Diakrita PDF

&
ISBN: 978-960-603-361-2
Copyright , 2015
Creative Commons -
- 3.0.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/gr/

9, 15780
www.kallipos.gr
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
11
11
11
15
16
19
21
23
25
28
28
32
35
37
43
47

2.1 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 , , . . .
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
51
53
56

3.1 . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 . . .
3.1.2 A B . . .
3.2 - . . . . . .
3.2.1 .
3.2.2 . . . . . . . . .
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
63
63
66
68
69
70
73
77
80

4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
83
86
88

1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.3 : (Hall) . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.12 Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4.4
4.5
4.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 Kruskal
5.8 Floyd-Warshall . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
97
97
101
101
101
103
106
110
115
117
119

6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 . . . . . . .
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Euler Hamilton
6.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2 / Euler
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
125
125
129
131
135
135
136
137
137
138

7.1 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 NFA DFA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 NFA - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6 -NFA NFA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7 . . . . . . . . .
7.8 . . . . . . . . . .
7.9
7.10 . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
143
143
146
151
154
157
159
160
162
165
167
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

173
8.1 DFA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.2 . MyhillNerode . . . . . . . 175
8.3 DFA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Context free
9.1 . . . . . .
9.2 context free . . . . .
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 context free . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 (Push Down Automaton) . . . . . . . . . .
9.6 PDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7 context free ,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
181
181
182
183
185
186
189
190
10
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Halting Problem. .
10.4 (..) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
195
195
196
198
200
11
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 , ,
11.2.1 . . . .
11.2.2 0 . . . . . . . .
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
207
207
207
207
207
208
208
208
209
214
215
215
218
224
12
12.1 . .
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3
12.4 . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5 Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
229
229
237
243
246
248
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
253
ASCII
CFG
CFL
DFA
NFA
NP
PDA
American Standard Code For Information Interchange

Context Free Grammar
Context Free Language
Deterministic Finite Automaton
Non-deterministic Finite Automata
Non-deterministic Polynomial Time
Push Down Automaton

http://mk.eigen-space.org/discretebook
,
, , , .
. PDF (links)
video youtube,
online ( ) .
PDF
browser . copy
PDF paste browser .
:
.
Online video. video ( youtube)
.
python.
.
10

Kamke 1950, Halmos 1960 C. L.
Liu and C. Liu 1985.
1.1
Cantor Dedekind 1870.

20 , ZermeloFrankel.
. ,
.
1.2

. . p A, :
pA
(: p A). A :
p
/A
(: p A).
1.1
( ) , ,
.
: :
1. , ..
a, b, c
{a, b, c}.
a {a} .
11
12
1.
2. Venn. ..,
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
B = {1, 3, 5},
1.1.
1.1: A B Venn
3. () P (x)
, , ( .. ),
x .
{x : P (x)},
x P (x).
:
{x : x S & P (x)},
:
{x S : P (x)}.
1.1

x : x Z & x2 < 100
100.

x Z : x2 < 100 .
( )
{9, 8, . . . , 8, 9}
-9 9.
1.2
(, ) A, B . A
B, A B B B :
A B, B A.

A B, B A.
, A B, A A.
Venn B A 1.2.
1.2.
13
1.2: Venn B A
:
B
B. A B & B A
A = B. .
1.2
1. {a, b, c} = {c, b, a}.
2. A = {x}. :
() x A,
() y A = y = x.
A B & A 6= B A B A $ B. A
B : A * B.
1.1
A = {2, {4, 5}, 4}. ;

1. {4, 5} A
2. {4, 5} A
3. {{4, 5}} A.
1.2
:
A = {2, 3, 4},

B = x : x2 = 4 & x > 0 ,
C = {x : x2 6x + 8 = 0},
D = {x Z : x o}.
, ( ), .
1. A . . . B
2. A . . . C
3. B . . . C
14
1.
4. A . . . D
5. B . . . D
6. C . . . D
1.3
:
1. {1, 4, 3} {1, 3, 4},
2. {4} {{4}},
3. {4} {{4}},
4. {{4}}.
1.3
( ) X . X
X 2X P(X). :
2X = P(X) = {A : A X}.
1.3
X = {1, 2}. , 2X = {, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}.
1.4
( ) , x, y,
. , , , x,
, , , y (x, y).
.
:
(x, y) = (u, v) x = u & y = v.
{x, y} = {y, x} (x, y) =
6 (y, x).
1.5
( ) X, Y . X, Y
:
X Y = {(x, y) : x X & y Y }.
X = Y X 2 . :
X X = X 2 = {(x, y) : x X & y X}.
. n- n
. n- :
(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ).
X1 , X2 , ..., Xn , :
ni=1 Xi = X1 X2 Xn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : x1 X1 , x2 X2 , . . . , xn Xn }.
X1 = X2 = ... = Xn = X
X n.
1.3.
1.3
15
1.6
( ) AB
A, B P (x, y) ,
x, y (a, b) A B, P (a, b)
.
1.4
P (x, y) = x y, A B,
A = {x : x }, B = {y : y }.

P (, ) =
P (, ) =
1.5
P (x, y) = (x < y) R2 , x, y
R.
1.7
() R A B A
B. , ,
A B
R A B.
P (x, y) :
R = {(a, b) A B : P (a, b) = }.
(a, b) R, aRb.
1.6
A = {x N : x < 20}, B = {3, 6, 21}.
A B:
P (x, y) = ( x y).
:
R = {(3, 3), (6, 3), (9, 3), (12, 3), (15, 3), (18, 3), (6, 6)(12, 6), (18, 6)}.
: 12R6, 12R3.
A B :
{3, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18}.
.
B A:
{3, 6},
.
16
1.
1.8
( , ) R A B
:
dom R = {a A : b B (a, b) R},
range R = {b B : a A (a, b) R}.

1.9
( ) R A B (, R A B),
R1 B A :
R1 = {(y, x) : (x, y) R}.
R1 : dom R1 = range R range R1 = dom R.
1.10
( ) R A B S B C
R S, S R, :
S R = {(x, z) : (x, y) R & (y, z) S oo y B}.
1.4
A = {1, 2, ..., 6}, B = {a, b, c, d}, C = {1, 2, ..., 9},

R = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, c), (3, c), (5, d)}, S = {(b, 2), (d, 2), (d, 9)}.
) :
S 1 , R1 , dom S R, range S R, (S R)1 , R1 S 1 .
) :
dom S R dom R, range S R range S, (S R)1 = R1 S 1 .
, A, B, C R A B, S B C.
S R = {(1, 2), (5, 2), (5, 9)}, R1 = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3), (d, 5)}.
1.4
f A B A ( , , f )
B. ( f ). ,
.
1.11
() f A B f A B :
x dom f {y B : (x, y) f } .
(x, y) f y = f (x).
1.4.
17
1.7
A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (a, 3)}, g = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 1)}, h = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 4), (d, 3)}.
g h dom g = {a, b, c}, dom h = A.
f : A B A.
f (x) x A.
1.8
A = {x : x }, B = {y : y }. f : A B
f (x) = x.
, f ()=.
1.5
R R:
f = {(x, y) : x + 3y = 1}, g = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 = 1}, h = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 = 1 & y > 0}.
.
.
1.12
f : A B E A. f E :
f |E = {(x, y) : x E & y = f (x)}.
, dom f = E f |E (x) = f (x), x E.
1.13
(, ) X A Y B X f
Y f , :
f (X) = {y B : y = f (x), x A}, f 1 (Y ) = {x A : f (x) Y }.
1.9
f : A = {a, b, c, d} B = {1, 2, 3} f (a) = f (b) = f (c) = 1 f (d) = 3. :
f (A) = f ({a, d}) = {1, 3}
f 1 ({1, 2}) = {a, b, c}, f 1 ({2}) = .

1.14
f A B. f 1-1 ( ), x1 , x2 dom f f (x1 ) =
f (x2 ), x1 = x2 . .
f range f = B.
1.10
h 1.7 f 1.8 1-1, g
1.7 1-1. h.
1.6
f A B. f 1
f 1-1.
18
1.
1.7
f : R R
(
2x 1
f (x) =
x2 + x
x < 12
x 12 .
) f 1-1 .
) f 1 .
:
)
x1 < x 2 <
1
2x1 < 2x2 < 1 2x1 1 < 2x2 1 < 0.
2
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) < 0.
(1.1)
1
3
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) .
(1.2)
2
4
(1.1), (1.2) 0 < y < 34 x R f (x) = y. f .
(1.1), (1.2) 1-1 .
) 43 y
1 + 4 + 4y
1
2
f (x) = y x + x y = 0 x =
.
(1.3)
2
2
y < 0
1
y+1
< .
(1.4)
f (x) = y x =
2
2
(1.1), (1.2), (1.3), (1.4)
3
f (R) = {y R : y < 0 0 y }
4
y+1
1 + 4 + 4y
3
1
1
f (y) =
y < 0 f (y) =
y .
2
2
4
f 1 :f 1 (y) = x f (x) = y. dom f 1 =
range f .
1.8
f, g, h : R R
f (x) = 3x 4
(
x2 + 3x x 2
g(x) =
.
x+2
x < 2
h(x) = x2 + |x|.
1-1 .
g g(A), g(B) A = [2, ), B = (, 2) .
1.15
( ) . f :
A B, g : B C. g f : A C g f (x) = g(f (x)).
1.9
f : A B, g : B C 1-1. g f 1-1.
1.5.
1.5
19
1.16
( ) A, B :
1. A, B A B
A B , :
A B = {x : x A 0 x B}.
1.3: A, B () Venn
2. A, B A B
A B:
A B = {x : x A x B}.
1.4: A, B () Venn
3. A, B, A \ B
A B:
A \ B = {x : x A x
/ B}.
, , , . A , Ac ,
:
Ac = {x : x
/ A}.
20
1.
1.5: A \ B () Venn
1.6: A () Venn
1.11
.
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = {(x, y) : x, y N & 1 x, y 6}.
36 . :
A = {(x, y) : x + y = 7}, B = {(x, y) : x = 6 0 y = 6}.
A B = {(1, 6), (6, 1)},

A B = {(1, 6), (2, 5), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 2), (6, 1), (2, 6),
(3, 6), (4, 6), (5, 6), (6, 6), (6, 5), (6, 4), (6, 3), (6, 2)},
(A B)c = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4),
(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5)}.
A, B U ( )
.

1. :
) A A = A, ) A A = A.
2. :
) (A B) C = A (B C), )(A B) C = A (B C).
3. :
) A B = B A, ) A B = B A.
1.6.
21
4. :
) A (B C) = (A B) (A C), ) A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
5. :
) A = A, ) A U = A
) A U = U , ) A = .
6. :
) A Ac = U , ) A Ac = ,
) (Ac )c = A, ) U c = , c = U .
7. De Morgan:
) (A B)c = Ac B c , ) (A B)c = Ac B c .
8. : ) A B A B = A, ) A B A B = A.
1.12
(A B) (A B c ) = A.
(A B) (A B c ) = A (B B c )
(1.5)
B Bc =
(1.6)
(A B) (A B c ) = A .
(1.7)
A=A
(1.8)
( 7).

( 5). , (1.8) (1.7) .
, , U, ,
.
.

.
.
.
1.1
( ) ,
.
1.13
1.12 (A B) (A B c ) = A,
.
1.12.
1.6
F , .
( .)
A : I F , 1-1 .
A(i) Ai F {Ai : i I} {Ai }iI .
22
1.
:
[
F =
A=
AF
Ai = {x : i I x Ai }
iI
F =
A=
AF
Ai = {x : x Ai i I}.
iI
F
T
F .
1.14
I = N = {n : n = 1, 2, 3, . . .} An = [0, n] = {x R : 0 x n}.

[
An = {x R : x 0},
nN
An = [0, 1] .
nN
, F
{A1 , A2 , ..., An }. :
[
F =
n
[
Ai = A1 A2 ... An ,
i=1
F =
n
\
Ai = A1 ... An .
i=1
,
. {Ai }iI B . U
. :
1. :
[
Ai =
iI
(B Ai ).
iI
Ai =
iI
(B Ai ).
iI
2. De Morgan:
!c
[
Ai
iI
B\
1.10
[
iI
Ai =
!c
\
iI
\
iI
Aci ,
Ai =
Ai
iI
(B \ Ai ), B \
\
iI
Aci .
iI
(B \ Ai ).
iI
f : X Y X1 , X2 X Y1 , Y2 Y .
f (X1 \ X2 ) f (X1 ) \ f (X2 ), f 1 (Y1 \ Y2 ) = f 1 (Y1 ) \ f 1 (Y2 ).
.
, y f (X1 ) \ f (X2 ).
x1 X1 f (x1 ) = y x X2 , f (x) 6= y.
1.7.
23
1.11
f : A B {Ai }iI A, {Bj }jJ

B. :
)
!
f
Ai
f (Ai ), f 1
iI
iI
Bj =
jJ
f 1 (Bj ).
jJ
!
f
Ai
iI
\
iI
f (Ai ), f 1
Bj =
jJ
f 1 (Bj ).
jJ
) ) .
) , ..
.
, ,
, .
, ,
. .
1.17
() A {Ai }iI . {Ai }iI
A :
1. Ai Aj = i 6= j, i, j I, .
S
2. iI Ai = A.
1.7: =
1.7
S6
i=1 Ai
Venn
1.18
( ) X R X X, R X X.
R X :
1. (x, x) R, x X ( ).
2. (x, y) R (y, x) R ( ).
3. (x, y) R & (y, z) R (x, z) R ( ).
24
1.
1 , R X ,
dom R = range R = X.
O . .
1.15
Q = {(a, b) : a Z & b N}. , (a, b) ab .
a c
R ad = cb.
b d
1.18.
.
1.16
R Z Z, R = {(x, y) Z : x y 3 }. :
xRy x y = 3l
l Z.
().
modulo 3 Z.
1.19
( ) R X x X.
x, R(x),
R(x) = {y X : xRy}.
1.17
1.15

2
2 4 6
R
=
, , ,... .
3
3 6 9
1.18
1.16 (
):
1. R(1) = {k Z : k = 3l + 1 oo l Z}.
2. k R(1) R(k) = R(1).
3. R(0), R(1), R(2) Z.

:
.

. 1.2.
1.2
( ) R X,
{R(x)}xX X.
, {Xi }iI X, R
R .
1.8. . .
25
.
:
xRy x, y Xi oo i I.
1.12
A = {a, b, c, d}.
P1 = {{a}, {b, c, d}},
P2 = {{a, b}, {c, d}},
P3 = {{a}, {b}, {c}, {d}}
A, A.
1.8
. .
1.20
( . .) A, B
1-1 f : A B.
A B 0 #A = #B 0 |A| = |B|.
A B f : A B
1-1 A B .
|A| < |B| 0 #A < #B.
, ,
, :
1. A A,
2. A B B A,
3. A B B C A C.
1.19
A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b, c}, C = {1, 2}.
#A = #B, |C| < |B|.
C B, .
, . ,

. .
1.20
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} A = {2, 4, 6, . . .}. f : N A,
f (x) = 2x 1-1 .
N A.
26
1.
1.20
, .
, .
,
I1 = {1}, I2 = {1, 2}, . . . , In = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}, . . . .
1.21
( , ) A
. A In
A n #A = n | A |= n.
.
.
1.3
) .
) A ,
| N |=| A | 0 | N |<| A | .
( .)
) A B A | B |<| A |,
| A \ B |=| A | .
, .. Halmos 1960 .
1.22
( )
N. .
.
1.1
1.
|N| < |R| = |I|,
I , .. I = [0, 1], I = (2, 7] I = (1, ), ...

R , , .
2. A R, .
|A| = c
.
I R .
3. Cantor, , ,
:
A |N| < |A| < |R|.
1963 . ,
.
1.8. . .
27
.
1.4
) .
) {Xi }iI
I Xi
S
i I. iI Xi .
1.13
1.4.
( ). , .. () E
( ) A E
E
n
o
i
A. () Xi xj : j N .
( )
Xi , i I.
1.21
N N .
N (
N):
B1 = {1}, B2 = {2, 3}, B3 = {4, 5, 6}, B4 = {7, 8, 9, 10}, . . . .
N N ( N N):
Z1 = {(1, 1)},
Z2 = {(2, 1), (1, 2)},
Z3 = {(3, 1), (2, 2), (1, 3)},
Z4 = {(4, 1), (3, 2), (2, 3), (1, 4)},
...
f , k N
n(n 1)
k=
+ l,
2
l {0, 1, . . . , n 1},
f : k f (k) = (n l + 1, l),
n = 1, 2, ..., 1-1 .
,
X1 X2 Xn ,
X1 , X2 , ..., Xn .
, ( ) Halmos 1960.
Z ,
a
Q = {(a, b) = : a Z, b N} Z Z,
b
Q .
1.4 R \ Q
, , R = Q (R \ Q) .
28
1.
1.9
1.9.1
, , , , ,
n. P (n) . , P (0)
n = 0, P (1) n = 1, ... P (n), n n0 , n0 , , .

P (n0 ), P (n0 + 1), P (n0 + 2), . . . .
, ,
n n0 : P (n),
(1.9)
:
P (n0 )
(1.10)
n n0 : P (n) P (n + 1).
(1.11)
. n , . n n0 ,
n = n0 n
, . n + 1. (1.10) (1.11)
. P (n) .
1.22
, n 1,
1
1 + 2 + + n = n(n + 1).
(1.12)
2
n n = 1,
n = 1. 1 , ,
. .
(1.12) ( n 1) n n + 1,
1
1 + 2 + + n + (n + 1) = (n + 1)(n + 2).
2
(1.13)
, (1.12) ( (1.12) (1.13) ) (1.13)

1
1
n + 1 = (n + 1)(n + 2) n(n + 1)
2
2
. .
1.2

(n )
( )
.
..
.
, ,
1.9.
29
P (x) : x .
P (0) P (x) P (x + 1),
() x,
0 1, .
.
1.14
n 1
1
12 + 22 + + n2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1).
6
(1.14)
1.23
2n > n3 n 10.
n = 10
210 = 1024 > 103 = 1000,
.
n 10 2n > n3 2n+1 >
(n + 1)3 .
2 2n+1 > 2n3 . , n 10, 2n3 (n + 1)3 .
(21/3 n)3 (n + 1)3 ,
21/3 n n + 1,
1
,
1
n 10 n = 10 ( ).
n
21/3
1.15
: n (n 1) .
n = 1 . .
n n + 1. a1 , a2 , . . . , an , an+1 .
n a1 , . . . , an .
n a2 , . . . , an+1 . . (
1.8.)
;
1.16
Fibonacci Fi , i 1,
F1 = F2 = 1, Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 n > 2.
n 1 F3n .
1.17
Fibonacci 1.16 n 1
2
2
Fn+2
Fn+1
= Fn Fn+3 .
30
1.
1.8: ;
4
5
7
10
11
8
2
1
1.9: 11
1.18
n . ; ( 1.9.)
1.19
n 2 . . A
B A B B A,
.
, , (
).
1.20
x R \ {1}
1 + x + x2 + + xn =
1 xn+1
, n 1.
1x
(1.15)
, |x| < 1,
1.21
k=0
xk = 1 + x + x2 + + xn + =
1
.
1x
(1.16)
1.20,
(1.15);
A (1.15) A xn+1
A .
1.9.
31
1.22
R > 0, n 0
(R(cos x + i sin x))n = Rn (cos nx + i sin nx).
i i2 = 1. i
( cos(a + b), sin(a + b)
a, b).
1.23
n 0 2n 2n
( ). ,
3 ( ) .
, .
1.24
n 1 7 2
1.25
n+2
+ 32n+1 .
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) n . 0.
f 0, . x1 , x2 , . . . , xn Rn f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) 6= 0.

P (n), n n0 , P (n0 ) (
)
P (n0 ), P (n0 + 1), . . . , P (n 1), P (n) P (n + 1).
, P (n + 1)
, .
1.24
1 1
. n 2 (
).
n = 2. 2 .
n > 2 . .
2 k < n k .
, , n .
n . n
. k, 1 n,
n. 1 < k < n, , , k
n/k ( 1 < n/k < n) .
n .
1.26
n 0
n = nk 2k + nk1 2k1 + + n1 2 + n0
k 1 n0 , n1 , . . . , nk {0, 1}. (
n .)
32
1.
1.27
n 12 4 5.
1.28
an , n 1,
a1 = 1, a2 = 3, an = an1 + an2 (n 3).
an < (7/4)n , n 1.
1.29
an , n 1,
a1 = 1, a2 = 1, an = an1 + an2 (n 3).
n 1 an =
1.9.2
an bn
ab
a = (1 +
5)/2, b = (1
5)/2
-
P (n)
P (n) P (n + 1), , P (n) P (k) k
n + 1, P (n + 1) P (n).
n,
n
.
1.25
- : n 1 a1 , a2 , . . . , an 0
(a1 a2 an )1/n
a1 + a2 + + an
.
n
(1.17)
(1.17) a1 , a2 , . . . , an
.
n = 2
(a1 a2 )1/2
a1 + a2
,
2
, , (a1 a2 )2 0 .
(1.17) n 2n.
a1 , a2 , . . . , a2n 0
1
(a1 + + an ),
n
a = (a1 a2 an )1/n ,
1
(an+1 + + a2n ),
n
b = (an+1 a2n )1/n
A=
B=
1.9.
33
2 n
a1 + + a2n
A+B
=
2n
2
a+b
2
(ab)1/2
= (a1 a2n )1/(2n)
(: , : n, : 2).
n 2.
n n 1,
n.
(1.17) n a1 , . . . , an1 0
n1
. an = C := a1 ++a
, (1.17),
n1
C ( ).

. , , P (m, n) m, n 0. .
.
P (0, 0),
P (m, n) P (m + 1, n).
(1.18)

n = 0.
(m 0 k < n P (m, k)) P (0, n),
(1.19)
(m, n).
( ) . P (m, n)
m, n 0 . 1.10
.
P (, ) (0, 0).
(1.18) P (, ) ()
A, (, 0).
(1.18) .
P (, )
P (, )
. (1.19). , ,
P B, . (m, k), m
k < n, P (0, n) ( C) .
C 1.18 P
B.
.
34
1.
C
B
n
(0, 0)
A
m
1.10:

, .

(m n )
. :
m n
m = 0 n = 0 ( ). ,
m n 1,
(m 1, n 1) (m 1, n) (
- (m, n) 1.10). m, n 0

, .
1.30.
1.30
a(n, k) n, k 0, .
a(n, 0) = 1, (n 0),
a(n, k) = 0, (n < k),
a(n, k) = a(n 1, k 1) + a(n 1, k), (n k 1).

n k 1
a(n, k) =
n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1)
.
1 2 3k

, ,
P Q, .
n Q(n) P (n).
(1.11) P . .
1.9.
35
( P Q) ,
.
.
1.26
1 + 3 + 5 + + 2n 1 ( n )
n 1.
Sn = 1 + 3 + + 2n 1, Sn+1 = Sn + 2n + 1. n = 1
S1 = 1 = 12 .
Sn = t2 t.
Sn+1 = Sn + 2n + 1 = t2 + 2n + 1.
t2 + 2n + 1
.

P (n) : Sn ,

Q(n) : Sn = n2 ,
P (n), ,
t = n t2 + 2n + 1 (n + 1)2 ,
.
1.31
( Bernoulli) n n 0
x 1
(1 + x)n 1 + nx.
(1.20)
(1 + x)n nx.
1.9.3
: (Hall)
X , , A1 , . . . , An X X.
X ,
X ( Ai ).
1.23
( ) x1 A1 , . . . , xn An
() A1 , . . . , An x1 , . . . , xn .

F = {A1 , . . . , An }.
: n 1 , . . . , n Ai i .
( 1.11.) , , .
A1 , . . . , An ( )
.
36
1.
1.11: Ai A(J)
1.24
J [n] := {1, 2, . . . , n}
A(J) = AF (J) =
Aj .
jJ
F .
F {x1 , . . . , xn }
J [n] : |A(J)| |J|.
(1.21)
A(J) xj , j J, .
(1.21) Hall
F.
1.5
( )
F Hall (1.21).
n. n = 1 . n 1.
F = {A1 , . . . , An } X (1.21).
J [n], J =
6 , [n], |A(J)| = |J|.
1: J.
(1.21) A1 , x1 .
X \ {x1 }

F 0 = A02 , . . . , A0n ,
1.10.
37
A0j = Aj \ {x1 }, j = 2, . . . , n. J {2, . . . , n}. J

F
|AF 0 (J)| |AF (J)| 1
> |J| 1
|J|,
Hall (1.21) F 0 .
x2 , . . . , xn F 0 . x1 , x2 , . . . , xn F.
2: .
J .
J = {1, . . . , k}. |A(J)| = |J|. Hall
F A1 , . . . , Ak A(J). k < n
x1 , . . . , xk A(J) A1 , . . . , Ak .
Ak+1 , . . . , An
/ A(J),
. Hall
F 0 = A0k+1 , . . . , A0n X \ A(J),
A0j = Aj \ A(J), j = k + 1, . . . , n.
I {k + 1, . . . , n}. |AF 0 (I)| |I|.
Hall F
|AF (I J)| |I J| = |I| + |J|.

AF (I J) = AF 0 (I) AF (J),
.

|AF 0 (I)| = |AF (I J)| |AF (J)|
= |AF (I J)| |J|
|I J| |J|
= |I| + |J| |J|
= |I|,
. F 0
{x1 , . . . , xk } A1 , . . . , Ak , F.
1.10
1.25
() (
38
1.
), . ( ):
p, q, r, p1 , . . .
1.27
,
p : ,
q :
, p q .

.
:
() ().
1.28
:
;
, .
p, . :
v(p) = 0 1 0 T

v(p) = 0 0 0 F
. ( ) p =
v(p) = .
.
, .
1.29
,
p : ,
q : ,
r : .
1. p q ,
p q : ,
p q, p q ( p q)
.
2. q,
q : ,
q, q ( q) q
.
1.10.
39
3. p, r
p r : ,
p, r, p r ( p r)
p r.
4. , , p q.
( p) ( q)
p q.
p q : .
.
, . .. p q
p : p
q. , . , 1.29.
,
.
p, q
, p, q p q ( p q ).
p q p, q (
):
p q pq

p, q
p q p q ( p q). :
p q pq

p p p
p p . :
p p
40
1.
p q, p, q , p q. p p
. :
p q pq

,
.
.
. , .

.
1.30
:
p : ,
q : 2 + 2 = 4.

p q, ( p) q, q p, p q;
1. v(p q) = q ( .
2. v[( p) q] = p, q .
3. v(q p) = q p .
4. v(p q) = ( ).
1.31
, , p q . :
p q.
p q, :
p q = (p q) (q p)
p q.
p q p q q p p q

1.32
p, q p Y q, :
p q pYq

1.10.
41
, ,
, .
1.32

p : , q : .
:
1.33
p, p q, p q, p q, p q, p (p q).
P, Q, . . ., p, q, . . ..
.

P :
Q :
R :

S :
.

p :
q :
r :
s :

1.26
( ) .
1.33
p, q ( , )
pq
(1.22)
.
p
q, . .
p, q ,
(1.22).
, . , .., (1.22) C(p, q)
C(p, q) = p q.
C(p, q) p, q. ..

42
1.
p = ,
q = ,
C(p, q) = .
1.34
:
f (p, q) = p (p q),
g(p, q) = (p q) q,
h(p, q) = f (p, q) g(p, q)
p = q = . f (p, q) = , g(p, q) =
h(p, q) = ( ).
( )
, . f (p, q)
1.34 :
p q p p q p (p q)

1.27
(. .) P (p, q, . . .) , P (p, q, . . .)
p, q, . . .. P (p, q, . . .)
p, q, . . . (: P (p, q, . . .) P (p, q, . . .) ).
1.28
( ) P (p, q, . . .), Q(p, q, . . .)

P (p, q, . . .) Q(p, q, . . .),

P (p, q, . . .) Q(p, q, . . .)
, .
1.35
( De Morgan) .
1. (p q) p q.
2. (p q) p q.
, .
(p q) p q:
p q p q p q (p q) p q

(p q), p q . (p q)
( p q) . .
1.11.
43
1.34
,
;
1. p p
2. p p
3. p p q
4. p q
5. p p
6. (p q) (q p)
7. (p (p q)) q
8. ((p q) (q r)) (p r)
9. (p q) (p q)
10. (p q) (q p)
1.35
python.
python and, or, not
True False. ( )
(), () Y ( (xor)).
def implies(p, q):
return q or not p
def equivalent(p, q):
return implies(p, q) and implies(q, p)
def xor(p, q):
return (p and not q) or (q and not p)
a = True
b = False
print
print
print
print
"a
"b
"a
"a
=> b is", implies(a, b)

=> a is", implies(b, a)
<=> b is", equivalent(a, b)
xor b is", xor(a, b)
1.11
1.36
8 9
1.37
1 k 1.
n 0 0 k n
dk n
n!
x =
xnk .
k
(n k)!
dx
44
1.
1.38
n 1
1.39
13 + 23 + + n3 = (1 + 2 + + n)2 .
(1.23)

X
{a1 ,...,ak }[n]
1
= n + 1,
a1 a2 ak
{a1 , . . . , ak }
[n] = {1, 2, . . . , n}.
: {a1 , . . . , ak }
[n] 1. 1,
, 0,
.
1.12:
1.40
n . ( 1.12.) . (
) .
: (
) .
1.41
m n
. ( )
.
.
. m n ,
. , k n
1.11.
45
1.13: 1.41 (m = 4, n = 5), .
(m k) n, . ,
, m k m (n k). (
1.13.)
.
; m n. (.. )
(mn).
1.42
n . n
( ) .
.
.
n , ( ).
1.43
(
) . ,
, .
:
, , .
(..
,
, ).
.

.
.
;
46
1.
1.44
Aj X, j = 1, 2, . . . , N, k ,
k + 1 Aj .
Aj .
. A1 = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk }
A2 , . . . , AN x1 , x2 , .
1.14: 1.45
1.45
F X. E X
k, F E
F E
( F F ), 2k . . E F E.
F N = |F| N
X.
1.46
;
1. (p q) ( p q)
2. p q
3. (p q) (q p)
4. (p q)
5. (q p) p
6. p q
7. p q
8. q p
1.12. VIDEO
47
9. p p
10. q q
1.47
88 ( . 62 ). ( .
) ;
1.12
Video
1.1
. (video , 5:27 ).
48
1.

[1]
Paul Richard Halmos. Naive set theory. Springer Science & Business Media, 1960.
[2]
E Kamke. Theory of sets (translated by F. Bagemihl). Dover, New York, 1950.
[3]
Chung Laung Liu and CL Liu. Elements of discrete mathematics. McGraw-Hill New York, 1985.
49
50

Hardy and Wright 1979 Graham,
Knuth, and Patashnik 1994.
2.1
2.1
a, b Z, b > 0,
q Z,
( ),
r {0, 1, . . . , b 1},
( ),
a = b q + r.
2.1
(, ) 0 a = bq b
a. b | a. b (
).
a1 , a2 r b
b modb.
a1 a2 (b)
a1 = a2 mod b.
modb b .
2.1
5/3 -5/3.
python /
% . python.
[ 2.1:] Z ()
{kb, kb + 1, kb + 2, . . . , kb + (b 1)},
51
52
2.
. b . a
,
[qb, (q + 1)b) Z.
r {0, 1, . . . , b 1}
a = qb + r.
a
a = q0 b + r0 ,
q 0 Z, r {0, 1, . . . , b 1}.
r r0 = (q 0 q)b,
. r r0 b.
0 r < b, 0 r0 < b,

b < r r0 < b,
b 0. r = r0 q = q 0 ,
, .
2.2
:
1. a | a
2. a | b, b | a = a = b
3. a | b, b | c = a | c
4. a | b, a | c = a | kb + lc, k, l Z
5. a = b mod c, a0 = b0 mod c = a a0 = b b0 mod c
6. a = b mod c, a0 = b0 mod c = a a0 = b b0 mod c
2.3
a | b k 1 ak | bk .
2.2
( , ) bxc
x, . k k x. {x}
x, . {x} = x bxc.
2.4
n n = 2bn/2c.
2.5
1000 3 5.
2.6
3 | n3 n.
n3 n . 2.2: r
n 3 n3 n = r3 r mod 3 r.
2.2. , , 53
2.7
8n + 1.
2.8
6n + 5 6n + 1.
2.9
5 | n5 n.
2.2 n 5.
2.10
9 | n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3 .
2.2. 9
python.
for r in range(9):
k = r**3+(r+1)**3+(r+2)**3
print k%9
2.6.
2.11
Fibonacci :
f1 = f2 = 1, fn = fn1 + fn2 n 3.
:
() 2 | fn 3 | n.
() 3 | fn 4 | n.
() 4 | fn 6 | n.
2.12

(2 + 3)n .
(a + b)N =
(2 +
3)n + (2
j=0
N
j
aj bN j
3)n
. 1 < (2
2.2
PN
3)n < 0.
, ,

2.3
( ) a, b
a, b d a b. (a, b).
2.4
( ) a, b a, b n a b n. [a, b].
.
54
2.
2.1
(10, 15) = 5, [10, 15] = 30.
(7, 11) = 1, [7, 11] = 77.

a (1, a) = 1, [1, a] = a, (a, a) = a, [a, a] = a.
2.2
a, b k, l
(a, b) = ka + lb.
S = {xa + yb : x, y Z} a, b.
S (a, b). d S. d = ka + lb
d S. ,
S . d.
u = xa + yb, x, y Z u/d:
u = qd + r, 0 r < d.
r = uqd S ( S ).
r > 0 d S. r = 0
u = qd .
a, b S d a, b , , (a, b) | d,
d a, b, d (a, b). , , (a, b) | d,
d = (a, b) (a, b) S a, b.
2.13
k
.
k 2.2.
2.1
a, b d | a, d | b d | (a, b).
O d a, b (a, b) 2.2.

2.5
( mod ) x, y
modb xy = 1 mod b. y = x y = x1 b .
2.3
a, b 1 . x ax = 1 mod b
(a, b) = 1. ( . a mod b.)
2.2. , ,
55
d = (a, b) > 1 x Z d - ax 1, b
ax 1.
, (a, b) = 1 2.2 x, y
1 = ax + by ax = 1 mod b.
2.14
x, y modb a x = y mod b.
;
2.1
a b
1. b | a (a, b) = b.
2. b - a (a, b) = (b, r) r > 0 a/b.
.
a = qb + r a/b r = a qb (a, b) | r , (a, b) | b
(a, b) | (b, r). (b, r) | a (b, r) | (a, b),
(a, b) = (b, r),
.

a, b. .
, a, . 0 (.
b | a) b. (b, a mod b)
a mod b 0.
python:
def gcd(a, b): # find the gcd of a, b, where a >= b
print a, b
r = a % b # if a < b then this will reverse them at the next call
if r == 0:
return b
else:
return gcd(b, r)
print

. ..
7735, 3003
print gcd(7735, 3003)

7735 3003
3003 1729
1729 1274
1274 455
455 364
364 91
91
(91).
56
2.
2.3
2.6
( ) n > 1 ,
.
a | n, a > 1 = a = n.
n > 1 .

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, . . . .

4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, . . . .
2.15
101, 103, 107, 111, 113, 121 .
2.16
n > 1 ( 1 n .)
d <= n.
k. k >
n/k.
2.17
2.16 n
2 b nc.
python.
def isprime(n):
if n<=1:
return False
d = 2
while d*d <= n: # Check only up to the square root of n
if n%d == 0:
return False
d = d+1
return True
.
49
print [x for x in range(2,50) if isprime(x)]

[2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47]

d*d (
, ).
def isprime(n):
if n<=1:
return False
d = 2
2.3.
57
d2 = 4
while d2 <= n: # Check only up to the square root of n
if n%d == 0:
return False
d2 = d2 + d + d +1
d = d+1
return True
2.18
n p n > n1/3 .
n ( ).
2.4
.
, p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ,
k = p1 p2 pn + 1.
k , s,
s k. s ,
, k
s, s k.
s p1 , p2 , . . . , pn , s = pt . k = 1 mod pt ,
.
2.19
[a, b] N .

10! + 2, 10! + 3, 10! + 4, . . . , 10! + 10;
2.20
5 . 106
.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + 2 8 .
2.21
p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 , . . . .
( , 2.4)
n1
p n 22
.
2.5
p p | ab p | a p | b.
58
2.
ab = kp, k Z, p - a. p (p, a) = 1, ,
2.2, 1 = xa + yp x, y Z. b
b = xab + ypb = xkp + ybp = p(ak + yb)
p | b .

2.1
p | a1 a2 ak p aj ( k).
2.6
( ) n > 1

n = pe11 pe22 perr
p1 < p2 < < pr r, e1 , e2 , . . . , er .
2.2
( )
. . a
n n = a na a na
( ).
[ 2.6] ( )
n > 1 . , .
. ( )
n.
.
n = 2 ( n).
n n.

n = p1 p2 pr = q1 q2 qs ,
p1 , p2 , . . . , q1 , q2 , . . . , . , 2.5 , q1 q1 , q2 , . . .. p1 n0 = n/p1
. .

2.2
a, b 1 a | b a
b a.
p a e 1:
a = pe
2.3.
59
( ). a | b b = ka, k Z,
b = ka = kpe
p b e.

a = pe11 pe22 pekk
e0 e0
e0
e0
k+1
b = p11 p22 pkk pk+1
perr
e0j ej , j = 1, 2, . . . , k, b a.
2.22
a, b 1 .
(a, b) a
b a, b.
[a, b]
a b a, b.
.
2.2.
2.23
a, b 1
(a, b)[a, b] = a b.
2.24
a, b > 0 (a2 + b2 , a + b).
2.25
a b (a, b) = (a/2, b). (a, b) = 2(a/2, b/2).
2.26
(a, b) = 1 c | a + b (c, a) = (c, b) = 1.
2.27

xn + cn1 xn1 + cn2 xn2 + + c1 x + c0 ,
c0 , c1 , . . . , cn1 Z,

.
2, 3 5, 10 17 .
=
2.28
k
l
(k, l) = 1 l > 1. p l.
4849845 .
2.29
10!.
2.30
30
10
3 ( 1
). 4 . 5 .
60
2.
2.31
( p2 p).
2.32
p n!

bn/pc + n/p2 + n/p3 + .

j n/pj < 1.
20! .
1000!;
8- ;
2.33
a, b (a, b) = 18
[a, b] = 240;
2.34
c | ab = c | (a, c)(b, c).
2.35
2.36
2+
3
/ Q.
log2 3
/ Q.
2.37

1+
1 1 1
1
+ + + +
2 3 4
n
n 2.
2.38
(a, b) = (a + b, [a, b]).
2.39
a, b [a, b] = n.
n .
2.40
6k + 5.
6k+1 6k+5.
6k + 5, p1 , p2 , . . . , pr , n = 6p1 p2 pr 1.
2.41
n + 1 1 2n
.

[1]
Ronald L Graham, Donald E Knuth, and Oren Patashnik. Concrete Mathematics. 1994.
[2]
Godfrey Harold Hardy and Edward Maitland Wright. An introduction to the theory of numbers.
Oxford University Press, 1979.
61
62

C. L. Liu and C. Liu 1985, Graham,
Knuth, and Patashnik 1994, Cameron 1994 Stanley 1986.
3.1

3.1, . ;
3.1: ;
, . (
. .)

;
4:
1. ,
2. ,
3. ,
4. ,
4 = 2 2

63
64
3.
3.1

, , , , ;
3.2
,
, ;

:
, k ,
, .
.

k .

( |X| X):
3.1
k E k-
(x1 , . . . , xk )
x1 E1 , x2 E2 , . . . , xk Ek , Ej .
|E| = |E1 | |E2 | |Ek |.
k. k = 1 , E = E1 .
k = n k = n + 1.

(x1 , . . . , xn , xn+1 )
(3.1)
xj Ej , j = 1, . . . , n + 1. En+1 = {e1 , . . . , er } (3.1)

r : G1
e1 , .
(x1 , . . . , xn , e1 ), xj Ej ,
(3.2)
G2 e2 , ...
, , .. G1 1-1 G2
G1 G2
(x1 , . . . , xn , e1 ) (x1 , . . . , xn , e2 ).
(3.1)
|G1 | r = |G1 | |En+1 |.
(3.3)
3.1.
65
, , G1
(x1 , . . . , xn ), xj Ej ,
, , |E1 | |En |. (3.3)
.
3.3
python (x, y) x A, y B,
. A B.
A = ['Sweet', 'Medium', 'No Sugar']
B = ['With milk', 'No milk']
for x in A:
for y in B:
print "Sugar: ", x, " Milk: ", y
. ;
, , :
C = ['Large', 'Medium', 'Small']
3.4
.
2 3 . 9 .
;
3.5

2,3,5;
, ;
3.6
- ( 14, 1,2 );
3.7
;
( .
14 .)
( 0)
;
: 3
, 0.
3.8
, ; ;
.
N
1/N ( . 1/N ). N :
; . (x, y),
x, y {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
x y .
.
66
3.1.1
3.

.
3.2
A n , P(A) A, .
A.
|P(A)| = 2n .
n, .
A = {a1 , . . . , an } 1-1
n-
(x1 , . . . , xn ) x1 , . . . , xn {0, 1}.
(3.4)
, 1-1 B A n-
(x1 , . . . , xn ) xj = 1 j B ( 1-1
).

P(A) = {B : B A}
n- (3.4). .
n- (3.4) :
n- n , xj ,
. , 2| 2{z 2} = 2n .
n
3.9
( n) 3.2.
3.10
python . ( ).
def subsets(s):
n = len(s)
# empty set contains only the empty set
if n==0:
return [[]]
# s1 is set s without its first element
s1 = s[1:]
f = s[0] # f is the first element of set s
# all subsets of s not containing its first element, f
p1 = subsets(s1)
# p2 will contain all subsets of s containing f
p2 = []
for x in p1:
p2.append([f]+x)
return p2+p1
subsets. (
(recursive), . .) :
3.1.
67
s = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']

print subsets(s)
output
[['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'], ['a', 'b', 'c'], ['a', 'b', 'd'],
['a', 'b'], ['a', 'c', 'd'], ['a', 'c'], ['a', 'd'], ['a'],
['b', 'c', 'd'], ['b', 'c'], ['b', 'd'],
['b'], ['c', 'd'], ['c'], ['d'], []]
3.1
A B
[n] = {1, 2, . . . , n};
.
,
.
, , .

,

,
(
, ) .
. i = 1 i = n
i A, B .
A B . ( 3.2.)
3.2: 1, 2, . . . , n
n ,
, . A, B [n]. ,

. n
, , ,
i, . i A, i B i
/ A B. ,

3| {z
3} = 3n .
3.11
A B [n] A B;
68
3.
3.3: 3.11
3.12
3.1 A B
;
3.1 .
3.1.2
A B
A B A
B. |A| = m |B| = n ;
nm :
3.3
A B , B A
A B,
A
B = |B||A| .
A B ( . B A ) A B.

(.., 1-1
).
|B| |B| = |B||A| .
| {z }
|A|
3.13
[n] {0, 1}; (

[n].)
3.14
m n 0, 1 3;
3.15
f : [n] N = {0, 1, 2, . . .} f (k) < k

k [n];
k;
3.2. -
69
3.4: X X {0, 1},

3.13
3.16
A = {n, n + 1, . . . , n 1, n} A A ,
. f (x) = f (x) x A;
3.17
, 106 , 2 ;
;
3.18

n = p11 pkk ;
(3.5)
n pj . (
1 1. ..
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 6 , . .) ( 2.6)
n (3.5),
.
100 -
.
3.2
3.1
, , .
, .
.
. ( ) ,
. .
, . - (
).
3.2
, 3.1,
(2 ) .
2 2 (, )
70
3.
, 1
2 0 1 .
. ,
, . .
3.1
-
.
3.2
, -. ( )
: . 1
, 2 1 : .
1 + 2 + 1 = 4 .
,
.
, .
3.3
10- () .
;
10 9 = 90 .
. 10 . , x, x, . 9 .

, . .
-.
3.19
5 7 .
5 7; ( ).
3.20
m n 1-1 [m] [n];

1, 2, . . . , m . 1, 2, . . . , k 1
k;
3.21
3.19
.
.
3.2.1
, , r n;
3.4
r- (r n)
(x1 , . . . , xr ),
xj [n] ,
n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1).
(3.6)
3.2. -
71
x1 . n . x1
x2 . x2 ,
. n1. x1 , x2 x3 n2, .
-. .
. ,
xr n r + 1 = n (r 1)
r 1 n.

3.1
n
n! = 1 2 3 n.
.

n- . 3.4 r = n.
3.22
python ( , ,
).
def permutations(s):
"""
Returns a list of all perumatations of the set (list) s.
Each element of this list is a permutation of s (again, a list).
The list s is assumed to be nonempty.
"""
n = len(s)
if n==1:
return [s] # One permutation only
else:
result = [] # we will return this variable
for x in s: # list all permutations of s with first element x
ss = s[:] # make a copy of s
ss.remove(x) # now ss is the original list with x removed
for l in permutations(ss):
result.append([x] + l) # we add each of them to result
return result
..
print permutations(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
output
[['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'], ['a', 'b', 'd', 'c'],
['a', 'c', 'b', 'd'], ['a', 'c', 'd', 'b'],
['a', 'd', 'b', 'c'], ['a', 'd', 'c', 'b'],
['b', 'a', 'c', 'd'], ['b', 'a', 'd', 'c'],
['b', 'c', 'a', 'd'], ['b', 'c', 'd', 'a'],
72
3.
['b',
['c',
['c',
['c',
['d',
['d',
['d',
'd',
'a',
'b',
'd',
'a',
'b',
'c',
'a',
'b',
'a',
'a',
'b',
'a',
'a',
'c'],
'd'],
'd'],
'b'],
'c'],
'c'],
'b'],
['b',
['c',
['c',
['c',
['d',
['d',
['d',
'd',
'a',
'b',
'd',
'a',
'b',
'c',
'c',
'd',
'd',
'b',
'c',
'c',
'b',
'a'],
'b'],
'a'],
'a'],
'b'],
'a'],
'a']]
(recursive). .
3.23
python n,
. n n < 0
( ). 0! = 1.
:
def factorial(n):
# n should be >= 0
if n<0:
.............
else:
t=1
.............
return t
..
print factorial(5)
3.24
{A, B, C}.
3.22.
3.25
1,2,3,4,5; 1,1,3,4,5;
1,
1, 3, 4, 5.
1, 1, 3, 4, 5;
1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5;
3.26
3.27
Morse ( ) ,
. 7 , 3 2 .
;
3.28
Faster Than Light online

email 100 .
email
username@does-not-get-there.ever
username N
3.2. -
73
A, B, C, D, , Z, 0, 1, , 9
(36 ) username
. ( .) N
100
;
3.29
3.2.2
n!
2n
, n .
[n] (, , n )
k;
3.5
0 k n [n] ( n )

n
n(n 1) (n k + 1)
:=
k!
k
k ( 0 1,
0! = 1).

nk : n k.
3.2
n, k , 0 k n,
n(n 1) (n k + 1)
k!
.
k-
[n]. k- k-
,
. , . k-
, 3.4, . n(n 1) (n k + 1).
k-, . k- [n],
k! k-,
k- ( 3.1). , n(n1) (nk +1) k-
[n] k! . k-
[n] k!.

3.2
k-
n(n1) (nk+1),
.
3.30
python

52 :
n
k
74
3.
def binomial(n,k):
if k<0:
print "Error"
return -1
else:
t=1.0
for i in range(k):
t = t*(n-i)/(k-i)
return t
print binomial(5,2)
.
n
k .

x
x(x 1)(x 2) (x k + 1)
, x R.
(3.7)
=
k!
k

x = n nk
. x
x ( )
x.
3.31
f (x) =
k 0
x
k
(3.7) , .
x Z = f (x) Z.

. n
k , n

, Nk , N .
3.32
[4] = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

python ( python)
.
.
def subsets2(s):
n = len(s)
ss = []
if n <= 1:
return ss
else:
for i in range(n):
.......
return ss

s = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
print subsets2(s)

[['a', 'b'], ['a', 'c'], ['a', 'd'], ['b', 'c'], ['b', 'd'], ['c', 'd']]
3.2. -
75
3.4
( )
()
;

. ,
.
:
xa, ya, zb, wb
(3.8)

a, b {0, . . . , 9}, x, y, z, w {1, . . . , 9}, a > b, x > y, z > w.
(3.9)

(3.8). .
,
.
.
(a, b, x, y, z, w)
(3.9).
a, b, x, y z, w. ,
(3.9), .
a, b {0, . . . , 9} a > b
{0, . . . , 9}
a b .9

10
. 2 , , x, y 2
z, w.

2
10 9
.
2
2
3.5

(); .
.
.

13 .
13
.
3
,
. 3 13 = 39 , 39
3 .
( )

13
39
.
3
3
3.6
3.5

(
: )
,
76
3.
.

,
.
, 3.5.

.
(
).

. 13
.
3

49,
. 49
.

3
- ( )

13
49
.
3
3
!

. , 1 , 2 , 3
4 , 1 2 . 1 , 2 , 4

3 , 1 2 . .
13
49
3 3 ( )
.
; : 3, 4, 5
6 . ,
3.5, .

13 39
13 39
13
13
+
+
39 +
3
3
4
2
5
6
. (
.)
3.7
( . a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn ) (1 + x)10
x4 ;
, (a + b)2 =
(a + b)(a + b) 10 .
, . ab ,
ab .
ab ba.
ab , a
b . . ba
b a . ab
1+1 = 2. a2 b2 . a2 , ..,
a , b2 .
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 .
a2 b (a + b)3
b a (a + b)
3.3.
77
.
b. a.
x4
(1 + x)10 . , , 1 x
10 . x4
4 , x.

10
.
4
3.33
10 ,
; 5 , 3 ;
, ,
, , .
3.34
, 52 (
4 13 ), 2 ( ) 3 ;
.
3.35
n k {0, 1, . . . , n}
3.36
n
k
; n ;

n
X
n
k=0

n
n
n
n
+
+ +
+
= 2n ,
0
1
n1
n
n 0.
3.37

n
n
=
k
nk
n 0 0 k n.
3.38
r, s, k r s s!
(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + r).
3.3
3.39
[50] = {1, 2, . . . , 50}

;
3.40
8 8 ;
() .
.
3.5.
78
3.
3.5: 8 8
3.41
1, 2, . . . , 9 1 2 ;
3.42
1, 2, . . . , 9 1 2 2
3;
3.43
1, 2, 3, . . . , 2n1, 2n
;
;
3.44
{1, 2, . . . , 2n} k ;
3.45
12 10 .
5 5 ;
, .
3.46
,
, n ;
3.47
{1, 2, 3, . . . , 2n} n ()
() ;
3.48
3.19
.
5 7 .
3.49
n n n ;
3.50
2m ; 2m 3n ;
3.3.
79
3.51
[n] ; [n]
( ),
.
, n = 4, (1243) (3124) . ( 3.6.)
2
4
4
1
2
1
3.6: 1,2,3,4
90 ,
3.52
n

n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
+
+
+ +
=
+
+
+ +
.
0
2
4
n1
1
3
5
n
[n].
[n] (
) 1-1 .
3.53
6 (
) ( ) ( ),
().
:
3.54
1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3
10 ,
( 24 );
. n n
.
3.55
100
.

.
N 100
N . (
, N .)

.
80
3.
N
, ;
3.56
n (n > 2) , , ,
, (
).
A B
( ).
A 6= B.
3.57
7 .
.
.
.. ;
. ;
.

. 4 4
7. 3 .
;
.
.
:
1. 4
.
2. 3 .
; ;
3.4
Video
3.1
(video , 6:12 ).
3.2
. . (video , 16:29
).
3.3
. . . (video
, 11:00 ).
3.4
n k. . (video , 15:51
).
3.5
: ; (video , 14:07 ).

[1]
Peter J Cameron. Combinatorics: topics, techniques, algorithms. Cambridge University Press,

1994.
[2]
[3]
[4]
Richard P Stanley. Enumerative combinatorics. 1986.
81
82

C. L. Liu and C. Liu 1985, Graham,
Knuth, and Patashnik 1994, Cameron 1994 Stanley 1986.
4.1
P (n, r)
n r x1 , . . . , xr :
n = x1 + + xr .
, n = 3 r = 2
3=3+0=2+1=1+2=0+3
(4.1)
P (3, 2) = 4. x1 , . . . , xr . P (n, r)
n r . r
n 0.
4.1
n 0 r 0

n+r1
n+r1
P (n, r) =
=
.
n
r1
(4.2)
n n n, .
n = x1 + +xr , r1
( 4.1).
x2 = 0
x1 = 3
x8 = x9 = x10 = 0
x3 = 2
x4 = 1
x5 = 2
x6 = 1
x7 = 2
4.1: n = 11 r = 10 9
83
84
4.
x1 ,
x2 , . xr
( r 1) +.
, P (n, r) 4.1 ,
, .
; : n + r 1
n

r 1 . n+r1
.
n

a
a
4.1 b = ab
( 3.37).

4.1 P (3, 2) = 3+21
= 43 = 4
3
(4.1).
4.1
4 3 .

n r ,
:
k n
n ,
;
.
n . . k :
.
.
k , .
;
n k .
nk .
4.1
{A, B} 3
AAA, AAB, ABB, BBB.
, ABB BAB
.
4.2
4.3
n
1
= n. , n 2,
n
2
=n+
n
2
X
DnE
3

n
=
+ X.
3
. 4.2
.

n4 n4 .
4.1.
85
k k , ,
{1, . . . , n}. xi , i = 1, . . . , n, i. ,
,
x1 + + xn = k
(4.3)

n- x1 , . . . , xn (4.3). .
4.2
k n
k n .
DnE
k

=

n+k1
.
k
4.4
k n (..,
3 , ,
), ;
4.5
n n
;
.
4.6
8 .
( 0) 6.
8
1. 8 .
2. 5 3 . .
3.
6 ( ) , ,
( . 6,
).
4.7
x1 , x2 , . . . , xk .. 1 x1 < x2 <
< xk n;
4.8
, k ,

n
k
k
DnE
n , k ,
n . .
86
4.
4.2
( DNA Gamow) DNA .
A, C, G T. DNA
20 .
, 1 2.
4 1 ( A, C, G T) 42 = 16 2 (
4 ). DNA
3 43 = 64, . 20.
1954 G. Gamow DNA
. . ACC CAC, , . Gamow
DNA 3;
A, C, G
T , . .

4
4+31
6
654
=
=
=
= 20,
3
3
3
3!
. Gamow 20
. , , Gamow .
4.9
n k
1 k;
.
4.3
( Bose-Einstein )
t p , .. p .
.
t .
Bose-Einstein.
Bose-Einstein ;
xi , i = 1, . . . , p, i, xi t.
t p , .

t+p1
.
t
4.10
Fermi-Dirac t
( p ). t p
; ( 4.3 4.9.)
4.2
k n, ,

n
n(n 1) (n k + 1)
n!
=
=
.
k
k!
k!(n k)!
4.2.
87
, , {1, . . . , n} k1 , k2 , , kr , j = 1, . . . , r
0 kj n k1 + + kr = n; .
{1, . . . , n} k1 , k2
kr ;
4.3
n r k1 , . . . , kr , k1 +
+ kr = n, ,

n
n!
=
.
(4.4)
k1 , . . . , kr
k1 !k2 ! kr !

n
n!
=
k1 !(n k1 )!
k1
. n k1 ,

n k1
(n k1 )!
=
k2
k2 !(n k1 k2 )!
. (
kr1 )
(n k1 kr2 )!
(n k1 kr2 )!
=
kr1 !(n k1 kr1 )!
kr1 !kr !
. , r 1
kr
.
r 1 ,
(4.4).

n
n
k1 ,...,k
k r
).

n
n
n
=
=
.
k, n k
k
nk
4.1

n
k1 ,...,k
k1 , . . . , kr
r
( . ).
4.2
,
, .
k1 , k2 , . . . , km
. . ,

9
3, 3, 3
88
4.
1, 2, . . . , 9 .
.
{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9} {3, 2, 1}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}
.
. , ..,
{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9} {4, 5, 6}, {1, 2, 3}, {7, 8, 9}
.
4.11
10 5, 3 2 .
; (
.)
4.12
12 4 ( )
3 ;
4.13
5 , 3 4 ;
.
4.3
( 4.4 .
.
.
4.4
a, b R, n 0
(a + b)n =
n
X
n
k=0
ak bnk .
(4.5)
n (a + b). , . ,
(
3.7) , .
, a b n,
ak bnk , (0 k n).
a k .

k

n
n, . k , .
4.3.
89
4.14
(1 + x)5 x;
( 4.4) .
4.4
a = b = 1 (4.5) ( 3.36)
n
X
n
n
2 =
.
k
k=0
4.5
a = 1, b = 1 (4.5)

n nk k k
X n
X n
.
(4.6)
=
k
k
0kn
0kn
k o
k o
n , k
n
k ( nk = nk

3.37), k.
4.6
a = x, b = 1 (4.5) x.

n
X
n k1
n1
n(1 + x)
=
k
x .
k
k=1
x = 1

n
X
n
k
= n2n1 .
k
4.15
P

4.16
P

4.17
k=1

n
k n
k=0 2 k .
n
k=2 k(k
1)
n
k

a(x) = aN xN + aN +1 xN +1 + + a0 + a1 x + aN xN
b(x) = bN xN + bN +1 xN +1 + + b0 + b1 x + bN xN
aj bj . ( 0) Laurent .
aj a(x), .
.
c(x) = a(x)b(x) c(x) Laurent

min {N,N s}
cs =
X
max {N,sN }
2N s 2N .
ak bsk ,
90
4.
4.18
a = x, b = 1/x 2n n (4.5)
X
n 2
2n
n
=
,
n
k
k=0
4.17.
4.19
x3 y 5 (1 + x + y)12 ; . ( 4.2.)
4.7

n
X

1
n
.
k+1 k
k=0
. 4.6 x
n
X
n k
x
(1 + x) =
k
n
k=0

k nk ,
1/(k + 1) .

n
X
1
n k
f (x) =
x .
k+1 k
k=0
f (1) f (x)
x = 1. x
x
n
X
n k
0
(xf (x)) =
x = (1 + x)n
k
k=0
, , C
xf (x) =
(1 + x)n dx + C
xf (x) =
(1 + x)n+1
+ C.
n+1
x = 0 C = 1/(n + 1)
xf (x) =
x = 1 f (1) =
2n 1
n+1
(1 + x)n+1 1
n+1
4.4.
4.4
91

, ( ).
, .
4.8
( Pascal)

n
n1
n1
=
+
.
k
k1
k
(4.7)
k- [n] = {1, . . . , n}. :

n . n n1
k1
k- [n1] =
{1, . . . , n 1} k 1.

n1
[n 1], k, k .
4.9

.
P1 , . . . , Pn . (Pi , Pj ) Pi
Pj , xi Pi y
P . (Pi , Pj ) , , ni=1 xi , ,
, 2y, (Pi , Pj ) (Pj , Pi ).
n
X
2y =
xi
i=1
xi .
4.10
n1 , n2 0

m
X
n1
n2
n1 + n2
=
, (m min {n1 , n2 }).
k
mk
m
k=0
m [n1 +n2 ]. n1
. m m + 1 Ck ,
k = 0, . . . , m. Ck
m-
[n1 + n2 ]

n1
n2
k . |Ck | = k mk Ck
P k n k .
m
k=0 |Ck |.
4.11
n 2 :

2n
n
=2
+ n2 .
2
2
[2n]. n 2n
. [2n] : () ,
() , () . () n2
n . (). ()
n n, n n .
.
92
4.
4.12

n1
n2

n
X
n
=
k
k
(4.8)
k=1
( 4.6) (x, M )
x M [n].
nk M [n] k, x
k , (x, M ) x M [n]
(4.8).
x
M , . M \ {x}. [n] x
M \ {x}, 2n1 ,
n2n1 , .
4.20
0 i k n

n ni
k
n
=
.
i
ki
i
k
4.21

X

n
n
i1
=
.
k
k1
i=k
[n] k .. i;
4.22
n, m, k1 , . . . , km .. k1 + +km = n

X

m
n
n1
=
.
k1 , k 2 , . . . , k m
k1 , . . . , ki1 , (ki 1), ki+1 , . . . , km
4.23
i=1

0
1
n
n+1
+
+ +
=
m
m
m
m+1

0 m n. ( ab a < b 0.)
4.5
4.24
21 , ,
;
4.25
20 , , 6, 5 4
. ( .)
;
4.6. VIDEO
93
4.26
n
X
k=1
4.27

n
k
.
k
2
, n 1

2n + 2
2n
2n
2n
=
+2
+
.
n+1
n+1
n
n1
4.6
Video
4.1
k n . (video , 14:35 ).
4.2
. (video , 19:09 ).
(4.9)
94
4.

[1]

1994.
[2]
[3]
[4]
95
96

C. L. Liu and C. Liu 1985, Cameron
1994, Diestel 2005 Stanley 1986.
5.1
( ) , (
) , .
,
.
5.1
( ) G = (V, E) V
E, V . V = V (G)
E = E(G) G.
u v .

G.
.
(
) .
, 5.1
.
() .

V = { , , , , }

E = { { , }, { , }, { , }, { , }, {
, }, { , } }.

,
.
.
97
98
5.
5.1:
2
5.2: 6 7
5.1
. ..
5.2
V = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

5.1
E = {{1, 2}, {1, 4}, {2, 3}, {3, 5}, {3, 6}, {4, 6}, {5, 6}}.
G1 = (V, E) G2 = (V, E2 ) E1 E2 = E1 E2 V .
V G1 G2 .
5.3 .
5.1.
5.2
5.4 3 .
5.2
n ; n k ; (0 k n)
u v G (. {u, v} E) u v
G
u v . e1 e2
e1 e2 .
5.1.
99
5.3:
V = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. .
V .
5.4: 3
5.2
( , ) (.
) (.
) u u N (u).
5.5 .
5.3
5.2
N (1) = {2, 4}, N (2) = {1, 3}, N (3) = {2, 5, 6}, N (4) = {1, 6}, N (5) = {3, 6}, N (6) = {3, 4, 5}.
{3, 6}
N ((3, 6)) = {{2, 3}, {3, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 5}, {3, 6}}.
,
(
).
5.3
( , . .) u V (
deg u) u . . deg u = |N (u)|.
.
.
r r-.
100
5.
5.5: 3 ( 2, 5,
7) 8 ( 5, 6, 9)
5.6: 4 6
5.6 .
5.4
5.2, {3, 6}, 2,
2-. 5.1 3
2.
5.3
;
n 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
0 n 1 ;
5.4
G = (V, E) 2|E|.
5.5
r- n ; 3- 7 ;
5.4.
5.6
.
5.7
n > 0 n- 2n .
5.8

. ,
.
5.2.
101
G = (V, E) A V
V \ A .
5.7 .
5.7:
, ,
5.2
n [n] = {1, . . . , n} E = .
En .
n [n] , . E =

.
[n]. Kn n2 = n(n1)
2
. 5.10 K5 .
m n V = A B, A =
{a1 , . . . , am }, B = {b1 , . . . , bn }, ai bj , i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , n.
Km,n m n . 5.8 .
5.8: K4,3 A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {, , }

K3,1 , , A = {a, b, c}, B = {d}.
n [n] i j |i j| = 1
{i, j} = {1, n}. Cn n . 5.9 .
5.3
5.3.1
5.4
() G0 = (V 0 , E 0 ) G = (V, E)
V 0 V E 0 E.
102
5.
5.9: C6
, G0 G G
. G
u u,
.
5
2
1
4
1
2
5.10:
5.5
5.10 . .
, .
( ) .
.
5.9
Kn ; Kn ;
,
. , () (
[n]) () . ()
(). .. () 5 ()

5
, 2 .
, ( k = 0, 1, . . . , n, k
()) .
, .
5.5
V 0 V , G = (V, E) V 0
5.3.
103
G0 = (V 0 , E 0 ),

E 0 = e = {u, v} E :

u, v V 0 .
5.11 .
5.10 {2, 4}
{1, 3}.
V = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
5.11:
5.10
n ;
G G ( V 0 5.5).
5.3.2
5.6
G = (V, E) G0 = (V 0 , E 0 ), , 1-1 f : V V 0

G
G0
(5.1)
u, v V : u v f (u) f (v) .
,
1-1 .
5.12 .
5.12: ( f
5.6) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
5.11
. . F , G H :
: F F ,
104
5.
: F G G F ,
: F G G H F
H.
5.13:
5.14: - 3
5.6
5.14 - 3 . .
3 ( 5.4) 4 .
3 , .
f ( )
. .. f 5.16
6.1
f (1) = 1, f (2) = 5, f (3) = 6, f (4) = 7, f (5) = 4, f (6) = 3, f (7) = 2,
.
,
. .. G G0 G
G0 .
( ) 6.1
6.1.
5.12
G Kn ,
n G.
5.13
.
5.14
5.13 .
5.3.
105
5.15
( . 5.1)
.
5.16
5 ( . 5.1).

5 52 = 10 , ,
, , . 5 .
5.17
W ,
. S
{0, 1, . . . , 6}
mod 7 3 4 ( 3 -3 mod 7).
.
5.18
Q ,
B {0, 1}3 , . 0 1.
Q . B
. Q B .
5.15.
5.15: 5.18
,
, ,
.

, 5.19.
5.19
G H .
.
1. |V (G)| 6= |V (H)|
2. |E(G)| 6= |E(H)|
3. G H.
4. G , H
.
106
5.
G H
.
5.1

, ,
.
5.20
- .
5.21
. 6.1 .
5.4
5.7
( ) G
e
en1
1
2
u2
un ,
u1
ej uj uj+1 , j = 1, . . . , n 1. (n 1)
.
.
5.7
uj
. .. 5.2 1 2 3 6 .
5.1 .
5.22
B 5.18 (0, 0, 0) (1, 1, 1).

5.8
(, ) .
.
5.8
5.2 1 2 3 6 4 1
. 5.1
5,
3 .
5.9
( ) v u
u v.
5.9
5.1 5.2 .
v u
V . V
.
.
5.4.
2
1
3
107
6
4
7
5.16: 3
5.10
5.16 {1}, {2, 3, 4}
{5, 6, 7}.
5.10
( ) ,
. .
5.11
5.1 5.2 5.16 .
5.23
n n
1.
5.4.
5.24
,
, . , ,
( ).
5.17:
( 5.24)
d : V V R .
. d(u, v) u v .
5.11
( ) u v
d(u, v) = d(v, u) = +,
. u v .
d(u, v) u v, .
.
108
5.
5.12
5.16 d(2, 4) = d(5, 7) = 2, d(3, 2) = 1, d(1, x) = +, x {2, . . . , 7}.
5.10, , d(u, v) = 1, u, v {1, . . . , 5}, u 6= v.
,
:
u, v, w V :
d(u, v) d(u, w) + d(w, v).
(5.2)
, o u w
o w v,
u v. .
5.25
(5.2) .
, G = (V, E), diam G.
5.12
() G
G:
diam G = max d(u, v).
(5.3)
u,vV
G diam G < . ,
4 1 2.
5.26
B 5.18;
5.27
n n 1.
, , n n 1.
n 2 1.
u, v G d = d(u, v)
.
d ( ).
5.28
, 10 ,
6. 106 . G ,
, G;

.

. G
;
5.29
64 ,
. ;
5.4.
109
5.18: 5.29.
5.30

.
a, b G d(a, b) = diam G. a, b
.
5.31
, .
5.6.
5.32
, ,
. G = (V, E)
V = {v1 , . . . , vn }. A n n

1 vi vj ,
Aij =
0 .
. 1 i, j i- j- .
A 0 . ( , .
.

.)
k Ak , k 0, ( A k
) i, j s k
i j s. (: k u v
. , u u1 v, u u1 u u1 v
u v 4.)
X, Y n n Z = XY ( n n )
n
X
Zi,j =
Xi,r Yr,j , i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
r=1
110
5.

Aki,j
n
X
k1
Ai,r
Ar,j , i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(5.4)
r=1
Ak1
i,r
i r k 1. (5.4)
i j k.
5.33
G n , d
n1+d
(d 1)diam G 1
.
d2
u G.
V (k) = {v V : d(u, v) = k}, k = 0, 1, . . . , diam G,
V . k
|V (k)| d(d 1)k1 k 1.
k = 0, 1, . . . , diam G (1.15).
5.19: V (0), V (1), V (2), V (3) 5.33 .

V (1) 1 u ( ),
V (2) 2 u ( ),
V (3) 3 u ( ).
5.5
, , .
5.13
(, ) . ,
, .
5.5.
111
5.20: 4

.
( ), , . (. ) .
, , , .
, , :
G = (V, E) ,
( ). ( 5.1.)
5.13
( 5.21)
N . ,
, ...
5.21: ,

.
, .
N . , ,
, .
5.21 . :
7 6 ( ).
,
,
112
5.
(,
, ).
5.14
( ) T , G ,
G (spanning tree). T ,
G T , T G.
5.1
G .
G = (V, E)
e
en1
1
2
C : u1
u2
un = u1 .
, .. e1 , .
. ( 5.24.) ,
e1 G L
v u, . 5.22.
u
L
e1
v
5.22: e1
, e1 ,
v u e1
C.
, ,
C e1 .
, , ( ) G ( ), ,
. .
G ( )
5.1 , .
5.5.
113
, ,
.
5.2
n n 1 .
n. n = 1 . G n .
: G 1.
2 ( 0 ).
G
e
e
u v u

, .
.
u
.
5.23: u
5.23. u
u
, , ,
. ( 5.23.)
deg u = 1 G0 G
V \ {u}, . u u. (
5.24.)
, G0
, u 1, .
G0 n 1 n 2 .
G n 1 ( G0 u).
5.34
n m (m )
n m .
5.2 (. ).
114
5.
G0
G
5.24: u
G0 G.
5.35

. G
.
(.. ).
. , ,
.
( ) ,
, u, v G
1 , 2 . 1 , 2 .
1 2 .
u, 1 v,
u p2 , ,
. . (= ).
1 2
.
5.36
.
n n 1 .
n ,
. .
:
5.1
G n n 1 .
G , T , n 1
5.2. G = T .
5.6.
115
5.37
3
. , ,
n ; .
5.1.
5.38
G 3 . , , . . (
5.37) .
() .
() G G .
5.6
5.15
( ) (V, E), V
, E
V V , . E V V .
(v, v) ( ). i
j .
5.16
( ) ( )
, , , .
.
5.17
( ) ( )
. .
5.18
( ) / ( )
/.
, . ,
, .
5.25 .
V = {1, 2, 3, 4}
E = {(2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
, .
.

,
.

( ) .
116
5.
0.9
0.1 2
0.1
1
5
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
3
3
0.1
5.25:
5.19
( ) ,
.
u v u v (+
), G
G, .
5.39
(5.2) (
).
.
5.26: 5.40
5.40
N N , ,
5.26.
.
Z E
( 0 ). 5.26
Z = 2 E = 4.
2Z E.
5.7. KRUSKAL 117
5.7
Kruskal
G = (V, E)
w : E R+ .
T G
, . , .
.
X
w(T ) =
w(e),
eT
e (e T ), T
G, . G.
5.20
( ) w(T ) , .
G.

G.
Kruskal
1. F G .
2. S G,
.
3. S 6= :
() S (
S).
() F , F , F .
.
F G. ( Kruskal
O(m log m) , m G.)
5.3
Kruskal
G.
Kruskal
,
,
.
F , , . F
C1 , . . . , Ck , k > 1, , ,
118
5.
G Cj .
G , .
F G F
G. T
G F
( S)
. F = T F
. e
F T T F . e
.

e F \ T.
(5.5)
Kruskal
F . ,
T F , e T ,
e T .
(5.5).
F1
F2
e
5.27: 5.3
e
F1 F2 () F . e
/ T
T C
C \ {e}, f ,
w(f ) w(e).
C \ {e}
e, , F T ,
C \ {e} T , F ,
e F1 F2 . ( 5.27.)

T 0 = T {e} \ f.
F T ,
T . F = T F
.
5.8. FLOYD-WARSHALL 119
1.0
3.0
1.5
2.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
1
3.0
5.28:
5.41
Kruskal 5.28
.
5.42
Kruskal
m log m, m (
n 1, n , .
.
Kruskal (greedy) (
) , ,
.
,
.
5.8
Floyd-Warshall
, G ( ) .

. . ( , ) i j
;.
, .., , , 1 ,
. overkill
: .
, , [n] = {1, 2, . . . , n}
w(i, j) (i, j) ( +
).
n n A
1 n 3.
120
5.
FloydWarshall
(0)
1. Aij = w(i, j), i, j = 1, . . . , n.

2. k = 1, 2, . . . , n .
n
o
(k)
(k1)
(k1)
(k1)
3. Aij = min Aij , Aik
+ Akj
, i, j = 1, . . . , n.
5.4
(n)
i j Aij .
(k)
(k)
k Aij Lij =
i j {1, . . . , k}.
(0)
k = 0 Aij
(i, j) i j
(i, j) . k = 0.
k 1,
i j {1, . . . , k},
.
() k.
() k.
(k)
(k1)
Lij = Lij .
().
i j k ( k). ,
i k i k (k1)
{1, . . . , k 1}. Lik
, ,
(k1)
k j Lkj .
(k)
(k1)
(k1)
Lij = Lik
+ Lkj .
, ,
(k)
(k1)
Lij Lij
(k)
(k1)
Lij Lik
(k1)
+ Lkj
L
i j ( [k]) i
k k j ( [k 1]).

n
o
(k)
(k1)
(k1)
(k1)
Lij = min Lij , Lik
+ Lkj
(k)
(k)
, A(k) , Aij = Lij , i, j = 1, . . . , n,

k = 0, . . . , n.

Floyd-Warshall n3
.
5.8. FLOYD-WARSHALL 121
5.43
( ) Floyd-Warshall ; ( ) ;
5.44
Floyd-Warshall
5.28.
122
5.

[1]

1994.
[2]
Reinhard Diestel. Graph theory. 2005.
[3]
[4]
123
124

C. L. Liu and C. Liu 1985, Cameron
1994, Diestel 2005 Stanley 1986.
6.1

. : A,
, B, .
V = AB , .
u, v V u v .
A B. .
A B. ,
,
(servers) (clients).
6.1
( ) G = (V, E)
V = A B, A B = ,
A B (
B A). . A A B B.
6.1
. .
V ,
, A
B .
6.1
( ) (A B)
, . , . 6.1(a)

A = {1, 3, 6}, B = {2, 4, 5, 7}.
, , . .
6.1(b) (a) .
6.2
V = A B , , , 1 B A.
125
126
6.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
(a)
7
(b)
6.1: ,
6.1
G G
.
6.2
.
, (
6.1). G = (V, E) u

V (k) = {v V : d(u, v) = k}, k = 0, 1, . . . , diam G,
V . V (k) G
k u. G

ab, a V (i), b V (j),
i j mod 2, . i, j .
6.1
.
n = |V |. n = 1,
u . V = {u} A = {u}
B = .
, n 1
T n . .
( 5.2)
1. u T , v . T
u uv, , T 0 (
, ) n 1 .
T 0 A0 B 0 ( T 0 .
A0 B 0 ). v , A0 .
T A = A0
B = B 0 {u}. , A0
6.1.
127
B 0 , u B 0 .
u , v, A.
6.2: A B
u
, ,
.
6.3
6.4
Cn {1, 2, . . . , n}
E = {(1, 2), (2, 3), . . . , (n 1, n), (n, 1)}.
Cn n .
6.5
m n , Kmn
A = {a1 , . . . , am } B = {b1 , . . . , bn },
.
5.8 .. K4,3 .
1. Kmn ;
2. m n Kmn ; (
.)
3. Kmn . ( G
G0 G0
G.) ;
6.6
; ( 6.5.)
:
6.2
.
128
6.
G C :
C : u1 u2 un u1 .
C n .
u1 A. u2 B, u3 A,
. . uj j B j A. un
u1 , B, n .
, G , V ,
. G u.
A = {v V : d(u, v) o}
B = V \ A.
G A B.
A B. a1
a2 A ( B) ,
, G a1 a2 . 1 2
G u a1 a2 . C
1 a1 a2 2 .
C
|C| = |1 | + 1 + |2 |,
, .
G . G , G ( 6.1).
6.7
G, (G), k
k G,
.
(K3 ) 3. G
(G) 2.
6.8
A = {a1 , . . . , am } B = {b1 , . . . , bn },
A B;
A B .
6.9
A = {a1 , . . . , am } B = {b1 , . . . , bn }, m, n r r-
A B;
A.
A r m r .
B.
.
6.10
(
);
6.2.
6.2
129
.
6.2
( , ) .
M (matching).
A B M A ( B)
A M .
5
4
5
1
3
6
7
8
A
(a)
B
(b)
6.3:
6.2
. 6.3(a) . . 6.3(b)
A ( ).
B 9 B
.
6.3
J1 , . . . , Jn
C1 , . . . , Cm , m n.
, .
.
.
A = {J1 , . . . , Jn } B = {C1 , . . . , Cm } Jk
Cl Cl Jk .
A .
6.11
A B A |B| |A|.
X A1 , . . . , An . :
A1 , . . . , An
X. Ai x x Ai .
130
6.
6.3 6.4: X = {, , , , , , }, A1 , . . . , A5
X. ( ,
, ) ,
X
.
X
.
6.4 .
6.3
, J , N (J)
J.

.
6.3
A B A
J A
|N (J)| |J|.
(6.1)
6.3 ( 1.5).
B,
6.3. 6.3 (1.21) Hall.
A B
, , ,
Hall, . 6.3.
6.12
A B
|N (J)| |J| 5, J A.
6.3.
131
M |A| 5 A.
5 B A.
Hall (6.1). 6.3
.
:
6.1
( , ).
G = (A B, E) r-, r 1.
6.3. J A E1 J.
G r- |E1 | = r|J|.
E2 N (J), .
J. |E2 | = r|N (J)|.
E1 E2 . r|J| r|N (J)|,
|N (J)| |J|.
6.13
r- r .
6.1.
. ;
6.14
(52 13 (A, 2, 3, . . . , 10, J, Q, K), 4

(, , , )), 13 4 . (
, . .)

.
13 13 .
.
.
.
6.3
A. ,
. (, ).
6.4
( , )
( ).
A B M ,
, A
E \ M M , .
B .
132
6.
6.5: 1243
6.4
. 6.5 1243 .
6.4
6.6: (). M .
M M

. ,
M , M , M , ...,
M , B M .
M
M M , M 0
M . M 0 ( 6.15 ),
, .
6.6 6.5.
6.5
. 6.5 24 12 34
.
6.15
6.4, M 0 .
M .
6.3.
133
6.15, .
6.4
.
M1 ( G, A B)
, M2 . G0
M1 4 M2 ( M1 M2 , G .
M1 M2 ).
M1 M2 G0 0, 1 2 (
G0 , G). G0 3
M1 M2 ,

.
G0
( 0, ).
M1 M2 .
M1 M2 .
, M1 - M2 -
M2 -
M1 , A B.
( ) M1 -
M2 . M2 M1
M2 , .

6.5
6.4 : (.. )
.
6.4
. ,
6.4 .
6.5
( ) U G G
G U .
6.6
. 6.3(a) {1, 6, 8} .
6.16
G M U .
|U | |M |.
M U .
M ;
6.5
(Knig, 1931, Egervry, 1931)
.
134
6.
G A B M G . U , |U | = |M |,
G. G
|M |. , ( 6.16)
|M | , 6.5 .
U M ,
.
:
uv M , u A, v B.
v v U , u.

|U | = |M |.
U . ab a A, b B.
a, b U . ab M ab
/ M .
M a0 b0 M , a = a0 b = b0 , a0 b0
M M , . a b = b0 ab
, a0 b0 U b0 = b,
.
a = a0 . a = a0 U b0 U ,
b0 . (
6.7.)
6.7: 6.5 (KnigEgervary).
M .
0 b: b b 0 = ab (
b0 ab). M 0
, b M U
0 b.

6.6
6.5 . ,
, . .
() ,
6.4. EULER HAMILTON
135
.
. , M ,
U , , o U
( .
U ). U 6.4. ,
6.4, ( |U | = |M |
U ) M .
6.17
m n A Aij {0, 1}.

. 1 A
1 .
G A (
m + n) A
.
.
6.5.
6.7
6.3 6.5.
KnigEgervry.
(6.1)
A. 6.5 U , |U | < |A|,
, U = A0 B 0 A0 A B 0 B. |B 0 | < |A \ A0 |. U
G A \ A0 B \ B 0 ,

N (A \ A0 ) B 0 < A \ A0 ,
(6.1) J = A \ A0 .
6.4
6.4.1
Euler Hamilton
6.6
( Euler, Hamilton) Euler (. Euler) (. ) .
Hamilton (. Hamilton) (. )
.
G Euler Hamilton.

Hamilton. Hamilton
. NP- (Nondeterministic Polynomial
Time, NP) .
, Hamilton G n
, G,
Hamilton , ,
( ) nC C
, , ( . n).
, , .
NP- : , .
136
6.

. ,
.
6.4.2
/ Euler
Euler.
( , ) .
6.6 () G Euler
G .
() G Euler G
G 2 .
().
G Euler
: v1 vn = v1 ,
v v
< v, 2 v,
, .
(. ) v, v
.
, k k Euler.
k k = 3,
3 .
3 ,
Euler.
,
k G k +1 ,
. Euler.
G ( ,
. 1) G , C.
G0 ,
. G0
( ) C G
Euler. G0 .
G0 . G1 , G2 , . . . , Gr .
G1 , G2 , . . . , Gr (,
) k . ,
G1 , G2 , . . . , Gr Euler, Ci .
Ci C. (
G .) ui C
Ci . Euler G C
ui C
Ci . 6.8.
() () ( 6.18).
6.5.
137
6.8: , 6.6, Ci
C ( ) ( ).
6.18
() 6.6.
() .
6.5
6.5.1
6.7
A r
: A [r] = {1, . . . , r}.
. , , , .
6.8
( , ) G = (V, E) .
G r : V [r]
u, v V : u v = (u) 6= (v).
. .
G r : E [r] ..
e, e0 E : e e0 = (e) 6= (e0 ).
. .
n n , .
.
6.9
( ) (G) G r
G.
6.7
n , Kn , n ((Kn ) = n), ((En ) = 1).
6.19
Cn (Cn ) = 2 n 3 n .
138
6.5.2
6.
(G)
.
.
6.7
G Ks (G) s.
. G s s G, .

.
6.8
G d (G) d + 1.
n G. n = 1 .
G n d u G.
G0 G u
. n 1 , d. ,
, (G0 ) d + 1, . G0
1, 2, . . . , d + 1.
u G0 , u1 , . . . , uk , k d.
1, 2, . . . , d + 1 u1 , . . . , uk , c. u c
G0 . G d + 1 .
6.20
(G) = k > 1 V G V = V1 V2
, Gi G Vi , i = 1, 2,
6.21
(G1 ) + (G2 ) = k.
G1 , G2 V .
(G1 G2 ) (G1 )(G2 ).
G1 G2 V G1
G2 .
6.22
G n s
(G) n s + 1.
6.23
k
(, ).
6.5.
139
6.9: 6.23.
4
.
k. .
140
6.

[1]

1994.
[2]
Reinhard Diestel. Graph theory. 2005.
[3]
[4]
141
142

Hopcroft, Motwani, and Ullman 2007.
7.1
7.1
() ,
.
7.1
2 = {0, 1}. .
. 2 .
.
7.2
GR = {A, B, , . . . , , , , . . . , , . . .}
.
7.2
()
= 1 . . . n
i , (. n = 0).
n 0 ||.
.
.
7.3
w = 0101 2 , |w| = 4.
7.3
() L ,
, . |L| L.
7.4

.
7.5
, ,
, . .
143
144
7.
7.6
.
()
.
7.7
E 2015
GR
( ).
E .
7.8

Q = w 2 : k N : |w| = k 2
.
.
7.9
Lk 2 k, k ,
2 . k, k 0 Lk , Lk0 .
w 2 k, k = |w|, w Lk . Lk , k 0,
2 .
7.1
python
.
def words_of_length(S, k):
""" Return a list with all words over alphabet S of length k"""
if k==0:
return ['']
result = []
tails = words_of_length(S, k-1)
for first in S:
for t in tails:
result.append(first+t)
return result
S = ['a', 'b']
print words_of_length(S, 3)
SS = ['a', 'b', 'c']
print words_of_length(SS, 3)
print words_of_length(SS, 0)
:
['aaa',
['aaa',
'bab',
'cac',
['']
'aab',
'aab',
'bac',
'cba',
'aba',
'aac',
'bba',
'cbb',
'abb',
'aba',
'bbb',
'cbc',
'baa',
'abb',
'bbc',
'cca',
'bab',
'abc',
'bca',
'ccb',
'bba', 'bbb']
'aca', 'acb', 'acc', 'baa',
'bcb', 'bcc', 'caa', 'cab',
'ccc']
. k.
7.2
|Lk |. Mk 2 k,
|Mk |.
7.1. ,
145
7.3
n k ;
7.10
A , ,
, , , , (space) (
), (carriage return),
.
American Standard Code For Information Interchange ASCII. ( ASCII
standard 0-127.
standard .)
LC A python. ,
.
. , LC
.
LC
, .
7.4
( , ) = 1 . . . m = 1 . . . n
m n, (concatenation)

= 1 . . . m 1 . . . n ,
.
(prefix) .. = .
(suffix) .. = .
, w , , ,
w = .
7.11
= {a, b, c} abc bb abcbb.
7.12
abcd ( )
, a, ab, abc, abcd. abcd, bcd, cd, d, .
7.1
= = , .
n n + 1 .
, , , = 01
= 00 = 0100 =
6 0001 = .
7.2

, , .
7.5
( ) L1 , L2 L1 L2

L1 L2 = {xy : x L1 , y L2 }.
. L1 L2 L1
L2 .
146
7.
L0 = {} , n 1, Ln = LL L ( L n
).

L =
Lk
k=0
L =
Lk .
k=1
7.13
L = {00, 11, }. L = L+ 0
1 , .
L .
7.4
1 2 .
7.5
L m, n Lm+n = Lm Ln .
7.6
L ,
L L+ ; L;
7.7
B
{+, , }1{0, 1} .
( .) , , ,
, =
{0, 1, +, }.
7.2
(Deterministic Finite Automaton DFA) , Q (states)

. q0 ,
- F .
.. 7.1.
7.6
( )

(Q, , , q0 , F )
Q ,
,
7.2.
147
0
A
START
0
0
D
C
0
FINAL STATE
7.1:
(transition function) Q
Q,
q0 Q ,
F Q .
7.3
DFA
Q. / q a
(q, a).
7.14
7.1 Q = {A, B, C, D}, = {0, 1}, q0 = A, F = {C}.

. , ,
L . .
w , w = w1 . . . wn , n (wi ).
q0 .
, .
w1 wn .
q
r q r (label) .
.
(q, ) = r, .
q
. .
.

,
. F . .
148
7.
7.7
( DFA)
M L(M ).
7.15
L 7.1;
L {0, 1}
0 1.
. 0,
A .
.
(A B) 1. ,
C () ,
C ( ) ( ).
.. {0, 1}

F
{A, B, C}.
7.8
DFA = {0, 1}
3.
7.2.
7.2: 7.8 6 .
7.9
DFA = {0, 1} 11011.

7.16
7.3 a{bb} bc, .
= {a, b} a, ( )
bb, bc.
7.3: DFA a{bb} bc
7.2.
149
: 7.3, ,
( , )
.
: 7.3
( ,
). ,
a .

, .

.

. K,
, ,
x K.
K K.
.
7.17
7.4 L {0, 1}
1. ,
111.
0
1
7.4: DFA 1
, , .
, 0 1.
, , ,
1,
1 .
7.18
: L {0, 1}
, 0 0
. , 11111111111, 11111110111101111 L 111111011111
( 0). 7.5.
;
, ,
. , I
0 . ( ) , I
150
7.
I
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
A
7.5: DFA 0 , 0
. , I, ,
0,
L .
. , ,
. -,
, ,
L. ,
,
, .
.
5 ,
1.
A 0
1. B 0
2, ..., E 0 5
. E
1: 0 5 1
1. , , ,
.
7.5 , . , , A, . . . , E
0 A 0
1 , A.
7.10
DFA = {0, 1}
5 5 1.
7.11
DFA = {0, 1}
5 5 1.
7.12
L {0, 1} , 0
0 . DFA L.
7.3.
151
7.13
DFA {0, 1} :
1. 00
2. 0
7.14
DFA
() 00 1 1,
() {w {a, b} : 6 | A(w) + 2B(w)},
A(w), B(w) a b w x|y x y.
7.15
M DFA DFA \ L(M ) (

L(M )).
7.3
,
(Non-deterministic Finite Automata NFA). , , , , , DFA
NFA, NFA
DFA.
,
, . ,
NFA DFA, DFA .
NFA. NFA
DFA , .
7.8
( (NFA) )
(Q, , , q0 , F )
Q ,
,
(transition function) Q
2Q , . Q.
q0 Q ,
F Q .
DFA

. ( (q, ) =
q .)
152
7.
, ,

.
q Q .
(q, ) Q.
7.4
q NFA (q, ) =
q .
7.9
( NFA) w = w1 w2 . . . wn , wj ,
NFA , w,
. q0 w1
wn . wj ,
q, (q, wj ). (
.)
,
.
w .
7.10
( NFA) M L(M ).
7.19
00{0, 1} 11.
0,1
0
A
0
C
7.6: NFA 00{0, 1} 11
NFA DFA 1.
: (loop)
0 1.
0 1.
, 0 1.
.
NFA 7.6 L = 00{0, 1} 11; L
00 11.
NFA : 0 ,
. 1
.
1 ,
.
.
7.3.
153
, w NFA 0 (
) 1 (
).
DFA :
0
0
0
1
1
7.7: DFA 00{0, 1} 11
00{0, 1} 11.
,
DFA 7.5 .
7.5
NFA DFA 00{0, 1} 11
NFA DFA.
, . , ,
NFA DFA, . , NFA DFA
().
7.20
7.6 Q = {A, B, C, D, E}, = {0, 1}, q0 = A,
154
7.
F = {E},
(A, 0) = {B}
(A, 1) =
(B, 0) = {C}
(B, 1) =
(C, 0) = {C}
(C, 1) = {C, D}
(D, 0) =
(D, 1) = {E}
(E, 0) =
(E, 1) =
7.16
NFA 7.11.
7.17
NFA = {0, 1}
4.
, 4.
7.4
NFA DFA.
NFA
. . q Q ,
(q, ) Q NFA
q .
7.11
( ) A Q B

[
(A, B) =
(q, ).
qA,B
. (A, B) A B.
f : C D f (X), X C,
X f .
.
7.4. NFA DFA.
155
7.12
( ) q Q w
( ) (q, w) :

{q}
w =
(q, w) =
(7.1)
((q, v), ) w = v, v , .
7.6
(7.1) ,
. . , (q, w)
(q, x) x |x| < |w|,
0 . (q, w)
, (7.1)
. , (q, abc), a, b, c ,
(7.1) :
(q, abc) = ((q, ab), c)
= (((q, a), b), c).

. (7.1)
.
(q, w), w ,
q w. ,
R Q , (R, w)
R
w.
7.7
w
(q0 , w) F =
6 ,
F NFA. .
.
7.13
( ) M1 M2 L(M1 ) = L(M2 ), . .
7.1
( NFA DFA) NFA M DFA M 0 .
NFA M DFA M 0 .
NFA M (Q, , , q0 , F ). DFA M 0 = (Q0 , , 0 , q00 , F 0 )
Q0 = 2Q ( ) Q,
q00 = {q0 },
M
F 0 = {A Q : A F 6= }.
156
7.
0 : Q0 Q0 M 0
0 (q 0 , ) = (q 0 , ).
q 0 M 0 M ,

M , .
: DFA M 0 q1 ( Q)
q2 ,
M q1
M . 7.21 .
7.18
|w| w q M 0
0 (q, w) = (q, w).

w L(M ) w L(M 0 )
(7.2)
w . w L(M ) (q0 , w) F , w L(M 0 )

0 (q00 , w) F 0 . 7.18
({q0 }, w) F 0 , F 0
(q0 , w) F =
6 . (q0 , w) M DFA,
(q0 , w) F , .

7.21
NFA 7.8 DFA.
7.9.
0,1
1
A
7.8: M , NFA
M 0 M .
{A, B}. .
Q0 = {X = {A}, Y = {B}, Z = {A, B}, W = }.
F 0 = {Y, Z}, .
M . X.
7.5. NFA -
157
1
X
Y
1
0,1
0,1
Z
7.9: NFA M 7.8 DFA M 0
7.19
NFA 7.8 DFA 7.9,

001 10.
7.20
DFA NFA
1. (Q = {p, q, r, s}, = {0, 1}, 1 , q0 = p, F = {s})
2. (Q = {p, q, r, s}, = {0, 1}, 2 , q0 = p, F = {q, s})

1 :
7.21
p
q
r
s
0
1
0
1
{p, q} {p}
p {q, s}
{q}
{r} {r} 2 : q
{r} {q, r}
r
{s}
{s}
{p}
s
{s} {s}
{p}
NFA n ,
DFA;
7.5
NFA -

-. NFA , ,
.
-
.
- .
-NFA.
7.14
( - (-NFA) )
- (-NFA)
(Q, , , q0 , F )
158
7.
Q ,
,
(transition function) Q ( {})
2Q , . Q.
q0 Q ,
F Q .
7.8
NFA
.
7.9
- q1 q2 : NFA
q1 q2
.
7.15
( -NFA) w = w1 w2 . . . wn , wj ,
-NFA , w,
. q0 w1
wn . wj
.
wj , q, (q, wj ). (
.)
-, . (q, ), q . (
.)
,
. w
.
7.16
( -NFA)
M L(M ).
7.22
-NFA 7.10 0 1 2 .
0
7.10: -NFA 0 1 2 .
, 02 13 25 ( 0011122222);
0,
7.6. -NFA NFA
159
, 1, ,
2.
7.22
-NFA (0101) (111) .
7.23
M1 M2 DFA
-NFA L(M1 ) L(M2 ).
M1 M2 -
DFA.
7.24
M1 M2 DFA
-NFA L(M1 )L(M2 ). M1 DFA
.
M1 M2 . M1
-.
7.6
-NFA NFA
-NFA NFA, DFA.

-NFA . NFA - .
7.17
(-) - -NFA
- ( . ).
7.18
(-) -, , -NFA -, ,
-. - .
7.2
( -NFA NFA) -NFA M NFA M 0 .
-NFA M NFA M 0 :
M 0 M .
M 0 M .
M 0 , F 0 ,
F (
M ) -. -,
F F 0 .
q M 0 M 0 (q, ) q M -.
-.
160
7.
w = w1 w2 wn , n 0. w M
M .
w L(M ) M ,
w -, q0 f F .
M
q0 F 0 .
w L(M ). M
q0 , q1 , . . . , qk1 , qk , k 0, qk F qj qj+1 , 0 j < k,
wj -, wj ,
, .
q0 q1 , q1 q2 , . . . , qk1 qk
qa0 qa1 , qa1 qa2 , . . . , qan1 qan ( a0 = 0, an = k)
w1 -, w2 -, ., wn -.
NFA M 0 M 0 qa0 qa1
w1 -, qa1 qa2 w2 -, . qk
M 0 w L(M 0 ).
L(M 0 ) L(M ) ( 7.25).
7.25
NFA M 0 -NFA M .
7.23
7.2 -NFA 7.10
0
0,1
1,2
0,1,2
7.11: -NFA 7.10 NFA

NFA 7.11.
7.7
DFA.

.
(regular
expression) .
7.19
( ) . ( L() .)
7.7.
161
, L() = ( , )
, L() = {} ( , )
, , L() = {}.
, r s .
1. (r), L((r)) = L(r).
2. (r + s), L((r + s)) = L(r) L(s),
3. (rs), L((rs)) = L(r)L(s),
4. (r ), L((r )) = L(r) .
L r L = L(r).
7.10
. ,
. 01 + 10 (0(1 )) + (1(0 )). r
r+ rr .
7.24
.

00
{00}
(0 + 1)
= {0, 1}
(0 + 1) 00(0 + 1) = {0, 1}
(1 + 10)
1 0
(0 + )(1 + 10)
0
0 1 2
0 1 2.
7.26
:
1. 101.
2. 0 1.
7.27
:
1. (11 + 0) (00 + 1)
2. (1 + 01 + 001) ( + 0 + 00)
3. (00 + 11 + (01 + 10)(00 + 11) (01 + 10))
7.28
r, s, t .
( , ,
) .
1. r + s = s + r
162
7.
2. (r + s) + t = r + (s + t)
3. (rs)t = r(st)
4. r(s + t) = rs + rt
5. (r + s)t = rt + st
6. =
7. (r ) = r
8. ( + r) = r
9. (r s ) = (r + s)
7.8
.
7.3
( )
.
7.11
7.3 .
-NFA NFA NFA DFA.

.
() -NFA, ()
DFA .
() r .
, a, a ,
7.12.
a
(a)
(b)
(c)
7.12: -NFA (a), (b) a (c)

x r + s, rs r , r s
|x|, M N
L(r) L(s). M N
.
7.13 (a) (b) M N r
s. (c), (d) (e)
r + s, rs r .
(c) -
M N . .
7.8.
163
(a)
(b)
(d)
(e)
(c)
7.13: (a) r, (b) s, (c) r + s, (d) rs, (e) r
(d) M -
N . N .
(e) M - M .
.
() DFA M = (Q, , , q1 , F ), Q = {q1 , . . . , qn }. i, j = 1, . . . , n, k =
k
0, . . . , n, Ri,j
qi qj
ql l > k.

[
n
L(M ) =
R1,j
.
(7.3)
qj F
, ,
q1 , qj F ,
( n, , , ql ,
l > n.
k .
k Ri,j
L(M ) (7.3) ,
.
k
k = 0 , , Ri,j
, l > 0
ql Q.

{ : (qi , ) = qj }
(i =
6 j)
0
Ri,j =
{ : (qi , ) = qi } {} (i = j)
0 .
Ri,j
0 .
Ri,j
k1
, Ri,j

164
7.
k
Ri,j
k1
k1 k1
k1
k
Ri,j
= Ri,k
(Rk,k
) Rk,j Ri,j
.
(7.4)
(7.4);
k Rk1 , l k,
Ri,j
i,j
k , ( ) k.
Ri,j
k Rk1 , ()
Ri,j
i,j
k \ Rk1 ; q q ,
Ri,j
i
j
i,j
ql , l > k, qk
7.14.
q
k
qi
qj
k \ Rk1
7.14: DFA Ri,j
i,j
DFA
qk , ( 7.14 ).
w , w qi qk ,
qk , w qk qj qk ,
w
w = v1 vt ,
v1 , . . . , vt qk ,
k1
k1
k1
, l = 1, . . . , t, Rk,j
,
, vl Rk,k
qk . . Ri,k
k1
k1
k1 k1
k
Ri,j
\ Ri,j
Ri,k
(Rk,k
) Rk,j .
.
7.29
DFA :
1. 10 + (0 + 11)0 1
2. 01 (((10) + 111) + 0) 1
3. ((0 + 1)(0 + 1)) + ((0 + 1)(0 + 1)(0 + 1))
7.30
7.15.
7.31
7.16.
7.9.
165
a,b
7.15: 7.30
0
1
1
0
7.16: 7.31
7.9
L1 L2
L1 L2 L1 .

Lc1 = {w : w
/ L1 }
. 7.3
DFA . DFA
M L1 . DFA M 0 M ,
, M M
M M 0 . (
M ,
DFA, .
.) M 0
M , M 0 DFA Lc1 .
L1 L2 .
,
(L1 L2 )c = Lc1 Lc2 ,
.
7.20
(substitution)
, .
f : 2 ,
166
7.
. . f (a)
, .
f : 2
. w = 1 n , i , , ( f )
f (w) = f (1 ) f (n ),
. f (1 ), . . . , f (n ).
L
[
f (L) =
f (w).
wL
7.4
L , f , f (L) .
( .)
L r.
( ) f (L)
r r
f (). f (L) ,
.
7.32
7.4 .

L.
7.21
f f () .
( )
.
7.22
f L , L
f 1 (L) = {w : f (w) L}.
7.5
f L f 1 (L) .
M DFA L. DFA M 0 :
M :
q M
M 0 (q, ) = M (q, f ()).
7.10.
167
. M 0 M
q f (). w
M 0 f (w) M , DFA
f 1 (L), .
7.33
L

LR = x : xR L
. xR x . .. 011R = 110.
L.
7.10
. ,
,
.
, DFA , .
;
( ..
), .
, .
: 1, 2, ..., , ...,
.
( )
.
n, n. , ||n
. ,
1, 2, ,
.
( ) . ,
, . .
, .
, ,
, , , ,
,
. , .. f : N N , .
,
python .
, , f : N N ,
, . .

. . ( )
,
, ..
L1 = {0n 1n : n = 0, 1, 2, . . .}.
168
7.

, .
L1 . ( ):

, . .
L1 ,
. ,
()
L1 .
, ,
, ( ) .
, L1 . .
7.6
( Pumping Lemma) L . n (
DFA L) z L |z| n,
z = uvw, (u, v, w , |v| 1, |uv| n),
i = 0, 1, 2, . . ., uv i w L ( u
v 0 w).
Pumping Lemma .

() .
M DFA L, n
M . z
q0 z, |z| = m n, q1
M :
q0 = qi1 qi2 qim+1 = q1
m ( z)
m + 1 > n.
. q
v q, u
z q w z
q (. 7.17).
|v| 1 |uv| n, n-
z ,
q.
q ( uw L)
, i. uv i w L, .

L1 ;
. , , ,
n, z L1 |z| n . z = 0n 1n L1 |z| n, z = uvw, |uv| n v,
7.10.
169
u
q
q
0
7.17: uvw
i = 0, 1, . . . uv i w L1 . uv 2 w = uvvw
0 1, , |uv| n, u v
.
.
x = 1 n , i , xR = n 1 , x .

L2 = x (0 + 1) : x = xR ,
.
L2 . n
. z = 1n 01n
L2 . z z = uvw, v |uv| n, u, v
1, uv i w L2 , i = 0, 1, 2, . . .. uw
/ L2 v
,
, L2 .
7.34
{xx : x {0, 1} } .
7.35
(0 + 1) ;

1. 02n : n 1
2. {0m 1n 0m+n : m, n 1}
3.
4. .

5. xwxR : x, w (0 + 1)+
170
7.

[1]
John E Hopcroft, Rajeev Motwani, and Jeffrey D Ullman. Introduction to automata theory,
languages, and computation. Pearson, 2007.
171
172

8.1
DFA
DFA M
1. M ,
2. M .
,
( ) .
. M ,
(L(M ) = ; |L(M )| = ;). , .
, ,
. ( )
() () .
() ().
L(M ) = :
. 0 ( , ),
1 ( , . ||),
2 ( ||2 ), ... , .
.

M . M
( L(M ) = ), .
, , ,
, , ,
L(M ) , ..
, . , ,
, .
;
, M , ( )
L(M ), ,
173
174
8.
L(M ), . ,
, ,
.
8.1
M DFA n
1. L(M ) 6= w L(M ) |w| < n.
2. |L(M )| = w L(M ) n |w| < 2n.
6
1. w L(M ) |w| < n L(M ) 6= . , L(M ) =
w L(M ) . |w| n , , w = uvz
v =
6 i 0 uv i z L(M ). i = 0 uz L(M ),
w = uvz ,
, |w| < n.
2. w L(M ) n |w| < 2n ( n |w|)
w w = uvz, v 6= , uv i z, i 0,
L(M ). , |L(M )| = . , |L(M )| =
w n 2n 1, w
2n ( L(M )
). |w| 2n n
w w = uvz, |uv| n v =
6 uv i z L(M ) ( i 0). uz L(M )
|uvz| 2n |v| n |uz| n, (
L(M ) n 2n 1) |uz| 2n, w
L(M ) 2n.

.
8.2
:
1. DFA M ;
2. DFA M ;
3. DFA M1 M2 ;
1. n 1 (
1 + || + ||2 + + ||n1 ) M .
, .
8.1.1.
2. n 2n 1 .
, .
8.1.2.
3.
L(M1 ) 6= L(M2 ).

(L(M1 ) L(M2 )c ) (L(M1 )c L(M2 )).
(8.1)
8.2. . MYHILLNERODE 175

DFA M
, 1 (8.1) . M . (8.1)
(L(M1 )c L(M2 ))c (L(M1 ) L(M2 )c )c
. DFA N
DFA N 0
N . DFA
( DFA) -NFA
DFA. .
8.2
. Myhill
Nerode

1. L RL : x RL y z
xz L yz L,
. xz, yz L .
2. M DFA x RM y
(q0 , x) = (q0 , y),
q0 M (, ) M .
. x RM y M x
y, .
8.1
RL RM .
8.2
L RL (
L ). RL - . L L.
8.1
R R.
8.3
RM M
q0 . v w ..
(q0 , w) = v.
8.2
R (right invariant) x, y, z
x R y xz R yz.
(8.2)
8.4
RL RM .
176
8.
8.5
M DFA L(M ) M .
RM .
8.3
( MyhillNerode) L :
1. L .
2. L R .
3. RL .
12
L DFA M 8.5.
23
L R
t < . RL t, .
x R y x RL y: z , xz L x R y. R
xz R yz. yz R- xz. xz L,
L R, R- xz L, yz L.
. xz L yz L, ,
x RL y, .
(x R y x RL y) R RL . , x K, K R-, x S,
S RL - x. K S. y K. x R y
x RL y, y S.
R- RL - RL - R-, RL - R-
, .
31
RL L
DFA M , . x [x] RL - x.
M Q RL -,
.
[] .
:
([x], ) = [x], ( ).
(8.3)
RL L (
8.2).
8.6
(8.3) . K = [x] = [y]

(8.3) (K, )
x (8.3) y.
8.3. DFA
177
(8.3) ( w )
([x], w) = [xw],
([], w) = [w] = [w] M w L, M
L.
8.3
DFA
, DFA M , DFA,
N , M (. L(M ) = L(N ) )
.
Myhill-Nerode DFA,
RL , L = L(M ),
([x], ) = [x] ( MyhillNerode) [x] x .
Myhill-Nerode RM RL ,
, DFA M , M
M RL ,
, RL .
DFA , M ,
RL -. RL - M . u v M RL -

.
, f (u, v) u v M , 1 u v
0 . ,
u, v Q, u =
6 v, f (u, v) = 0,
(8.4)
Q M .
RL x y
RL - z xz, yz L
. ( z = ) u F v
/ F u v
.
u F, v
/ F f (u, v) = 1.
(8.5)
RL u v
, a b u = (a, )
v = (b, ) a, b RL -.
: S
(u, v) u F , v
/ F , .
. T
(a, b) f (a, b) = 0 ( . )

((a, ), (b, )) S.
178
8.
T f (a, b) = 1 (a, b) T , T S, , (
T S, ...), T .
.
, . f (u, v) = 1
(u, v) RL - .
MyhillNerode: M .
M -

M . M - .
M ( F )
M .

[1]
179
180
Context free
9.1
.
( )
(+) (*), .
x. x (x + x) + x
xx + () .

= {+, , (, ), x}
, .
:
, , .
.
9.1
x . w v ,
(w), w + v, w v. ,
.
x (x + x) + x x (x + x) + x ,
(x + x) x
x + x , , x .
( )
context free . context free :
1. S x
2. S (S)
3. S S + S
4. S S S
181
182
9. CONTEXT FREE
S ,
(S . . .) .
S
. , ,
context free context free .
.. x (x + x) + x
S S+S
( 3)
SS+S
( 4)
S (S) + S
( 2)
S (S + S) + S ( 3)
x (x + x) + x ( 1, )

S xx + ().
9.2
context free
9.2
context free G ( )

, ,
S ( )
X w, X w
( w ).
G Context Free Grammar(CFG), Context Free , w, v
,
G
wv
X v w.
X w
( )
v.
, G
G
x + S x + (S)
2.

G
wv
v1 , . . . , vn
G
w v1 vn v,
. v w
G. , ,
G
S (S + S)
S (S + S) 3
2.

( ).
9.3.
183
9.3
G CFG w G w

n
o
G
L(w) = LG (w) = x : w x .
. L(w) w G.
G.
9.4
G CFG L(G) L(S). L Context
Free Language (CFL), Context Free , context free .
. G
S.

X w1 |w2 | . . . |wn

X w1 , X w2 , . . . , X wn ,
.
9.1
S | 0S0 | 1S1;
9.2
CFG {0n 1n : n = 1, 2, . . .}.
9.3
. ,
, = {a, b}, CFG .
9.3
CFG . {a, b} a b. (
( 7.6)).
G1 :
1. S aB | bA |
2. A aS | bAA
3. B aBB | bS
9.1
L(G1 ) {a, b} a b.
184
9. CONTEXT FREE
G1 a b,
L(G1 ) {a, b} .
w {a, b} A(w) B(w) a b
.
G
A(w) = B(w) S 1 w.
.
.
w .
1. w L(S) A(w) = B(w).
2. w L(A) A(w) = B(w) + 1.
3. w L(B) B(w) = A(w) + 1.
. A B G1
a ( A) b ( B).
n w n. n = 0,
w = w S S
A B, A B .
w = , n = 0.
w |w|
n 1.
w n. : w L(S) A(w) =
B(w).
w L(S) = A(w) = B(w)
w L(S) G1 S w.
w a
S aB. w = ax x x L(B),
|x| n 1. B(x) = A(x) + 1 A(w) = B(w).
, w b S w
S bA, w = by, y L(A) |y| = n 1.
A(y) = B(y) + 1 A(w) = B(w).
A(w) = B(w) = w L(S)
w a w = ax A(x) = B(x)1, |x| = n1.
x L(B), x
B. S, S aB
B x. w S
w L(S). , w b w = by |y| = n 1
A(y) = B(y) + 1, , , y L(A).
w S S bA, A y,
w.
.
w L(A) A(w) = B(w) + 1.
a b
w.
w L(A) = A(w) = B(w) + 1
w a. A
w A aS, w = ax |x| = n 1 x
S, x L(S) A(x) = B(x),
A(w) = B(w) + 1.
9.4. CONTEXT FREE
185
w b
w A A bAA, w = bx1 x2 x1 , x2 L(A), ,
, |x1 |, |x2 | n 1. A(x1 ) = B(x1 ) + 1
A(x2 ) = B(x2 ) + 1, A(w) = B(w) + 1.
A(w) = B(w) + 1 = w L(A)
w a w = ax A(x) = B(x), |x| = n 1,
x L(S). A A
aS S x, w
A, . w L(A).
w b w = bx |x| = n 1 A(x) = B(x) + 2.
.
9.1
x {a, b} A(x) = B(x) + 2 x x = x1 x2 A(x1 ) =
B(x1 ) + 1 A(x2 ) = B(x2 ) + 1.
9.4
9.1.
x x1 x2 , x = x1 x2 , n 2
A(xi ) = B(xi ) + 1, i = 1, 2. x1 , x2 L(A).
A w A bAA
A x1 x2 ,
w A.

, a, b A, B .
9.4
context free
9.2
context free.

, .. {0n 1n : n = 1, 2, . . .}.
L . r .
context free .
.
. . r 1,
= {1 , . . . , k }, (
7.19). . r = j j {1, . . . , k},
L(r) {j }, CFG S j . r = L(r) = {}
CFG S , r = L(r) = CFG
S S, .
r 1 ,
, r
r = (st), s, t .
context free G1 G2 L(G1 ) = L(s) L(G2 ) = L(t). CFG L(r) = L(s)L(t)
G1 G2 S,
186
9. CONTEXT FREE
S1 S2 G1 G2 .
CFG L(r) G1 G2
S S1 S2 , S.
r = (s + t).
S S1 S2 S S1 | S2 .
r = (s ). CFG s S1 (
) S | S1 S.
9.5
. DFA NFA
. DFA NFA ( )
, .. {0, 1}
( 7.1).

CFG . DFA
NFA ( ) CFG,
.
9.5
(Push Down Automaton)
, DFA, NFA -NFA,

, ,
, Push Down Automaton (PDA) L context free
PDA . (
).
READ HEAD
STACK READ HEAD

NFA
STACK
9.1:
PDA ( 9.1)
1. NFA .
NFA DFA
.
9.5. (PUSH DOWN AUTOMATON)
187
2. (read tape) (NFA)

(read head)
, () .
.
3. (stack).
. ( )
, .

PDA.
:
( )
. .

( ) .
1.
(
).
.
NFA , ,
. NFA . PDA
NFA ( NFA
).
NFA : NFA

(
). NFA
( , ,
,
).
PDA
(.. python) .
( ) , input (
). ,
,
. bits ( ) .
input INP()
.
-1.

,
PDA. :
188
9. CONTEXT FREE
READ()
POP()
PUSH(x)
-1
.

x ,
NF .

, ,
, .
L .
NF(x)
0, 1, . . . , x 1.
,
o
, . ,
NF.
NF python
number vector True number () vector ( 1000 , vector[0], , vector[999])
False .
def NumberInVector(number, vector):
location = NF(1000)
if number == vector[location]:
return True
else:
return False
NumberInVector :
number vector NF
, . True.
number vector , , NF,
(
number vector[location] ) False.
NF , -,
.
! NumberInVector
vector
True False, . . True False,
False True.
.
,
. .
9.6. PDA
9.6
189
PDA
L1 = {0n 1n : n = 1, 2, . . .}
L1 = {0n 1n : n = 1, 2, . . .} context free ( : S | 0S1).
PDA . , PDA
python, .

READ(), POP(), PUSH() .

NF().
-PDA . f True ( INP()) L1 False .
. .
. 0
1. .
# .
def f():
SeenOne = False # Have not seen a 1 yet
while True:
letter = INP() # Read next letter
if letter == 0:
if SeenOne:
return False # Reject after having seen a 1
PUSH(0) # Push 0s onto stack
elif letter == 1:
SeenOne = True
if -1 == READ():
return False # The stack has emptied prematurely
POP() # For each 1 pop a 0 from stack
else:
if -1 == READ():
return True # Accept if end of word and empty stack
else:
return False # Reject if stack not empty
, , . , letter ( -1) SeenOne ( 0

1). letter ,
. 2 bits ( 4
), SeenOne bit.
PDA NF
( NFA DFA).
L2 = xxR : x {0, 1}
L2 = xxR : x {0, 1} (xR x )
context free. CFG
S | 0S0 | 1S1.
g() PDA
L2 . NF(), . .
.
. input input. (
190
9. CONTEXT FREE
.)
( input) .

! NF(),
. NF()
( , )
. ,
. .
( ).
def g():
mid = False # We have not reached the middle of the input yet
while True:
letter = INP() # Read next letter
if not mid:
mid = (1 == NF(2)) # Is this letter after the middle;
if not mid: # Have not passed the middle yet
if letter == -1:
return False # Premature end of input. Reject
PUSH(letter) # No, push letter onto stack
continue # Go back to while loop
else: # We have passed the middle
top = READ() # Read top of stack
if (letter != -1) and (top == -1):
return False # Empty stack. Reject
POP() # Stack not empty. Pop top element.
if top != letter:
return False # Letters do not match. Reject.
continue # Letters do match. Keep going.
if -1 == READ():
return True # Stack emptied with no problem. Accept.
mid =
(1 == NF(2)), ( mid True,
) mid False True NF(2).
NF(2) 1 ,
, .
(letter, mid, top)
{0, 1, 1} {True, False}
bits .
9.7
context free ,
context free ,
<
context free.
.
9.3
( context free ) L context free.
n z L |z| n
z = uvwxy,
9.7. CONTEXT FREE ,
191
() |vx| 1,
() |vwx| n,
() i 0 uv i wxi y L.
, context free.
9.1
L1 = {an bn cn : n 0} context free
L1 context free. n 9.3
z = a2n b2n c2n L1 . 9.3 z z = uvwxy
. vwx,
n, a c, b
z. a (
c). 9.3 uwy L1 (
i = 0). z uwy u x,
a , a uwy 2n. uwy
6n ( () ),
uwy L1 , . L1 context free.
9.6
{xx : x {0, 1} } context free.
9.7

(ab)k (cd)k : k N .
192
9. CONTEXT FREE

[1]
193
194
10
10.1
: (regular)
context free . .
: ( )
(push-down automata) context free .
( context-free)
( )
.
DFA L
( python)
L ( . 1 L 0 ),
,
L. , python
( )
(.. 32 bits ).
, python
, ,
. context free
,
python .
.
10.1
( ) . f :
python P x
f (x).

, .

. k
, , (
R ).
195
196
10.
0 1 . ..
.
.
.
x x + 1 (N N),
x x2 (N N).
10.2
( ) . L

L (x) = 1 (x L)
( 1 x L, 0) .

, .. N .
x
. , (
, )
,
,
.
, .
context free ,
.

( ) (context free ) ( ).
, . context free
(.. xxR )
context free. {an bn cn : n N}.
9.7 context free ,
python an bn cn .
a, b c , b
a c b.
python , ..,
a, . .
. x log2 x , log2 x
( ) x , python
( , context free).
10.1
A, B N A B, A B, Ac .
10.2
.
, f :
N N .
10.2.
197
10.1
f : N N .
, . N N
f1 , f2 , . . . , fn , . . .
( fi =
6 fj i =
6 j,
).
. ,
(
, ).
.
; ,
, , . ,
python
, , ,
, , . 1,
2, 3, ...,
, ( .
).
k ,
k k + 1.

.
.

N N , .
g1 , g2 , . . . , gn , . . .

f (k) = gk (k) + 1.
N N ,
gi , i N f (k) = gi (k) k N.
gk (k)+1 = gi (k). k = i . (

.)

, , , . ,
.
, ,
, , , ,
. , 10.1,
198
10.
, .

.
10.2
10.1 N N.
, , N {0, 1} ,
( ).
10.3
Halting Problem. .
,
python ,
python . ; , python
, . .

= {b7 b6 b1 b0 : bi {0, 1}, i = 0, . . . , 7}.
(bytes) (bits)
0, . . . , 255. P
P = w1 wN , w i
wi P
8N
P = b8N 1 b8N 2 b1 b0
,
(P ). , n ( )
8, 8k. k
.
python (n), , (n) return
True. ( .
.)
P (P ) ( ,
),
n (n) ,
, .
. (P ) , (n)
python .
( ) python .

compilers interpreters () python
.
. : S(n, x, t) ()
P = (n) () P (x) t
t . P (x) S(n, x, t)
10.3. HALTING PROBLEM. .199

P (x). ,
(.. interpreters, debuggers, ).
Halting problem ( ).

.
, .. .
def P(x):
while True:
x = 1
return 1
. python
interpreter
(loop) .
.
, P , P P P
P .
10.2

H(n, x) =
1 ((n))(x)
0 ((n))(x)
H(n, x) P
. Q(x) P :
def Q(x):
if P(x, x)==0:
return 1
else:
while True:
x = 1 # This does nothing and runs forever
Q(x) ((x))(x)
.
Q((Q)); ; (((Q)))((Q)) .
((Q)) = Q, Q((Q)) ,
. H .

, , H(n, x)
(n) input x .
10.1. H(x)

, , , .

, .
200
10.
1.
( )
X
P (x1 , . . . , xn ) =
cj1 ,...,jn xj11 xjnn , cj1 ,...,jn Z,
0j1 ,...,jn D
() , . x1 , . . . , xn
P (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0.
Z ..
2. ( ),
. x1 , . . . , xn R .. P (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0,
.
3. , ( 1) , .
10.1 .
10.1:
. , ,

. , 10.1 (: tiling) ,
, ,
.
. .
.
10.4
(..) .
10.3
10.4. (..) .
201
( ) A N (..) P (x) A, .
A = {P (1), P (2), P (3), . . .},
A . , a A
n N, , a = P (n).
10.1
, , 10.3, N
, .. , .
.. , 6= A N Q(x) Q(x) = 1 x A.
A (m , .., A):
def P(x):
if Q(x):
return x
else:
return m
10.3
A, B N .. A B, A B.
.. .
,
A = {x N : (x) }
( ,
) .. . x N (x) . ,
A, .
1: () (1) 1 .
2: () (1), (2) 2
...
k: (1), (2), . . . , (k) k ,
.
k (1), . . . , (k)
k , x .
x (x) ,
x (. A). x A
(x) t x max {x, t},
.
:
10.3
.

202
10.
( ) (context free ) ( ) (.. )
.
.. .
10.4
A N A, Ac ..
A Ac , .. ,
A, Ac .., P Q , .
A = {P (1), P (2), . . .}, Ac = {Q(1), Q(2), . . .}.
R(x), P Q , 1
x A 0 .
def R(x):
i=1
while True:
if P(i) == x:
return 1
if Q(i) == x:
return 0
i = i+1
R P (1), Q(1), P (2), Q(2), . . .

x 0 1 x Q P .
x ( A Ac ) x
R(x) .

10.5
A N .. Q(x)
x A Q(x) = 1,
x
/ A Q(x) = 0 Q(x) .
Q x A, ,
( x A. x A x
/ A,
.. ..
P A:
A = {P (1), P (2), . . .}.
Q(x) :
def Q(x):
i=1
while True:
if P(i)==x:
return 1
i = i+1
10.4. (..) .
203
Q(x) 1 x P ,
.
10.5 .
10.4
10.5 .
204
10.

[1]
205
206
11

Ross 1976, Grinstead and Snell 2012
Hoel, Port, and Stone 1971.
11.1
11.1.1
: .
: () ()
N .
1/2. p .
. . N
pN . p
[0, 1].
11.1.2
: .
: 1 6.
N
2 N /6 . . 2 1/6.
1 3 .
() ()
.
( )
1.
:
N 1.
11.1.3
: ( ) .
: (x, y) x, y .
(,), (,), (,) (,) 1/4.
N
207
208
11.
,
, .
(,) 1/4.
11.1.4
: , .

.
: N , N = 1, 2, 3, . . ., .
, .
N = 1,
N = 2, . ,
N = 1 1/2 ( 1/2), N = 1
.
N = k, k, 2k .

1:
2k = 1.
k=1
(
) z = 1/2:
X
1
zk = 1 + z + z2 + z3 + =
,
(11.1)
1z
k=0
z |z| < 1 ( 1.20.)
11.1
PN 1
k=0
kz k = z + 2z 2 + 3z 3 + + (N 1)z N 1 .
1.20.
11.1.5
:
.
: t 0.
.
t.
( ). ( N )
, .. 2 3 . .
2 t 3.
11.1.6
: .
. .
: H W . 0 H 2.5 () 0
W 300 ().
11.2. , ,
209
(H, W ), H W
. 11.1.5
.
11.2 , ,

.
11.1
( ) .
.
p
.
11.2
= {1 , 2 , . . .} . p : [0, 1]
||
X
p(j ) = 1.
(11.2)
j=1
|| ||.
, , ,
11.1.5
() (11.2)
p .

.
11.1
( . ) (
11.1.1) = {K, }. p(K) = p() = 1/2.
11.2
11.1.2 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
p : [0, 1] , . p(1) = p(2) = p(3) = p(4) = p(5) =
p(6) = 1/6. 1/6 (11.2) ()
.
11.3
( ) p : [0, 1]
.

, .
210
11.
11.3
11.1.4 = N {} = {1, 2, 3, . . . , }.
:
( ) .
p : [0, 1]

0
=
p() =
2
. p(1) = 1/2
,
1/2.
= , 0 .
, ,
0 ,
0 = N.
11.4
() , . P().
A
A.
11.2
|| = n < |P()| = 2n .
p : [0, 1] (.
). ,
, .
11.5
( ) p : [0, 1]
P : P() [0, 1]
X
Pr [A] =
p(a).
(11.3)
aA
Pr [A] A p(a)
A.
11.4
(11.1.2) A = {2, 4, 6}
.
Pr [A] = p(2) + p(4) + p(6) =
1 1 1
+ + = 1/2.
6 6 6
11.5
11.1.4 A = {1, 2, 3}
.
Pr [A] = p(1) + p(2) + p(3) =
11.3
1 1 1
+ + = 7/8.
2 4 8
11.1.4 A = {2k : k = 1, 2, 3, . . .}
. Pr [A].
1.20.
11.2. , ,
211
11.1
A B . A B
A B ( ).
A B A B.
11.4
11.1.4 A = {1, . . . , 10} B = {3k : k N} .

A B A B.
11.5
11.1.3
.
11.6
, , .
, ,
, .
;
;
: ,
, .
11.6
( )
N = N {} = {1, 2, 3, . . . , }.
n N n . ..,

N
X
an
n=1
N N, .
11.1
(m N):
1. Pr [] = 0, Pr [] = 1.
2. Pr [Ac ] = 1 Pr [A], A.
3. () A1 , A2 , . . . , Am
m
m
[
X
Pr
Aj =
Pr [Aj ].
j=1
(11.4)
j=1
4. () A1 , A2 , . . . , Am , ,
m
m
[
X
Pr
Aj
Pr [Aj ].
(11.5)
j=1
j=1
5. A B
Pr [A B] = Pr [A] + Pr [B] Pr [A B].
(11.6)
212
11.
(11.3) (11.2).
4 (11.3)
,
p(x)
S
x m
A
,
j=1 j , p(x) Aj x .
p(x) 0.
5 :
p(x) x A B Pr [A] + Pr [B] p(x)
x A B p(x) . Pr [A B]
.

11.2
( )
A B Pr [A] Pr [B].
Pr [A] > 0 = A 6= .
, 0,
, , ,
.
.
11.7
Ai , i = 1, . . . , m, m N, Pr [Ai Aj ] = 0 i 6= j
( Ai Aj = )
"m
#
m
[
X
Pr
Ai =
Pr [Ai ].
i=1
11.8
i=1
A, B, C
Pr [A B C] = Pr [A] + Pr [B] + Pr [C]
Pr [A B] Pr [B C] Pr [C A] + Pr [A B C].
11.6
A B , Pr [A] = 3/4 Pr [B] = 1/3. Pr [A B];
.
.
1
1
Pr [A B] .
12
3
11.1
1
Pr [A B] = Pr [A] + Pr [B] Pr [A B] Pr [B] = ,
3
11.2. , ,
213
Pr [A B] Pr [A]. .
Pr [A B] = Pr [A] + Pr [B] Pr [A B]
3 1
1
+ 1= .
4 3
12
Pr [A B] 1.
11.9
= {a, b, c} p(a) = 1/3, p(b) = 5/12,

p(c) = 1/4. A = {a, b}, B = {a}
11.6.

11.6 , . 11.6
.
, ,
.
11.2
( de Morgan) Aj , j = 1, 2, . . . , m, m N,
c
m
m
[
\
Aj =
Acj
(11.7)
j=1
m
\
j=1
c
Aj =
j=1
m
[
Acj
(11.8)
j=1
(11.7). .
x ,

c .
S
Sm
x
/ m
j=1 Aj . x
j=1 Aj x
c
Aj . x Aj , ,
. ( ) x
.
(11.7) (11.8) ( (11.8) (11.7)). ,
A (Ac )c = A
Aj (11.7) Acj (11.8).
11.10
A, B, C . , A, B, C , :
1. A.
2. A B C.
3. A, B, C.
4. A, B, C.
214
11.
5. A, B, C.
11.11
A
B C.
A B.
11.12
.
4; ;
11.13
. ,
. .
.
: () , ()
,
() .
:
1. .
2. .
3. .
;
11.2.1
: R .
: (x, y) .
, 11.1.5 , , .
A B, . ,
.
A
Pr [A] = ( A) / R2 .
p : [0, 1] ; p(x) 0,
.
p.
.
p : [0, 1] Pr [] (

):

1. 0 Pr [A] 1 A.
2. Pr [] = 1
3. A1 , A2 , . . . Pr
hS
i P
Aj = j Pr [Aj ].
11.3.
215
11.2.2 0
11.7
A Pr [Ac ] = 0. Pr [A] = 0.
( .) 1.
11.7
11.1.4
, , , 0.
11.3
() Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , m,
.
. 0 0.
() .
11.14
Ek , k 1, Pr [Ek ] 0. E =
.
k1 Ek
11.15
E , k 1. E .
11.16
k
Ak , k 1.
\ [
[ \
lim sup Ak =
An lim inf Ak =
An .
k
k1 nk
(11.9)
k1 nk
lim supk Ak Ak
lim infk Ak Ak , . k0
Ak , k k0 .
11.17
Ak , k 1,
Ak .
k=1 Pr [Ak ]
<
11.3
: 1 10.
.
: X 5. ( , X 5 , ,
. X 5 .) X
.
X 5 = {1, . . . , 10}
p(x) = 0.1 x . X 5
5 10, 1/6.
11.8
( )
A, B, Pr [B] > 0. A B
Pr [A | B] =
Pr [B] = 0.
Pr [A B]
.
Pr [B]
(11.10)
216
11.
11.8
, A = {X 5} B = {X o}
Pr [A | B];
(11.10) A B = {2, 4} Pr [A | B] =
2/10
2
5/10 = 5 . 5
.
11.18
A Pr [A | A], Pr [A | Ac ], Pr [A | ].
11.9
. .
, . .
. ;
A1 , A2 A3
. B .
. .

Pr [A1 B]
Pr [A1 | B] =
.
Pr [B]
A1 B, . A1 B, A! B = A1 Pr [Ai ] = 1/3
. Pr [B] = 1/2
2
. Pr [A1 | B] = 1/3
1/2 = 3 .
11.3
( ) Bi , i = 1, . . . , m, m N,
=
m
[
Bi
i=1
Pr [Bi ] > 0 i. A
Pr [A] =
m
X
Pr [A | Bi ]Pr [Bi ].
(11.11)
i=1
0 < Pr [B] < 1 A

Pr [A] = Pr [A | B]Pr [B] + Pr [A | B c ](1 Pr [B]).
(11.12)
(11.11) , 11.8
"
#
m
m
X
[
Pr [A Bi ] = Pr A
Bi = Pr [A ] = Pr [A].
i=1
i=1
(11.4) Pr []
A Bi ,
E (F G) = (E F ) (E G).
(11.12) m = 2, B1 = B, B2 = B c .
11.3.
217
11.9
()
.
11.19
(11.11) , Bi
0, Bi (11.11).
, Pr [A | B] , Pr [A | B]Pr [B] =
Pr [A B] .
11.4
Bi
Bi .
11.5
S
Bi , i = 1, . . . , m, m
i=1 Bi = \ E, Pr [E] = 0. .
Bi , ,
, E, 0.
. 1 ( )
Bi .
11.20
11.5 Bi
Bi .
.
Bi
Bi .
11.10
, 30%, 50% 20% .
2/3 .
, ;
Ar , Ag , Ab , .
:
Pr [Ar ] = 0.3, Pr [Ag ] = 0.5, Pr [Ab ] = 0.2.

H
Pr [H] = Pr [H | Ar ]Pr [Ar ] + Pr [H | Ag ]Pr [Ag ] + Pr [H | Ab ]Pr [Ab ]
=
1
2
2
0.3 + 0.5 + 0.2
2
3
3
= 0.616
11.21
.
;
.
218
11.
11.4
11.10
( ) A B Pr [A B] = Pr [A]
Pr [B].
Aj , j J, ( J ) ,
Aj1 , . . . , AjN , :
Pr [Aj1 AjN ] = Pr [Aj1 ] Pr [AjN ].
11.6
A B
Pr [A | B] = Pr [A].
Pr [B],
0. B
A . . .
, , ()
Pr [B] > 0, () A B
() .
11.22
A B Ac , B Ac , B c .
11.23
A B Pr [A] > 0, Pr [B] > 0 .

A B B =
6 .
11.11
.
= {(x, y) : x, y {K, }}.
. , 4 .
1/4 . A = {
} B = { } A B A B = {(K, )}
Pr [A B] = 1/4 Pr [A] = Pr [B] = 1/2 A, B .

, .
11.12
A, B, C, D . E = A B H = C D.
H D A, B, C, D
A, B, C, D E H. E H
.
Pr [E H] = Pr [(A B) (C D)]
= Pr [(A C D) (B C D)]
= Pr [A C D] + Pr [B C D] Pr [A B C D].
11.4.
219
Pr [E] Pr [H] = Pr [A B]Pr [C D]

= (Pr [A] + Pr [B] Pr [A B])Pr [C]Pr [D]
= Pr [A C D] + Pr [B C D] Pr [A B C D],
. (11.6).
11.7
11.12; Ai Bj ,
, A B Ai Bj ,
11.12, A B .
.
.
11.13
. .
;
. Ai () i- , i = 1, 2, 3. A1 , A2 , A3 .
;
A1 A2 Ac3 ,
,
Pr [A1 A2 Ac3 ] = Pr [A1 ]Pr [A2 ]Pr [Ac3 ],
, ( )
( 21 )3 = 81 .
11.14
11.13 ;
11.13 ,
6 2.

Aji , i = 1, 2, 3, j = 1, . . . , 6, i- j,
j1 , . . . , j3 {1, . . . , 6} Aj11 , Aj22 , Aj33
.
.. 1,2,3
A11 A22 A33 , , ,
1/63 .

.

.
11.11
1 , . . . , m , m N,
A1 , . . . , Am Ai i ,
A1 , . . . , Am . ( Ai i
i Ai .)
220
11.
11.8
, , . .
n .

= {(x1 , . . . , xn ) : xi {K, }}
p : [0, 1]
11.11 .
n = .
,
p : [0, 1] ( 11.2.1) Pr []
11.2.1. .
11.24
11.11
11.14.
11.25
n . n 2
11.26
n .
, Aij i- j-
, i < j, i, j = 1, 2, 3.
.
11.27
N ,
;
11.28
R.
, . A B
A B . 11.2.1.

.
11.15
11.1.4 k
, k 1.
, .
Ak k , k N.
Bi Gi i- , ,
i N. (
, Bi Gi i N.
: ,
, .)
k N
Ak = G1 G2 Gk1 Bk .
. k k 1 .
11.4.
221
G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk1 , Bk .
Pr [Ak ] = Pr [G1 ]Pr [G2 ] Pr [Gk1 ]Pr [Bk ] = 2k .
A , . , ,
, ; k N
A G 1 G 2 G k .
(11.13)
A
k , k N. ,
(11.13) 2k , , k N, Pr [A ] 2k ,
Pr [A ] = 0.
11.16
10 . 6;
E 6, Ei , i = 1, . . . , 10,
i. Ei E, Pr [E] =
P10
i=1 Pr [Ei ].
Aki , k = 1, . . . , 6, i-
k.
\
Ei = (A61 )c (A62 )c A6i (A6i+1 )c (A610 )c = A6i (A6j )c .
(11.14)
j6=i
. Ei 6 i-
6. (11.14)
,
9
5
1
,
Pr [Ei ] =
6
6
A6j 1/6 (A6j )c 5/6, j.

P
5 9 1
Pr [E] = 10
i=1 Pr [Ei ] = 10 6
6.
11.29
10

5 9 1
6
6
1 .
11.17
. Xn , n = 1, 2 . . ., Xn {1, . . . , 6}. 6; E
.
Ei , i = 1, 2, . . ., 6 i- .
Pr [Ei ] = 5/6 i 6;
Ei , i = 1, 2, . . ., 6 i- .
Pr [Ei ] = 5/6 i.
T Ei Ei . E =
i=1 Ei ,
Pr [E] =
N
Y
Y
(5/6) = lim
(5/6) = lim (5/6)N = 0,
i=1
limN N = 0 ( ) || < 1.
i=1
222
11.
11.18
Xn , n =
1, 2 . . ., Xn {1, . . . , 6}. 1,
2, 3; (
123 X1 X2 X3 ;) E
.
Ei (Xi , Xi+1 , Xi+2 ) =
6 (1, 2, 3), .

i-
.
T
E =
E
.
Ei
i=1 i
, , , Ei Ei+1
i + 1.
Pr [E] = 0 E3i , i =
1, 2, . . ., ,
E
E3i .
i=1
Q
Q E3i i 1, p. Pr [E]
Pr
[E
]
=
3i
i=1
i=1 p = 0.
11.30
p 11.18.
11.31
11.18 Xn Xn
( ) {1, . . . , K} Xn ,
w1 , w2 , , wn {1, . . . , K} ,
Xn , 0.
11.32
0 an 1 .
0=
Y
i=1
i=1 (1
an = lim
N
Y
an
i=1
an ) = .

2(x 1) log x x 1,
x 1 ( (0,1)
).
11.33
En
En .
n=1 Pr [En ]
= .
11.32
11.9
11.17 11.33 Borel-Cantelli.
11.34
11.4.
223
.
/ .
.
, .. 10.000 , , . ,
,
.
.

( ) .
,
( , ).
. , ,

.

. .
.
11.35
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) , d , S R
.
X1 , . . . , Xn S S.
d
Pr [f (X1 , . . . , Xn ) = 0]
.
|S|
n.
, .
11.1: 11.36
11.36
N N 4
( ).
p,
, . ( 11.1.)
224
11.
E
(
).
E p.

( p p). .
11.5 Video
11.1
(video , 4:00 ).
11.2
(video , 8:48 ).
11.3
(video , 8:24 ).
11.4
(video , 8:24 ).
11.5
: (video , 8:24 ).
11.6
. (video , 7:24 ).
11.7
: . (video , 5:04 ).
11.8
: n . (video , 10:45 ).
11.9
: n . . (video , 9:51 ).
11.10
: . (video , 9:36 ).
11.11
liminf limsup . (video , 13:30 ).
11.12
. (video , 8:39
).
11.13
. (video , 6:49 ).
11.5. VIDEO
11.14
: . (video , 8:39 ).
11.15
. (video , 9:58 ).
11.16
Bayes. (video , 10:45 ).
11.17
: . (video , 14:27 ).
11.18
. (video , 7:34 ).
11.19
. (video , 5:47 ).
11.20
. (video , 22:28 ).
11.21
. (video , 11:35 ).
225
226
11.

[1]
Charles Miller Grinstead and James Laurie Snell. Introduction to probability. American
Mathematical Soc., 2012.
[2]
Paul Gerhard Hoel, Sidney C Port, and Charles J Stone. Introduction to probability theory. Vol. 12.
Houghton Mifflin Boston, 1971.
[3]
Sheldon Ross. A first course in probability. Macmillan, New York, NY, 1976.
227
228
12

Ross 1976, Grinstead and Snell 2012
Hoel, Port, and Stone 1971.
12.1
12.1
, X1
1 (X1 {1, . . . , 6}) X2 2 . X = X1 +X2
. X, X1 , X2
. , ,
.
12.1
( )
() . X : R X : Z
X X : Rd X : Zd X
.
X : T T X
.
A f : N A
A. , A
a1 , a2 , . . . .
.
N, Z,
S Q, A B, A B
,
j=1 Aj , Aj .
.. R (a, b), a < b.
, .
1.8 .
12.1
(
) X1 , . . . , Xn
1 , . . . , n R Z = 1 X1 + + n Xn .

.

j
. ,
P Xj , j =
1, 2, . . ., Xj 0, 2
, Z = j=1 Xj
, Xj ,
229
230
12.
( Xj 12.4
)
P (0, 1)j . ,
x (0, 1) , x x =
j=1 xj 2 , xj {0, 1},
Z = x Xj .
12.2
12.1 . Z = (X1 , X2 )
{1, . . . , 6}2 .
12.3

. ()
[0, ).
12.4
( p (0, 1)) X
. {1, 2, . . .} , .
12.2
, ..
( ),
, 1 0 ,
.
.
,
, , ,
.
( 11.2),
. p : [0, 1], .. p()
. X : T (T ) X
T , X(). .
( ), ,
X() T . T
p : T [0, 1]
p(t) = Pr [ : X() = t].
X
T , X.
.
, T ,
, .
12.2
( ) X T
X fX : T [0, 1]
fX (t) = Pr [X = t].
( ) X R X
FX : R [0, 1]
FX (x) = Pr [X x].
12.1.
231
12.3
FX ( )
limk FX (k) = 0 limk FX (k) = 1.
X Z n Z
FX (n) =
n
X
fX (k).
(12.1)
k=
n= fX (n)
= 1.
12.4
X x
X . FX (x) = FX (bxc)
FX .
12.3
( ) X Y .
12.5
X Y X() = Y () . .
X Y . . ,
( ) . ,
X Y ,
X Y
.
12.5
X {K, } p (0, 1)
X fX : {K, } [0, 1]
fX (K) = p, fX () = 1 p.
12.6
X Z

1/6 n {1, . . . , 6}
fX (n) =
,
0
FX (n) 0 n 0, FX (n) = 1 n 6 FX (n) = n/6

n {1, 2, . . . , 6}.
12.7
X Z Y = X 2

1/6 n 1, 22 , . . . , 62
fY (n) =
.
0
FY (n) 0 n 0, FY (n) = 1 n 36 FY (n) = b nc/6

n {1, 2, . . . , 36}.
12.8
A X() = 1 ( A) A 1 A, 0 . A
Pr [A] 1, 1 Pr [A] 0, 0 .
232
12.
12.1
R c c.
;
12.9
X () T Pr [X = t]
t T . 1/|T |
T .
12.2
X [n] Y = 2X fY FY .
12.3
X Z fX . fX
:
1. {X 0}
2. {X o}
3. {|X| 100}.
12.4
Y = X + b, b , fY , FY , fX , FX .
12.10
p (0, 1). X
. X {1, 2, . . .} {},
. (

, .. . .
X = 0 X = .) Xi = 1 i-
Xi = 0 . , n = 1, 2, . . .,
fX (n) = Pr [X = n] = Pr [X1 = 0, X2 = 0, . . . , Xn1 = 0, Xn = 1],
, {X1 = 0}, . . . , {Xn1 = 0}, {Xn = 1},
fX (n) = Pr [X1 = 0] Pr [Xn1 = 0] Pr [Xn = 1] = p(1 p)n1 ,
(12.2)
n 0 fX (n) = 0. {X = } {X1 = 0, . . . , Xk = 0}
k 1, (1 p)k ,
0 k,
fX () = Pr [X = ] = 0.
X.
X , . ,

X X
Y = X 1 (X ) =
,
0
X (
) Pr [X 6= Y ] =
12.1.
233
Pr [X = ] = 0. (12.1). n 0 FY (n) = 0.
n 0
FY (n) =
n
X
fX (k)
k=
n
X
p(1 p)k1
k=1
= p
n1
X
(1 p)l
l=0
= p
1 (1 p)n
1 (1 p)
= 1 (1 p)n
(: l = k 1, : . ).
(12.2) p.
12.11
X [0, 1], X
[0, 1]. A B [0, 1] Pr [X A] =
Pr [X B].
X , .
X ,
Pr [X [0, x]] = x. x 0 FX (x) = 0, x 1 FX (x) = 1
0 x 1 FX (x) = x.
12.12
N p (0, 1) X
. X {0, . . . , N }. fX (k) =
Pr [X = k], 0 k N , . B [N ]
k, B B
EB = { t t B}.
EB , B B, {X = k}.
B B EB pk (1 p)N k EB
k B

N k , . |EB | = Nk

N k
fX (k) =
p (1 p)N k , (0 k N ).
(12.3)
k
FX (k) 0 k < 0 1 k > N . 0 k N

k
X
N l
FX (k) =
p (1 p)N l ,
l
l=0
.
(12.3) p N .
234
12.
12.5
n . X .
X.
12.13
> 0 ,
f (n) = e
n
1 (n 0)
n!
(12.4)
Poisson . (12.4)
ex =
X xn
n0
n!
x R.
12.6
X p. X .
12.7
2
X p C . Y = X1 (X C)+
C1 (X > C). Y .
12.4
X1 , . . . , Xn .
x1 , . . . , xn
Pr [X1 = x1 , . . . , Xn = xn ] = Pr [X1 = x1 ] Pr [Xn = xn ].

.
12.6
Xi Ti (X1 , . . . , Xn ) T1 Tn .
Xi
12.8
f(X1 ,...,Xn ) (t1 , . . . , tn ) = fX1 (t1 ) fXn (tn ).
X Y A B
Pr [X A, Y B] = Pr [X A]Pr [Y B].
12.9
X Y f (X), g(Y ) , f g
.
12.10
X Y Pr [X = 1] = Pr [X = 1] = 1/2. Z = XY .
X, Y, Z .
12.11
X Y Pr [X = k] = 2k , k = 1, 2, . . ..
1. Pr [min {X, Y } n],
12.1.
235
2. Pr [Y > X],
3. Pr [X = Y ],
4. Pr [X kY ], k,
5. Pr[X Y ],
6. Pr [X = rY ], r.
12.12
P
P
f g Z R F =
n= |f (n)| < G =
n= |g(n)| <

X
X
f g(n) =
f (k)g(n k) =
f (n k)g(k)
k=
k=
n Z
|f g(n)| F G.
n=
f, g 0 f g 0 .
12.5
P
() f, g : Z R
n= |f (n)| <
g. f g 12.12 f g.
12.13
f g = g f f (g + h) = f g + f h, .
12.7
12.12 f g , . X Y f = fX g = fY , , , f g
1. f (n) 0, n Z,
2.
n= f (n)
= 1,
f g .
12.1
X Y
fX+Y (n) = fX fY (n),
n Z.
236
12.
fX+Y (n) = Pr [X + Y = n]
Pr [X + Y = n | Y = k]Pr [Y = k]
k=
Pr [X = n k]Pr [Y = k]
k=
fX (n k)fY (k)
k=
= fX fY (n)
(: 11.3).

12.14
X, Y {0, . . . , m}. Z = X +
Y;
1/(m + 1)
12.1: {0, . . . , m}
fX fY fX fX , X Y
( . ). X {0, . . . , m}

1
1 (0 n m) .
fX (n) =
m+1

X
fZ (n) =
fX (k)fX (n k)
k
X
1
1 (0 k m, 0 n k m)
2
(m + 1)
k
X
1
1 (0 k m, n m k n)
(m + 1)2
k
X
1
1 (max {0, n m} k min {m, n})
(m + 1)2
k
12.2.
237

|{k : A k B}| = (B A + 1)1 (A B) ,
fZ (n) =
1
(min {m, n} max {0, n m} + 1)1 (max {0, n m} min {m, n}) .
(m + 1)2
fZ (n) n < 0, 0 n m,
m < n 2m 2m < n.
max {0, n m}, min {m, n},
0
n<0
n+1
0
nm
(m+1)2
fZ (n) =
2mn+1
m < n 2m
(m+1)2
0
2m < n
2m
12.2: X + Y
12.14
fY (n) fX (n) Y = X + t, t .
12.2
12.6
( ) X
X
X
EX =
nfX (n),
(12.5)
n=
|n|fX (n) < .
(12.6)
n=
, X : T R , T ,

X
EX =
t Pr [X = t],
(12.7)
tT

X
tT
|t| Pr [X = t] < ,
(12.8)
238
12.
12.8
(12.7) ,
, (12.5).
As , s S, S,
X As
cs
X
EX =
cs Pr [As ].
sS
12.9
X (12.5)
. , X ,
fX (n) = 61 1 (1 n 6)
1
1
1
EX = 1 + 2 + + 6 = 3.5.
6
6
6
, X {0, . . . , m} EX = m/2.
: X, , X.
( ) a1 , a2 , . . .
1 a1 + 2 a2 + ,
j [0, 1] j
j = 1.
j=1
P 1. EX =
jZ jPr [X = j] j X, .
Pr [X = j], 1, X
X ( .).
12.15
m
P aj M j x =
j = 1)
j=1 j aj
aj (. j j [0, 1]
m x M.
X m X M
m EX M.
X ;
12.10
(12.6) (12.8) (12.5) (12.7)
(12.6) (12.8) (12.5) (12.7)
, , ,
(12.5) (12.7).
X (12.6) (12.8) ( +),
EX = .
12.16
A X() = 1 ( A) EX.
12.2.
239
12.17
X Poisson ( (12.4)) EX = .
12.18
C > 0 f (n) = nC2 1 (n 1)

fX f EX.
12.19
X x R, .
f (n) = f (2x n), n Z,
, EX EX = x.
12.15
T {1, 2, . . .}
p, T
fT (n) = p(1 p)n1 1 (n 1) ,
ET =
p(1 p)n1 n.
n=1
n=0
xn
= (1
x)1
nxn1 =
n=1
1
.
(1 x)2
x = 1 p
ET = p
1
1
= .
2
p
p
. .
.
, 12.4 , 12.2 .
.
12.2
X Y , R , Z = X + Y
EZ = EX + EY .
X : T1 Y : T2 , T1 , T2 .
At = {X = s}, (s T1 ),
Bt = {Y = t} (t T2 ),
Cs,t = {X = s, Y = t}, (s T1 , t T2 ).
EX =
X
sT1
sPr [As ] =
X
sT1
X
tT2
Pr [Cs,t ],
240
12.
EY =
sPr [Bt ] =
tT2
X X
t
Pr [Cs,t ],
tT2
sT1
EX + EY =
Pr [Cs,t ](s + t) = EZ,
sT1 ,tT2
Cs,t , s T1 , t T2 , Z
( 12.8).

12.16
12.14 EX + Y
X + Y . X 12.19
EX = m/2 {0, . . . , m} m/2.
EX + Y = EX + EY = 2EX = 2 m
2 = m.
12.17
X ( 12.12) p N ,

N k
fX (k) =
p (1 p)N k1 (0 k N ) .
k
X N
p. , Xj = 1( j )
X = X1 + + XN ,
EX = EX1 + + EXN = N EX1 = N p.
12.18
N ,
. N .
;
X, , .
Xj , j = 1, . . . , N , Xj = 1( j ). ( Xj
. ;)
X = X1 + X2 + + XN .
P
, 12.2 EX = N
j=1 EXj . , , Xj
, EX = N EX1 . EX1 = Pr[ 1 ] = 1/n,
. EX = 1. EX N .
X , ,
.
.
12.3
X ( ) f
T X f (X)
X
|f (t)|Pr [X = t] < ,
tT

Ef (X) =
X
tT
f (t)Pr [X = t].
12.2.
241
12.8 =
tT
{X = t}.
12.11
12.3 (12.6) (12.8)
E|X| < (
+).
12.20
-.
c
. .
j-
(j + 1)- ; c
;
12.4
X Y XY EXY =
EXEY .
X : T1 Y : T2 , T1 , T2 .
12.2
Cs,t = {X = s, Y = t}, (s T1 , t T2 ).
E|XY | =
|st|Pr [Cs,t ]
sT1 ,tT2
|st|Pr [X = s]Pr [Y = t]
sT1 ,tT2
|s|Pr [X = s]
sT1
|t|Pr [Y = t]
tT2
= E|X|E|Y | <
(: X, Y ), XY .
X
EXY =
stPr [Cs,t ]
sT1 ,tT2
stPr [X = s]Pr [Y = t]
sT1 ,tT2
sPr [X = s]
sT1
= EXEY
X
tT2
tPr [Y = t]
242
12.
(: X, Y ).

12.12
X1 , . . . , XN EX1 XN =
EX1 EXN .
12.13
X, Y 12.4. , ,
A B , X = 1A , Y = 1B
( 12.8). XY = 1AB = 1 EXY = 0
EX = Pr [A] > 0 EY = Pr [B] > 0.
12.19
: 0 0
. , . Xj
j Xj {1, +1} Pr [Xj = 1] = Pr [Xj = +1] =
1/2, EXj = 21 (1) + 12 1 = 0. n, Sn ,

Sn = X1 + + Xn ,
, ESn = 0 n.
p 0
n. ESn2
Sn2 = (X1 + + Xn )2 =
n
X
j=1
Xj2 + 2
Xi Xj ,
i<j
i, j = 1, . . . , n, i < j. Xi Xj
i =
6 j EXi = 0
0. EXj2 = 1 Xj2 = 1 . ESn2 = n
0 n.
12.21
n . X
EX.
12.22
n 2n m .
.
12.23
n n .
, . k .
k
.
12.24
X fX (n). X
. . , t,
X b y , y = |X t|. a y.
a, b fX (n) . t
;
12.3.
243
12.3: Paul Erds.
12.25
Paul Erds (: Erds Pl)

< (probabilistic method)
( , , ). , Erds ,
.
( )
, . ( )
.
n (n .
, n2 ) .

41 n3 .
12.4: 12.26.
12.26
1000 ( 1, 2, 3, , 1000).
, .. ,
20 . (
12.4.)
12.3
12.7
( ) X = EX
2
2
X Var
p[X] = (X) = E(X ) . X
(X) = Var [X].
244
12.
12.14
12.7
X .
12.15
(X )2 0 X
+, X , . E|X| < .
12.27
EX 2 < E|X| < .

X = Y +Z, Y = X 1 (|X| 1) Z = X Y . E|Y | < E|Z| < .
12.28
EX < Var [X] = EX EX .
12.29
c Var [X c] = Var [X] = Var [X].
12.30
2
Var [X] = 0 X = EX .
12.20
X {0, . . . , m}
2
EX =
m
X
k=0
1
1
k 2 = m(2m + 1)
m+1
6
1.14. EX = m/2 X
m/2. , 12.28
m2
m(m + 2)
1
=
.
Var [X] = m(2m + 1)
6
4
12
12.5
X1 , . . . , Xn
Var [X1 + + Xn ] = Var [X1 ] + + Var [Xn ] .
j = EXj , j = 1, . . . , n. S = X1 + + Xn
= 1 + + n ,
Var [S] = E(S )2
= E
n
X
2
(Xj j )
j=1
n
X
X
= E (Xj j )2 + 2
(Xi i )(Xj j )
j=1
n
X
j=1
Var [Xj ] + 2
i<j
X
i<j
E(Xi i )(Xj j ).
12.3.
245
E(Xi i )(Xj j ) = 0 i 6= j, Xi i
Xj j 0.

12.21
X ( 12.12) p N . X
N
p. , Xj = 1(i j )
X = X1 + + XN ,
Var [X] = Var [X1 ] + + Var [XN ] = N Var [X1 ] = N p(1 p),
Var [X1 ] = p(1 p).
12.6
( Markov) X 0 R
Pr [X ]
1
.
A = {X }. T X ,
EX,
X
=
tPr [X = t]
tT
tPr [X = t] +
tT,t<
tPr [X = t]
tT,t
tPr [X = t]
tT,t
Pr [X = t]
tT,t
= Pr [A].
.

12.1
( Chebyshev) X 2
Pr [|X | ]
1
.
2
- Y = (X )2 EY = 2
Markov ( 12.6).

1
Pr [|X | ] = Pr Y 2 2 2 .
246
12.
12.31
( Chebyshev) g : [0, ) [0, )

X Eg(|X|) < .
Pr [|X| ]
12.32
Eg(|X|)
.
g()
( 12.19.)
Chebyshev Pr [|Sn | > n/10].
12.33
X (12.2) p = 1/2.
Pr [X 10] Markov
Chebyshev .
12.34

. ,
EX 2 (X) X
, .
N (N ) , xi , i = 1, . . . , N .
N
1 X
x=
xi .
N
i=1
2 (X) = E(X EX)2

N
1 X
S2 =
(xi x)2 .
N
i=1
, ,
:
N
1 X
S2 =
(xi x)2 .
N 1
i=1
N .
;
12.4
12.8
( ) X N = {0, 1, 2, . . .}
X
X (t) = EtX =
fX (n)tn , (|t| 1).
n=0
12.16
12.8 t |t| 1.
12.22
An X = c X (t) = tc .
12.4.
247
12.23
X (12.2) p
X (t) =
tn p(1 p)n1
n=1
p X
(t(1 p))n
1p
n=1

1
1
1 t(1 p)
p
1p
pt
.
1 (1 p)t
12.24
X (12.3) N p,
X (t) =
N
X
n=0

N n
t
p (1 p)N n
n
n
N
X
N
=
(tp)n (1 p)N n
n
n=0
= (1 p + pt)N ,
( 4.4.
12.25
X Poisson (12.4) > 0
X (t) =
X
n=0
tn e
X (t)n
n
== e
= e et = e(1t) .
n!
n!
n=0
12.7
X1 , . . . , Xr Y = X1 + + Xr
Y (t) = X1 (t) Xr (t).
Y (t) = EtY = EtX1 tX2 tXr . tX1 , . . . , tXr Y (t) =

EtX1 EtXr = X1 (t) Xr (t).

.
12.8
( ) X Y (
N) .
12.7 12.8 .
248
12.
12.9
() X1 , . . . , Xr Xi Ni
p Y = X1 + + Xr N1 + + Nr p.
() X1 , . . . , Xr Xi Poisson i > 0
Y = X1 + + Xr Poisson 1 + + r .
() Xi (t) = (1 p + pt)Ni
Y (t) = X1 (t) Xr (t) = (1 p + pt)N1 ++Nr .
N1 + +Nr p ,
( 12.8) Y .
() Xi (t) = ei (1t)
Y (t) = X1 (t) Xr (t) = e(1 ++r )(1t) .
Poisson 1 + + r ,
( 12.8) Y .
12.35
{a, . . . , b}, 0 a < b.
12.36
X X (t)
X (t2 );
12.5
Video
12.1
(). (video , 9:35 ).
12.2
. . (video , 12:51 ).
12.3
. (video , 16:35 ).
12.4
. (video , 19:37 ).
12.5
. (video , 13:02 ).
12.6
. (video , 24:51 ).
12.7
n . (video , 4:52 ).
12.5. VIDEO
249
12.8
m n . (video , 8:04 ).
12.9
. (video , 17:35 ).
12.10
. (video , 10:22 ).
12.11
. . (video , 14:15
).
12.12
. . (video , 12:07
).
12.13
. (video , 13:36 ).
12.14
. (video , 14:29 ).
12.15
. (video , 13:27 ).
12.16
Poisson(). (video , 8:57 ).
12.17
. (video , 7:57 ).
12.18
3 4 . (video , 20:03 ).
12.19
Markov. (video , 17:51 ).
12.20
Markov. Chebyshev. (video , 20:38 ).
12.21
. (video , 4:40 ).
12.22
Cauchy-Schwarz. . (video , 31:38
).
12.23
. . (video , 16:16 ).
250
12.
12.24
. (video , 8:59 ).
12.25
. (video , 17:49 ).
12.26
. (video , 17:14 ).
12.27
. (video , 40:22 ).
12.28
. (video , 12:53 ).
12.29
. (video , 23:16 ).

[1]
Charles Miller Grinstead and James Laurie Snell. Introduction to probability. American
Mathematical Soc., 2012.
[2]
Paul Gerhard Hoel, Sidney C Port, and Charles J Stone. Introduction to probability theory. Vol. 12.
Houghton Mifflin Boston, 1971.
[3]
Sheldon Ross. A first course in probability. Macmillan, New York, NY, 1976.
251
252

2Q ( Q), 151
Km,n , 127
L(M ), 148, 152, 155, 158
L , 146
L+ , 146
LR
, 167
N (J), J, 130
GR , 143
Var [X], 243
-, 159
-, 159
N, 211
(X), 243
-NFA, 157
ASCII, 145
Bose, 86
CFG, 182
, 183
CFL, 183
Cantor, 11
DFA, 146
, 173
, 174

DFA, 174
, 174
, 177
, 177
, 147
, 147
DNA, 86
Dedekind, 11
Egervry, 133
Einstein, 86
Erds, 243
Fibonacci
, 29
Floyd, 120
Gamow, 86
Halting Problem, 198

Knig, 133
Kruskal, 117
Myhill, 176
NFA, 151
, 152
, 151, 158
, 154
Nerode, 176
PDA, 186
, 189
Poisson, 234
Warshall, 120
ZermeloFrankel, 11
INP(), 189
NF(x), 188
POP(), 187
PUSH(x), 187
READ(), 187
mod, 51
prefix, 145
python
, 43
substitution, 165
suffix, 145
python, 9, 65, 66, 7174, 144
, 39
, 59
, 52
Fibonacci, 53
FloydWarshall, 120
Kruskal, 117
NFA DFA, 155
, 55
, 119
, 143
ASCII, 145
, 143
, 65
253
254
(GR ), 143
, 65
, 58
, 200
, 201
, 201
, 202
, 196
, 160
, 23
, 219
, 68
, 63, 64
, 26
Bernoulli, 35
Chebyshev, 245
, 246
Markov, 245
,
32
, 108, 116
, 164, 166
, 42
, 165
, 166
, 166
, 166
, 26
, 66
, 65
, 181
, 32
, 26
N, 146
, 178
, 151
, 152
, 152
, 152
, 151, 154, 158
-, 157
-
, 158
, 158
, 158
, 147
, 147
, 148
, 147
, 149
, 147
, 150
, 149
, 165
, 147

, 147
, 149
, 186
, 187
, 187
, 187
, 187
De Morgan, 22
, 22
, 26
, 233

, 30
, 30, 110
, 32
, 143
Context-Free, 181, 183
, 159
, 148, 152, 158
Context-Free, 185
, 186
, 143
, 145
, 144
python, 145
, 145, 146, 159
, 151

, 165
, 165
, 56
, 143
, 97
, 129
, 137
, 115
Kruskal, 117
, 97

, 98
, 115
, 115
, 110
, 113
, 112
, 110
, 113

, 117
, 112
, 125
, 126
KnigEgervry, 133
, 127
, 128
, 127
, 129
, 101
, 102
,
103
, 103
, 103
, 99
, 115
, 97
, 100
, 100
, 107
, 99
, 133
, 100
, 100
, 137
, 116
, 106
, 106
, 115
, 106
, 106
Euler, 135
Hamilton, 135
, 109
, 115
, 106
, 98
, 106
, 106, 107
, 129
255
, 129
, 101
, 128, 137
, 138
Context-Free, 181
, 182
, 182
, 182
, 182
G
w v, 182
G
w v, 182
, 182
, 182
, 209
, 214
, 69
, 39
, 40
, 71
, 197
, 69
, 51
, 52
,
83
, 83
, 71
n-, 14
, 14
, 199
, 91
, 233
, 53, 88

, 88
, 73
, 74
, 31
, 151, 155, 158
, 17
, 17
, 53
, 210
liminf, 215
limsup, 215
, 218
256
0, 215
, 145
, 28
, 28
, 28
, 28
, 31
, 34
-, 32
, 33

, 162
, 211
, 85
, 21
, 65, 207
, 69
, 69
, 58
Myhill-Nerode, 176
Hall, 35
, 35
, 201
, 40
-NFA NFA, 159
DFA NFA, 154
, 155, 159
, 51
, 231
, 160
, 161
, 161
, 161

, 162
, 65
Bose-Einstein, 86
Poisson, 234
A, 146

, 146, 147, 151, 158
, 151, 158
, 146, 147, 151, 158

, 146
, 52
, 238
Morse, 72
, 143
, 143
, 143
Borel-Cantelli, 222

Context Free , 190
, 191
, 167
, 168
, 168, 169, 174
, 53
, 54
, 23
, 71
, 79
, 20
NFA DFA, 155

, 73

, 167

, 199
, 196
, 196
-, 159
-, 159
De Morgan, 21
, 21
, 20
, 21
, 209
, 166
, 164, 166
, 166
m n, 68
, 39
, 71
, 207
, 207
, 51
, 212
, 65
, 209
, 230
, 230
, 216
, 215
, 215
, 65
, 145
, 64
mod
, 54
, 86
, 200
Laurent, 89
, 20

, 15
, 15
, 198
, 199

NF, 188
, 198
, 198
, 188
, 145
, 37
, 41
, 42
, 42
, 56
, 31
-, 65
, 86
, 145
, 145
, 146
, 23
, 16
python
, 66
1-1, 17
, 70
, 69
, 17
, 74
, 17
, 68
{0, 1}, 68

, 154
, 235
, 18
, 73
, 84
257
, 91
, 39, 40
, 40
, 40
Hall, 36
, 210
, 214
, 211
, 211
, 211
, 15
dom, 16
range, 16
, 16
, 175

, 24
, 23
RL RM , 175
, 175
, 175
, 24
, 15
, 16
, 15
, 39
, 143
, 56
, 11
, 26
, 26
, 19
, 20
, 26
, 27
, 21
Venn, 12
, 23
, 19
, 14
, 21
, 25
, 12
, 20
, 14
, 11
, 21
, 11
, 22
, 26
, 25
258
, 19
, 19
, 19
, 26
, 12
, 12
, 13
, 26
, 35
, 229
, 209
, 42
, 91
, 39
, 14
, 14
Pascal, 91
, 31

, 241
, 240
, 229
, 246
, 247
, 231
, 229
, 229
, 243
, 237
, 243

, 234
,
247
, 244
, 235

, 239
, 242
De Morgan, 42
, 144
, 195
, 195
, 51

Diakrita PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Diakrita PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

&

American Standard Code For Information Interchange

Cantor Dedekind 1870.

x : x Z & x2 < 100

1. {a, b, c} = {c, b, a}.

A = {2, {4, 5}, 4}. ;

range R = {b B : a A (a, b) R}.

A = {1, 2, ..., 6}, B = {a, b, c, d}, C = {1, 2, ..., 9},

f 1 ({1, 2}) = {a, b, c}, f 1 ({2}) = .

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) < 0.

A B = {(1, 6), (6, 1)},

f : A B {Ai }iI A, {Bj }jJ

I , .. I = [0, 1], I = (2, 7] I = (1, ), ...

, (1.12) ( (1.12) (1.13) ) (1.13)

b = (an+1 a2n )1/n

= (a1 a2n )1/(2n)

a(n, k) = a(n 1, k 1) + a(n 1, k), (n k 1).

A0j = Aj \ {x1 }, j = 2, . . . , n. J {2, . . . , n}. J

=> b is", implies(a, b)

1.13: 1.41 (m = 4, n = 5), .

E Kamke. Theory of sets (translated by F. Bagemihl). Dover, New York, 1950.

(10, 15) = 5, [10, 15] = 30.

(7, 11) = 1, [7, 11] = 77.

print gcd(7735, 3003)

a, b > 0 (a2 + b2 , a + b).

a b (a, b) = (a/2, b). (a, b) = 2(a/2, b/2).

(a, b) = 1 c | a + b (c, a) = (c, b) = 1.

c | ab = c | (a, c)(b, c).

(a, b) = (a + b, [a, b]).

xj Ej , j = 1, . . . , n + 1. En+1 = {e1 , . . . , er } (3.1)

s = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']

[n] {0, 1}; (

f : [n] N = {0, 1, 2, . . .} f (k) < k

3.4: X X {0, 1},

m n 1-1 [m] [n];

Faster Than Light online

[4] = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

[50] = {1, 2, . . . , 50}

Peter J Cameron. Combinatorics: topics, techniques, algorithms. Cambridge University Press,

Richard P Stanley. Enumerative combinatorics. 1986.

k- [n] = {1, . . . , n}. :

Peter J Cameron. Combinatorics: topics, techniques, algorithms. Cambridge University Press,

Richard P Stanley. Enumerative combinatorics. 1986.

5.8: K4,3 A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {, , }

B 5.18 (0, 0, 0) (1, 1, 1).

d(u, v) d(u, w) + d(w, v).

5.19: V (0), V (1), V (2), V (3) 5.33 .

5.7. KRUSKAL 117

5.8. FLOYD-WARSHALL 119

1. Aij = w(i, j), i, j = 1, . . . , n.

, A(k) , Aij = Lij , i, j = 1, . . . , n,

5.8. FLOYD-WARSHALL 121

Peter J Cameron. Combinatorics: topics, techniques, algorithms. Cambridge University Press,

Reinhard Diestel. Graph theory. 2005.

Richard P Stanley. Enumerative combinatorics. 1986.

(52 13 (A, 2, 3, . . . , 10, J, Q, K), 4

6.7: 6.5 (KnigEgervary).

6.4. EULER HAMILTON

m n A Aij {0, 1}.

Peter J Cameron. Combinatorics: topics, techniques, algorithms. Cambridge University Press,

Reinhard Diestel. Graph theory. 2005.

Richard P Stanley. Enumerative combinatorics. 1986.

(Deterministic Finite Automaton DFA) , Q (states)

range R = {b B : a A (a, b) R}.

-NFA (0101) (111) .

-NFA NFA, DFA.

7.11: -NFA 7.10 NFA

7.12: -NFA (a), (b) a (c)

, DFA, NFA -NFA,