to use appropriate musical terminology within your answer.
Do:
44 keep your answer focused on the question at all times
44 make a list of what needs to be covered
44 get on with the answer as soon as your planning is complete
44 conclude by referring to the question via a brief summary.
Do not:
44 answer the question you wish the examiner had asked
44 simply write down everything you know about the topic referred
to within the question and leave it to the examiner to pick out the
relevant facts
44 repeat the question as an introduction: the examiner has the question
in front of him or her
44 give generalised background information.

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