oe indian Roads Congress Specie! Publication 24 GUIDELINES ON THE CHOICE AND PLANNING OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION New Dalhi-t10 071 (Plus packing & | } (NEW DELHI 1984 Price Rs 24 | =First Published in June, 1984 (The Rights of Publication and Translation are reserved) Published by Ninan Koshi, Secretary, Incian Roads Congress, Jamnegar Shahjatan Road, Now Deli, Prine et PRINTAND, New Delh20 House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi. FOREWORD The resources for the development of roads continue to be ‘d-and far short of the demand because of the phenomenal growth of trafic on our roads. Highway Engineers are thus Pressed to evolve the most economical design and construction Practices to match the specific technical requirements ‘compatible with the overall socio-economic needs. Though there have been Temarkable advancements in the use of equipment based technology in the field of rosd construction, such technology mnay not be see, able for use in entirety in our country in view of the large surplus Renpower available with us. Hence, there is need for going in for intermediate technology which perhaps is best suited to” ous country. The Highway Engineers have been quite conscious of this requirement and keeping this in view, the “Guidelines on we Choice and Planning of Appropriate Technology in Road Contre tion” ave been evolved by the Indian Roads Congress: through a Special Committee, These guidelines were approved by " the CKumeil in their 109th mesting held at Nagpur on the 8th January, (2k for being issued as a Special Publication of the Indian Rosas Congress. Thope that this publication will prove to be a very useful Buide to the Highway Engineers of our country. We would, how, ‘New Delhi KK. SARIN June, 1984 Director General (Road Development) & Addl. Secretary to the Govt. of IndiaCONTENTS 1, Introduction 2, Scope 3. Site Planning 4. Considerations in the Choice of the Appropriate Construction Method 4.1. General 4.2, Technical Feasibility 4.3, Economic Viability 4.4, Social Desirability 4.5. Compatibility in Working 4.6, Overall Philosophy in the Choice of Appropriate Technology Guidelines on Planning and Organisation of Labour-Based Methods Sul. General 5.2, Labour 5.3. Site Clearance 5.4, Earthwork 5,5, Road Construction Aggregates 5.6. Compaction 5.1, Soil Stabilisation 5.8, Bituminous Works 5. 6. Guidelines on Planning and Organisation of Equipment-Intensive Methods 6.1. General 6.2, General Principles Governing the Selection of Machinery 6.3. Equipment Suitable for Earthwork Page "7 7 a 9 20 28 33 33 35 38 38 38 396.4, Output of Earthmoving Equipment 6.5. Other Road Construction Equipment 7. Cost Calculations 7A. General 7.2. Costing of Labour-based Methods 7.3. Costing of Equipment-intensive Methods 7.4. Comparison of Cost of Road Construction Jobs by different Methods LIST OF TABLES No. 1. Listing of Tasks and Available Construction Methods 2, Process of Choosing Optimum Construction Method 3, Break—Even Wage Rates for Selected Tasks 4, Productivity Data for Manual Excavation Using Hand Tools 5. Produetivity Data for Manual Loading or Unloading 6. Productivity Data for Manual Spreading in Earthworks 7 Productivity Data for Manual Haul and Unload Operations 8. Productivity Data for Manual Spreading of Pavement Materials 9. Productivity Data for Manual Production of Aggregates 10, Calculations for Number of Effective Days for Labour—An Example 11, Gang Balance Calculations for Earthwork by Headbasket 12, Gang Balance Calculations for Earthwork Using Flat-bed Truck for Haulage Page 41 49 34 54 55 7 13 4 15 15 16 16 a 19 29 30 1B 14. 15. 16, 7. 18. 19. 20. au. Characteristics and Output of 8/10T Three-whecled Roller Resource Calculations for 20 mm Thick Premix Carpet Work Using Mini Hot Mix Plant ‘Sample Calculations for Earthwork with Front End Loader and Dump Trucks ‘Sample Calculations for Working of Tractor- Drawn Water Tanker on Earthwork Job ‘Sample Calculations for Paving $0 mm Thick Bituminous Macadam. ‘Norms for Calculating Usage Charges of ‘Usage Charges for some Earthmoving Equipment Cost of Earthwork by Manual Methods Cost of Earthwork by Equipment: Method intensive LIST OF FIGURES Cost of Earthwork Task in Borrow-to-fill (Based on World Bank Study) Sequence of Borrow Excavation—-Short Hauls by Headbasket Method Sequence of Borrow Excavation—Haulage by Carts/Vebicles Balancing of Cut and Fill in Road Construction Productivity of Bulldozer Productivity of Towed Scraper Productivity of Motorised Seraper Productivity of Front End LoaderjExcavator Page 34 36 48 sl 3 58 60 u 23 2B 28 4B 45 47" 18, 19. 20. MEMBERS OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON MECHANISED ROAD CONSTRUCTION Maj, Gen. JM. Rai Director General Border Roads (Convenor) K. Arunachalam Deputy Secretary (Research), Indian Roads (Member-Secretary) Congress M.G. Dandavate The Associated Cement Cos. Ltd. GK. Deshpande Superintending Engineer, Maharashtra P.W.D. SK. Gupta Superintending Engineer (Mechanical) P.W.D. BAR, Haryana Ingman Singh Director (Techical, Continental Construction Ltd, New Delhi pe. (Chief Engineer & Addl. Seoy. (Retd.) Rajasthan P.W.D. MR. Malya 3, Panorama, 30, Pali Hill Road, Bombay PJ. Mehta Secy. to the Govt. of Gujarat, BRC Deptt, Gujarat R, Natarajan CChiet Engineer (Elect), C.P.W.D. V.B, Pandit (Chief Engineer (Mechanical, Irrigation Deptt, Maharashtra PAK. Rao ‘Superintending Engineer, National Highwas Circle, Orissa M.E. Madhusudan Addl. Industria) Adviser, Ditectorate General of, ‘Technical Development S.A, Salam Chief Engineer, Project Organisation, Jammu & Kashmir G. Viswanathan CChiet Engineer (Mechanical), Ministry of ‘Shipp- 1g & Transport (Roads Wing) LM. Verma Superintending Engincer (C), Directorate General Border Roads Director (P&M), Central Water Commission N. Sathyamurthy MN. Singh Manager (Project Management), Indian Road Construction Cerporation N. Vasudevan ‘Managing Director, Kerala State Construction Corporation K.K. Sarin Director General (Road Development) & Addl. Secretary to the Govt. of India -Ex- officio GUIDELINES ON THE CHOICE AND PLANNING OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY IN ROAD ‘CONSTRUCTION INTRODUCTION 1.1. The fundamental principle of alignment, design and construction of any road is to achieve the least overall cost of transportation having regard to the cost of initial construction of the facility, its periodic maintenance and vehicle operation, while ‘at the same time satisfying the social and environmental require- ments, Once a road project has been prepared on this principle, the prime objective of the Site Engineer will be to complete the construction to the stipulated requirements at the minimum cost, and within the time schedule. Fulfilment of this objective will involve several steps which will include, inter alia, the choice of the appropriate construction technology which is economically viable and technically suitable for the type of work and for which the necessary input resources are readily available or can be made is Once the construction method is chosen, whi ever method it may.be, the Site Engineer should arrange for the needed resources in time and take all measures for their efficient and economical working. 1.2. In the interest of better planning of works at site and ‘economical execution of highway projects, this publication provides guidelines for the choice of appropriate construction methods under different situations, and discusses the ways and means for improving the efficiency and productivity of these methods. A large number of worked out examples have been included for assisting the Site Engineers in this regard. 1.3. These guidelines were initially prepared by K. Aruna- chalam, Deputy Secretary (Research), Indian Roads Congress, These were considered and approved by the Special Committee for Mechanised Road Construction in their meeting held at New Delhi on the 2nd December, 1983. These were later approved by the Executive Committee by circulation and then by the Council ——2 in their meeting held at Nagpur on the 8th January, 1984 for being issued as a Special Publication of the Indian Roads Congress. 2. SCoPE 21. The choice of the appropriate construction method for & work or task is governed by several factors such as terrain, climate, available resources, technical feasibility for the nature of operations and relative economy. While for some operations, there can be more than one method that could be feasible and the choice will mostly be dictated by the availability of the needed resources, for some other technical requirements or the time factor will dic- tate the adoption of only one type of method. For example, compaction of aggregates for WBM can be done only by a power roller even in cases where the aggregates are broken and hauled to site of work by purely manual me:hods. Similarly, even though the manual methods might be the most economical alternative for ‘earthworks within short leads, equipment-intensive methods might have to be resorted to in cases where time of completion is the crucial factor. : 2.2. This document gives guidelines for helping the Site Engineer in choosing the appropriate methods for the various. tasks involved in road construction under different situations and dis- cusses the ways and means of improving the efficiency and productivity of these methods. It should be understood that these guidelines are neither absolute nor static and would need changes, from time to time depending on the relative cost of materials, equipment and services involved. It is, therefore, suggested that road construction departments should collect, compile and analyse the productivity data along with the governing parameters at least for major road construction projects so that the guidelines could bbe up-dated in the years to come. 2.3, The construction methods are generally classified into three categories, namely @ Labour-intensive methods which depend mostly on unskilled. labour who may use nothing more than simple hand tools, (ii) Intermediate methods which employ certain simple equipment or ‘non-human resources for aiding the manual operations, such as pack of animals, wheeled earts, small mixing machines, ec, 3 ii), Equipment—intensive methods in which the operations are executed by a single oF series of machines and where no unskilled labour is employed except in purely ancillary capacity. Thus for any task, a broad spectrum of methods is available with the labour-intensive and equipment-intensive methods falling at either extreme and the intermediate methods falling in-between. In actual practice, however, for certain ranges of site parameters, it will be inevitable even for the labour-intensive methods to use some simple equipment or devices. For exemple, haulage for a distance of over 100 m for which pack animals, cart and the like will necessarily have to be inducted though use of unskilled labour will be predominant. Such cases almost merge with the inter~ mediate methods because of physical inevitability. From this consideration, as also to avoid any confusion in the classification of the different methods, both the labour-intensive and the inter~ mediate methods which are practiced extensively in the country will be dealt with together in these guidelines under the broad heading ‘Labour-based methods’. 3. SITE PLANNING Site planning forms the forerunner to the starting of any construction operation. It is at this stage that the site engineer decides om the appropriate construction method for the various tasks to be accomplished, plans the needed resources and takes measures for improving the productivity at task/activity level for ‘economical working, All this involves a step by step procedure which will include the following (i) Listing out all the required tasks along with the quantities split ‘according to critical site parameters (e. g. hardness of soll to be excavated, haulage distance, etc.) and the possible construction methods. "A typical lst is shown ia Table I for illustration. i) Selecting the most appropriste method of working for each task from angles of technical feasibility, economic viability and soci esirabilty. This will require a good’ understanding and relevant information relating to the specification requirements and the capabilities of the different methods in achieving these, the product tivity and cost of operation with these, the advantage and disadvan- tage of adopting method peculiar to particular site ete. This ‘exercise will involve the listing out ofall the possible methods, and choosing the most approriste one through a process of ational andpret puey soyugcreaed ae[d xuIop “tox jeopreypour 49}!0q 78], popess-uado, soystuystoaed “uetd su20H - popestosuq — radieo uowmig “g ‘ajoejans/areq sbII01 29m0d 224101 ToMog husuiyoequi Bomou oya2:330 my Surpsoqan ons danp—19p207 apr0 [meH Supney BupeoT “9 sos pa soot ued Ban Baypeoy jenuour yun sued Bolym9 oygow ‘ouweH oyeBo1332 2003s Jo voponposd ayets830 10 s310p 1039p t19) ‘2401 10 20H Hos Sujpeaias “p soya spyue1 Jee poydord jog S978 ump roe /LEUTBY, Boyer “¢ yen Memmi ptt 1 me 1. Mrmign nee 4 ane een = 4. ss eo am ye come) » 6. satan ig lot maa nee 1 ric ct 25 ck one >. nice 20. hk sen sha eae or promi cre tian i 370 sqm 13, Asphaltie concrete 25-40 mm thick ir important requirement. For such soils, Free re phe diz barrows and fet harrows hitched to soe ural tractor whichis often used for agricultural opera~ sericuleahe used. The tractor should be of about 50 HP rer epth of procexing slo 200, mm and 110 HP where the depth goes upto 490 mm, Mouid-board plough is used first for loosening the soil. The disc harrow is then passe 35 ploughed soil to break down clods further. The soil is then Processed furtber with off-set harrow. After achieving the required degree of pulverisation, the soil is levelled, moisture content adjusted, and the stabilizer is spread over it manually. The off-set harrow is then used for 4-6 passes for mixing. After levelling, the layer is compacted with power roller. For heavy clays, pre- treatment with lime may be adopted for aiding pulverisation 5.7.3. The purely manual method consists of cutting the soil several time with hoe/spade for pulverising it, then forming a. stack and adjusting the moisture, spreading the stabilizer on the stack, and turning over the material 4-6 times till itis uniformally mixed. This method should be adopted only where the needed equipment is not avilable. 5.8. Bituminous Works 5.8.1. A variety of bituminous constructions from thin sur- face dressing to dense asphaltic conerete are practiced in the country, Surface dressing though apparently simpler to construct Fequire uniform spreading of bitumen and even spreading of aggregates before rolling. The quick succession of the operations is important to ensure that the aggregate get properly embedded in the binder before the latter becomes hard, as otherwise the aggre- gates will whip-off. All this can be possible and a good quality surfacing constructed only if mechanical sprayers and chip spreaders are used. In the absence of truck-mounted sprayers, hand operated sprayers attached to a tar boiler may be used. 5.8.2. Open-graded premix carpet construction requires uniform coating of aggregates, and preferably hot mix plant is used for the purpose though laying may be done manually. Mini hot mix plant of 6-8 tonne cepacity will be found suitable. Where such plant is not availuble, the aggregates can be heated in stacks with fire through empty bitumen drums embedded in them, and mixing done in a concrete mixer or improvised mixer. A sample calculation for working out the resources for laying 20 mm thick premix carpet with mini hot mix plant is given in Table 14, 5.8.3. Bituminous macadam and asphaltic concrete mixes should invariably be prepared in hot mix plant and laid with36 ‘Tanus 14, ResouRcE CALCULATION FOR 20 mm THICK PREMIX. ‘Canret Work usiNG Mist Hor Mix PLANT Sn aa DATA 1. Output of mixing plant | 6 tonne[hr 2. Output/day (effective working ine = 6 hrs) 6 tonnes 3, Cycle time for each batch 3 min 4. Weight ofeach batch of mix (£00033 ) 300 ke 5. Haulage of mix by large wheel barrow pushed by two persons Speed loaded 50 m/min Speed empty 60 m/min Unloading time 0.9 min ‘Width of paving 7. Aggregate dumped withia an average distanze of 10m from plant, Loading the bin is by headbasket method 8. Bulk density of aggregate Binder content by weight of total mix 1.5 tonnejeu.m. 4.45% 10. Calculations are done fortwo eases (a) The plant at one locaton wil eater for the work : fora distance of 600 m on either side {o) The plant at one location wil cater forthe work . for a” distance of 1000 m on either side. On com- Dievion of the work, the plant wil be shifted to" 8 how Toestion CALCULATIONS sree ee 2600 714.6 ee 146 12.2 tonne Tox 1000 0-445 4. Volume ot agrane wed per day = 00449. 228 eum 5. Aru of aren of miley as (oat cumosam = BE 10 = 85050 0 6 Lenin orn paveiday 232 120m 2. Number of working days required 7, Labour for hauling mix: Average lead ‘Time for loaded trip Time for empty return Unloadiogiturning time Time per eycle As each batch will be at 3 minutes, Provide four teams ‘ot twa Gicfor Rating” OF "8° Perons 8, Labour for spreading mix ‘Spreading input coeficient ‘Number of persons required 9. Labour for loading bin Haulingiuotoadios input eveticient = 05 man-hrjtonne 6x 05—3 Goan 0.28 many antiy ofagsrezate ro be loadegne = 28 30,0 Number of perions required auling °F $028 5 38 0 Provide one extra for i Serer ae for loading : 10, Provide 2 persons for rovide2 person for loading bitumen M1, Total number of labour required 12. Output of roller (Table 13) fe 5 persons = 140 59, m 13, Provide one roller for rolling t 14, Number of working d i fays required for x completing the jo = Zag? = toca Plant to cater for 1000 m on either side 1) The other resources required wil be {he same as for ase. "A except thon umber of teams hauling the tis sa ave 10 be increased, Average lead 500 Time for loaded trip Time for empty return Unloading/turning time = 500/50 = 10 min = 500/60 = 8.3 min Time per cycle ane Number of teams of haulers Supe = 12 persons for complet er pleting the job ~ Bt? = rays —__38 mechanical paver. The operation, therefore, has to be equipment- intensive for obtaining the best results. 6. GUIDELINES ON PLANNING AND ORGANISATION OF EQUIPMENT-INTENSIVE METHODS 6.1. General As discussed in para 4, the choice of the most appropriate technology for road works has several ramifications, and is not to bbe based on micro-level cost comparsion alone. For example, for the task of earthwork within a lead of 25 m, the labour intensive headbasket _method will be the most economical, but if the work is fof large magnitude to be completed within a stringent time schedule, or the required labour force is not available, the job may dictate the adoption of equipment-intensive methods particularly where the needed equipment are resdily available at site. The choice will, therefore, have to. be judicious taking all the related parameters into account. In this Section, considerations in the Choice of the appropriate equipmert for the major tasks involved jin road construction and guidelines on their efficient utilisation are given irrespective of the fact whether the job may be done equally well of not with labour based methocs. 6.2. General Principles Governing the Selection of Machinery 62.1, Te will generally be necessary to have a good experience in the operation and upkeep of equipment for satis factory selection and handling. The records which have been Kept for operating and maintenance of the various types of equipment ‘and the actual output obtained under comparable conditions of previous projects will greatly assist ia this regard. The types and Fizes of equipment available to accomplish a job are in wide variety and range, and for selecting the best suited one, it would bbe advantageous to consider the following factors : (i) The equipment already available in the project may be used even though it may not be the ideal choice, ‘The heavy ownership cost involved in Keeping the availble equipment idle may. offset the jnereasd cost involved in its operation cost vis-a-vis the ideal alterative. 39 (i) The capabiities ofeach ns ofeach typeof equipment which they can work efficiently. ae Se (id The tikly out uta of exch mact site conditions. com (6) Coordination of tn of their matching of their sizes : fal expat ine and how this ie affected by the sch ines employed on aod an ‘nd peso the all th aching sak (0) Organisation avait tsntenance ofthe machines (9b ay motility of th , of the plant particu Same rgl, of th at ars for xe whee ith tobe (i) The type of work such as spave for working, ete. for the efficent operation and ‘ature of soil, haulage distance, restricted (ill) Indigenous avaitabily 6.3.1. ; : ite clearance : i clearance: The equipment suitable for_prepara- grubbing including removal of trees, : fer tractor wi ment. Other attachments ike Tooter, tumecn tres eg CDHTin® Lemoval of trees and stumps. "The drawebar horse powey ilitate rem (DHP) of the tractor 160-200 per heave cr houtd be 90-120 for light elerance and 6.3.2. Earthwork (0), For cuttin 8 earth ond oO pushing the cut materia ot ee bi nee of about 100 DHP is suitable pore naa removal of excavated rock, a larger er of 160-208 DHP would be necessary. The economie lead for ney see is about 100 m for crawl While the crecter dogettet dozer and 130 m for wheeted dezer. easy siting. fom sitet too hard but not ee - hydraulie ripper stack dozing is done. St. Ite material fo be ented it will be advantageous t are on custo rip it by the at the back of the tector Selo (2) For leads ran, [oe ing between 100. ~1000 m, a sera The scraper does the ent ee ire work of excavation,40 loading hauling and spreading by itself without the help of any ‘other equipment except perhaps a pusher tractor. Scrapers can be towed or motorised. For relatively short haul distances upto about 300 m, the crawler tractor pulling seif-loading scraper can. move earth economically. Scrapers commonly used for road works have 10-13 cu.m. heaped capacity. The tractor pulling the scraper should have 180—250 DHP. These can negotiate steeper grades, require less haul rosd maintenance and can work under more adverse conditions. (3) For longer haul distances, the low speed of the crawler tractor becomes a bottleneck, and it would be preferable to. go for self-propelled motorised scraper. Normally, motorised seraper requires pusher while loading. A heavy duty tractor of 230—300 DHP would be suitable for the purpose. One pusher jp load several scrapers, the number depending on the load~ ing time and the eycle time of the scraper. 4. Some of the aspects involved in scraper operation are : (© The scraper can excavate the materiel in layers and require © fairly Jong loading distance, (i) The serapers cam work successflly only where the material is not axed with boulders or there are go rock outerops. If the scrapers are to be used with very hard material (got rock or boulder), it willbe necessary to have the area ripped by using ripper attachment fn the crawler tractor. (iy The productivity of scraper Heavily hinges on the condition of haul roads. The haul roads shoud be firm, dusttree and should ‘ot have step gradients to be negotiated on the loaded portion of the haul eyele (iv) Secapers are generally used in groups ata location depending on the haul distance, This is fom the angle that the expenses of operating the pusher tractor at the borrow area and the levelling twactorgrader atthe Bll area are stributed over 8 Targe volume of carthwork andthe equipment are aot kep ide. (5) For leads beyond 1000 m, shovel-dumper or front end loader-dumper combination will be found suitable. Front end loaders ure either tracked or wheeled type and are economical. for @ range upto 30 m. This piece of equipment can be used for light truck/dumper loading 8s also for loading hoppers or Losders of 0 $to 2 cum. capacity are excavation, bins of hot mix plunts, made indigenously. | | 6.4. Output of F: 6.4.1, | General othe satpment rlormance of all operate ing, dumping, turning, : hee ises the time spent in the traveling. such se far siting, accelerating. ena nh eae @) In production Rot work all the 60 miautes mays Ie Be apo lates in an ho the labour and equipment do on and nValue of 4 pr for day working and 40-45 min/hr pee operation, 1€ 3 i ae ts a : 'ycle time will, therefore. need to be oe ‘ is aspect into account. Besides ce Mhereaee) dab and management factors The jot geet it H0 The jb factors wh Ste topography, avaiable merken tions, geology ofthe nee pasion of the ‘work, ete, Manag tenet of inherent inthe pb icitrentere Space, climatic condi tea creation42 (3) The output of earthmoving equipment is generally expres~ sed in terms of “bank measure” which is a measure of the soi situ. When the soil is excavated, its volume increases and it is_ in this loose state that the machines have to move the earth. The fcepacity ratings of machines, struck or heaped, relate to loose Gxeavated material. The loose volume can be converted into bank measure by applying the swell factor which is given by t 100 Swell factor = 55h epSweIT ‘The swell factor may vary from 0.75 to 0.85 depending on the type of the soil and ite compactness in-situ, 6.4.2, Bulldozer: The loose volume excavated/dozed per trip can be estimated by measuring the area of the load profile ja front of the blade and multiplying it by the blade length, The ‘output may be estimated from : (Loose volume/trip) x swell factor x 60 x efficiency Cycle time in minutes ‘Output (bank volume)jhr = — The efficiency factor in the equation has three components, namely, operator efficiency (0.6—0.9), job efficiency (0.6—0.8) and soil hard- ness, Generally manufacturers of the equipment indicate the pro- ductivity of the machines under ides! conditions, Taking the efficiency factors into wccount, it wil generally be seen that the actual productivity will be between 30 per cent (line B for poorly managed jobs) and 50 per cent (Line A for well managed jobs) of the ideal productivity, The corresponding values (Lines B and A) for dozert of 3 different capacities are clotted against haul distance upto 100 m in Fig S. Mean of the values could be adopted for planning purposes while the attempt during actual working should be to achieve productivities corresponding to Line A. 6.4.3. Serapers—General (1) Scrapers are rated according to volume capacity, struck or heaped volume, and the load capability, Two scraper bowls having the same struck capacity may bave different heaped capa- 43 nt a wor ts meoucrmny }WRe 8204 6 feat mopucrny ni Leet Fig. cities, depending upon the sie, 1 ratio of the base are; 2) A major share ling. Proper maintenanc importance for better pro sk 1srabce < wares Productivity of bulldozer of the bowl to its of cycle time for scrapers goes f pes for travel © of haul roads is therefor ductivity and reduced maintena opeine ance est44 (3) In seraper loading, the rate of filling the bow! diminishes rapidly with the quantity of already loaded material, and it will be preferable to keep the loading time to less than one minute. (4) The output can be determined from the following ‘equation : Optimum (loose) load x swell factor 60 x efciency Outpvt (bank measured)/hr = —pSer oye time ir ATES In the cycle time, the fixed time includes the time of loading and unloading (done at the first gear) turning, gear shifting, aeeclera- tion and deacceleration, all totalling to 4-5 minutes. Variables time sa function of speed of the unit und haul distance. The speed ‘Gepens on the available drawbar pull y's-a-vis the required pull which depends on rolling resistance and grade. 6.4.4. ‘Towed scraper : As in the case of dozers, the actual output will be 30-50 per cent of ideal output indicated by the manufacturers depending on the jobjoperator efficiency and, soil condition, These values are plotted (lines A and B) for scrapers of three struck capacities, viz. 9.2 cu.m., 11.5 cu.m. and 13.8 eu.m. ve Fig. 6 Average of these lines may be used for planning pur- 6.4.5. Motorised seraper (1) Motorised serapers are assisted by pusher tractor during oading operation, The combined trective effort of the scraper tractor and the pusher tractor, after allowing for resistances (grade ‘ad rolling) should be adequate to load the scraper by the desired Umount. Number of scrapers that can be served by one pusher teuetor ean be estimated by the equation : , — Total eyele time of seraper No. of serspers per pusher = Total eyele time of pusher cir a secaper loading time of 1 minute, she pusher eycle time will ‘of the order of 2-3 minutes, depending upon the scraper volume aud job conditions. 45 {me a 08 oF at, eosnony (32 ‘wou sooner cron f~ us Fig. 6. Productivity of towed seraper 2) Practical productivties of scrapers of 7, 12 an cum. bowl (struc) capacity corresponding to 30 per ent tine By and 50 per cent (Line A) of the ideal productvities are plortes against haul distance in Fig. 7. Average of the Lines A and B m: be used for planaing purposes. “| fis ‘ton emene fee, Fig. 7. Productivity of motorised seraper 6.4.6, Shovel/front end loader—dump truck (1) Shovel/front end Joader—dumper combination con be ised for picking up blasted/excavated material and dumping in fill reas, picking up materisls like moorum/gravel/sand, etc. from the sources and hauling to work site, or for digging earth from inclined faces and hauling, or hauling earth over distances beyond the economic leads of scrapers. Front end loaders by themselves san also be used for feeding hoppers of hot mix plants with aggre- utes, ee 47 2), Progustsiy of frontend faders d . end loaders depends onthe bucket ize and aol astanee, and cn be ten Lobe 50-80 pot cent. (Line Band Line A) ofthe ideal output, The corresponding produc tis or ont end once of 08 1.13 and 13cm cape Plotted in Fig. 8. The mean of lines A and B ma: or planning purposes. a Fig. 8, Productivity of front end loadeslexcavator48 (3) The excavatorjloader and the hauling units should be properly matched in size and number fer optimum working. As a ough guide, the size of huvling unit may be fixed to provide a capacity of 4'to 6 times the capacity of the loader bucket. After selecting two or three possible sizes, the number of haul units per loader as also the unit cost of handling the job are calculated for choosing the most economical alternative. (4) Sample calculations for finding the matching number of haulage units for a job of earth excavation from side-hill and dum= ping over distance of 3 km are given in Table 15. ‘ABLE 15, ShutpLs CALCULATIONS FOR EARTHWORK WITH FRONT END ” ‘Loapgn ano Dune TRUCKS DATA rdinary earth isto be excavated from sloping face. Haul distance of loading. Om. Dump tracks tonne capacky- elle Haulage for damper 3.km, Speed loaded ~ 15 km/h. Speed empty = 20 km/h. Swell factor = 0.8. CALCULATIONS city of dumper = tonne = 4.7 cum. loose. choose excavatorloader © Sable capaci" Tuscuim, (15690) whichis about one ~ fourth he Sapaciy ofthe haaling Uae 2. Productivity of loader for average of lines A.& B (Fig. 8) = 67 cum (bank) 3. Bank volume carried by track per trip = 47 0.8 = 3.76 eum. 4. Productivity of truck = 3.16 ‘Truck loading time = 236 x 60 = 34 min, 3 2 ‘Travel time (loaded) = fx 60 = 12 min. er + Became att ————— 49 6.5. Other Road Construction Equipment 6.5.1. Compaction plant (1) Whether the job is labour-based or equipment intensive, power rollers are required. For mechanisation of major highway or airfield jobs, it will be advantageous to go in for heavier and higher efficiency compaction plants in place of the traditional three wheeled static rollers, for achieving better compaction and higher productivity, (2) One such plant is the 8-10 tonne vibratory roller which is equivalent in compactive effort to 20-25 tonne static rollers. The Principle is that the vibrations imparted by the roller drum causes the particles of material to shift themselves into the tightest arrangement. This type of roller is suitable for compacting granue lar soils, granular base and sub-base materials and in the break- down rolling of bituminous mixes. Because of the higher compacting efficiency, higher degree of compaction can be achie~ ved, or a deeper lift can be constructed with the same number of asses. (3) Another specialised compaction plant is the pneumatic tyred roller which compacts by the principle of kneading action, This type of roller generally has two axles with four to nine wheels each. The wheels are arranged so that the rear ones run in the spaces between the front ones, thus leaving no ruts. The chassis of the vehicle is also a container for solid or liquid ballast. The rollers which may be towed or self-propelled can be of different weights, A 8-10 tonne capacity roller is ideally suited for com. pacting surface dressings without crushing the aggregate. As regards soil compaction, pneumatic tyred rollers will work on most types of soils except heavy clays. A heavier 40-50 tonne roller is appropriate for achieving higher densities corresponding to modic fied AASHO density as is required for airfields and also for proof rolling. (4) For compacting cohesive soils, sheepfoot roller is the suitable equipment. It can be towed or self-propelied, and the units range in weight from 2 to 20 tonnes with feet projecting. from 175 0 225 mm. Compaction starts from lower layers and proceedsso upwards and the roller is removed when the compaction is complete. The maximum depth which the roller can compact is about 5 em more than the length of the feet. (5) For optimum utilisation of the compaction plant, it is essential that the capacities of the bauling and spreading plants tnust be matched and be adequate so that none of the equipment remains idle 6.52, Watering for compaction (1) For earth compaction and eempection of simitor materials like moorum, the moisture content of the materish before compac- tion ‘will have to be adjusted so as to bring it near sbout the Sptimum moisture content, Water bound macedam construction will require a lot of water during compaction for driving in the filer material. ‘This water will have to be arranged by pumping from suitable locations and. brought to. site for sprinkling on the scilfmaterial to be compacted : (2) Usually, two types of water tankers are used, truck mounted and trailer mounted. The tankers may be of 4000-5000 litre capacity fitted with sprinkler arrengement. Where water is to be used continuously, truck-mounted tankers which have bigher travel speeds may be convenient. Trailer mounted type has the advantage that the tractor can be wsed in conjunction with 2 or 3 trailers so that the power unit does nct remain idle during filling ‘The tractor can also be put to some other use at times when water ing is not required (3) Productivity of water tankers can be calculoted from the unit capacity and cycle time. As in the case of other hauling equipment, the cycle time comprises two components, fixed time jnvoived ia filling, turning and spraying, and variable time which depends on speed and haul distance. (4) Table 16 illustrates the working of tractor-drawn water tanker for earthwork job. 6.5.3. Air compressor (1). Air compressors of 34.5 cu.m/min capacity operating & single jack hammer will be very useful for exploratory work on 31 ‘TABLE 16, SaateLe CALCULATIONS FoR Wonkino oF ‘Drawn Wartx TaNKen Ow EARTHWORK Jon oO DATA ‘Capacity of water tanker - 4000 litres Haul length for water = 2 ken Speed of tractor ~ loaded $ km/hr and empty 8 kmjhr ‘Quantity of earthwork = 60 eu m,/ay (bank volume) Swell factor for soil = 0.8 Moisture content of brow = 6% Optimum moisture content = 15% CALCULATIONS 1. Additional moistuce to be added Gacludiog 1% extra for evaporation losses) = 15-6 +1 = 10% 2 Quantity of soll catered for by one ‘round of tanker an = £000 2100 so tonnes or 25 cu m loose 3. Length of soil spread covered by one run of tanker for 2.5 m width and 250 mm loose thickness. a! . 25x Oz ~ 4m 4, Cycle time of tractor Haoltine loaded = 2x 60 = 24m : in aul tine empty 2 com 1Smin Soraping time é ee ‘Time for htching/unbitehiog tanker, turning, ete. =2min, ‘Total cycle time = 24 + 15 + 0.8 + 2 = 41.8 min 5 Productivity of tactorfhe = tivity of tractorfie = S95 4000 — 5750 ites 6. Volume of earth catered for by one tractor ~2 for by one tector ann = $5 28 x 098 = 286 xm (anh) 2. Namber of vatering Sa ace nants Ty Shon2 hill road construction. This unit can be transported by manual labour or by animals from one site to another For subsequent development work, air compressors of 6-10 cu.m/min capacity operating two jack hammers would be found suitable. (2) The output of a compressor and the air consumption of pneumatic tools are affected by altitude and humidity, while per- formance is affected by the loss of pressure in the pipelines. Adequate care should be taken to ensure that all the connections are tight and there is no leakage in the system. 6.54. Stone erushing plant : For production of aggregate, stone crushers of 400mm x 225mm and 400mm x 280 mm capable of producing 14—18 tonnesjbr are suitable. Granulators of sizes 300 mm x 175 mm and 300 mm x 100 mm are capable of yielding $—8 tonnes/hr, and are suitable for producing smaller size aggregates. For major construction jobs requiring large quantities of aggregates, it will be advantageous to install 100-150 t/hr capacity base crushers and 50—100 t/br secondary crushers. 6.5.5. Hot mix plant: Hot-mix plants of 20—30 tonne/hr or 30-45 tonne/hr capacity can be used for mechanised paving works in conjunetion with tipper trucks and paver-finisher. Generally, such plants ia one locatior can cater for 20—30 km of road on either side. For optimum working of the system, the following points need attention : (All the materials needed for the slant must be available at site in time, It will be preferable if ageregates required for atleast 15 days are stock piled at site, (i) The number of tipper trucks must be matched with the plant output. ily The work of cleaning the road surface and applying tack coat should proceed sufficiently in advance so that the paving work need not have to stop on this account. (iv) Front end loaders of adequate capacity should be employed for loading cold feed bins. Sample calculations for paving 50mm thick bituminous ‘macadam:using 30—45 tonne capacity hot-mix plant are given ia Table 17. et 10. Aggregate consumptioniday = 210 — 7.3 53 Tas 1 swan Cae Ut CaLcULarions tox Pavono SO mini BITUMINOUS MacaDast ete ee Hot-mix plant output ay Binder content of mix | ‘Compact density of layer nae ‘peed of truck—loaded 20 km/hr, empty 30 ken) ~ Stones Average haul distance for mix . ie 10 = ‘Stonnes of mix ‘ 2. Cycle time for tipper truck . ‘Haul time loaded 7 Jy * 60 = 30 min, Haul time empty 7 pr% 60=20mia, Tine fr disharig ito paver ‘Time for turning = Tow gute tine 2 min, 2 min, = 64 min 3. Productivity of tiperihe t pe = x 6 = 47 tonnes 4. Number of tippers required Provide a paver-fnisher of SO tonuejbr capacity 6. Assuming effective wor teuming effective working time of 7 hsiday, 1014.7 ~ 6.4 or say 7 = 7x 30 210 tonnes 7. Area pavediday ze : = gag egy ~ 2000 sam. oF 285 m length 8. Number of working days for plant pee) Sant 9 Bitmeacossumptiniday = 22% 3S. a a5 oan6 202.65 tonne 135 cu. (loose) —_ SE34 6.5.6. Soil stabilisation : Single pass stabilizer capable of cutting the soil to the desired depth, puiverising and mixing it with the stabiliser and luying the mix (o level and regularity in a single pass can be used for soil stabilisetion. 3. COST CALCULATIONS 7.1. General 7A. Cost calculations in roaé construction projects are necessary for the following purposes = G) Cost comparison at the task level for the different technically feasible construction methods for selecting the least cost method. ‘The costing is usually done in terme of unit costs, ie. the cost per Lnitof output, for example, cost per eu.m. of earthwork i Cost comparison for the choice of pavement materials. For ‘example, prospecting of aggreget:s froma quarry may involve higher inital installation cost but lower haulage cost compared to fanother alternative, Similarly comparison may be required for the lise of permissible but poorer locally available pavement material which has to be used in larger thickness vis-a-vis better materiel availabe from longer distances i) Costing of the total job forthe preparation of financial estimates for processing and sanction by the appropriate authorities, 7.1.2. For all the purposes mentioned above, the starting point will be the unit cost. The unit cost of a task can be calculated by multiplying the input coeflicient for the resources performing the task by the rate for the resource. The rate is the cost of the resource per unit of time, e.g. per hour or per day, except in the case of construction materials when it is the cost per cu.m. tonne, etc, If two or more resources are involved in the task, the product of input coefficient and rate should be calculated separately for each item and the products added. 7.2. Costing of Labour-based Methods 7.2.1. Tables 4 through 9 give the input coefficients for different labour-based activities as derived from the World Bank Study. The input coefficients are ir terms of working time in ‘ours, and their reciprocals give the output per man-hour (working ime). ‘The output per man-day can be calculated by knowing the working hours in a day which may be 5.5—6 hours for daily-paid wage system and 8 hours for the incertive piecework system. 55 122. The cost of unit out i / it output of an activity can be computed by multiplying the input coeicieot and the vate per working hour, The rate for daily paid labour which ison day basis is governed by statutory minimum wages. The day wage can be. converted ito wong hourly wate by dvdng he forme by te eect orking hours in a day, For example, uni excavatic be calculated as follows : le unit cost of excavation ean Tapa coticent ord. ti, atypia ator Tae) 0.8 manjhr (WTjeu.m) ‘Working hours in @ day = Ghee Wage rate = Rs day Working hourly rate = 6(6 = Ret Cost of activity = 08 x = Rs 0.8/eum, Output per labourer x 6 = 75 cum/day 123. For tasks involviog more th Inbour, animal cart, ete:, the unit cost foreach resource : ete, the unit cost foreach resource calested and added tpi for nding te tol oi con An sample of excavation, loading, hauling and unloadin; “va animal cart is illustrated below ; * — Excitation nt oie Loncing ipa veto (eit of aoe 130) Eraion + Lodng Input costco for tg and Chong ty anna ot ceed = 075 eat ico. cee 2 keimeqwn Carnie sive Rar Uso ow esc = Re 17cm Unio Tens 3=maseum i cont ot ak UR 225 = Re doscam, = 08 man-hrjeu.m. = 098 man-hrjeum. 1.78 man-hejou.m 7.3. Costing of Equipment-intensive Methods 7.3.1. The cost of using capi it is i Pe teen pital equipment is usually divided () Ownership charges relating to the cost of the equipment brought to site spread over the expected wor Hegforend over the expected working hous during i ie il itl56 Repair charges. : ) Running charges which include wages of operators and cost of POL. ete. x) Overhead charges. ‘The usually accepted norms for calculating the usage charges of ‘equipment are given in Table 18. ‘Taste 18, Nowus ton CatcuaTing Ustot CHanots oF MacHINEs es 1. OWNERSHIP CHARGES 1 A otal investment at se of work . © Gain ates Sat of Sguipment, sais tax, kelse and other dues, ranoport expenses consisting of freight insurance, oadlog/u- feuding, ereton’snd commisioning) (B) Deduct salvage value @ 15% of A oo (©) Total investment to be depreciated a (© Ezoamiie ofthe maine ork ho) — AE WP ‘Tons from 10,000 10 15,000 hrs ae (© Depreciation per hour -§€ : 085.4 For the case of 10,000 brs = 384 0.085 A (F Storage charges (19 of E) anes. 08585 4 (©) Total owsership charges = E + F - IL REPAIR CHARGES . (i) Repsiecharges per hour nelading msstenanee yy C_ 12H ‘and replacement of tyres i 11335 A = “fo,000 IIL, HIRE CHARGES = G +H aivia- fixed hie charges per hour canbe directly computed. by Note + Tie Fis tne the investment cox by the useful ie ia hour IV, RUNNING CHARGES: (a) Diese! oil consumption BHP x load factor (0.6) x 05 , 3.785 titres/hour eee TA, ‘= 0.154 x BHP litres/hour (Approx) 7 (©) Lubricating it consumption BHP x 06 x 0006 © % 3.785 litresjhour Where C = 0.06 x BHP {t= time for changing oil = 100 brs (© Other lubricants, grease, cotton waste ete. are essumed to cost twice the {0st of lubricating oil in the case of heavy machinery and the some cea in the case of omhess. . z (@) Wages for operating staff—For staf on regular strength, the annual wages is divided by the aanual utilisation in hours in a year V. OVERHEAD CHARGES ‘Taken a3 5% ofthe total charges per hour, Notes: 1. Repair charges (H) taken as equal {0 150 per cent of depreciation rele the average for oth sheeted ang Rocked eee resales together. “This ean also be calculated in ope suber ways eg eS feparatiog out the cost of replacement tres and the hea ae for other stems : ee oo The diese ol consumption depends on the condition and age of the cand “the eaustion given inl (3) for eeraee eect Te load factor for diferent machines also varies see Tees, 04 represents average conditions, ‘The oil ecesims 3. Interest charges have not been added in the calculations. ‘These Will however, have tobe included where a machines wives out SS contractors or for economic analysis, 73.2. The usage charges for some of the commonly used earth moving equipment are worked out in Table 19. For ‘equipment too, the charges can be computed on similar lines 1 other Comparison of Cost of Road Construction Jobs by Different Methods 7.4.1. The following cases of earthwork have been taken to illustrate cost comparison : (@ Skort haul of 20 m (a) Labour intensive method of headbasket (®) Equipment intevsive method using 90 HP dozer il) Long haul of 3 km (@) Manual excavation, loading, aulig by gat-ba truck and manual ‘unloading/spreading, d :$9 (b) 1.15 cum. bucket loaderlexcavator, tipper trucks Usnor Cuanots ror Some EARTHMOVING EQUIPNGNT ‘Taste 19, [eel a for hauling and spreading by 90 HP dozer. : ‘The calculations for the labour and equipment methods are given 4 in Tables 20 and 21 below Ss ga 8 z / i i 2 | e.8 3 ; z\bel-j2 sec] & { ‘Tanue 20, Cost oF EARTHWORK BY MANUAL METHODS B\é 5 ' a \ ge Bq ———— EG epee he A. SHORT HAUL om) 2 | 88 | lad ‘The sume case as worked out ia Table 1 is taken, ae Be “The productivity for a gang of 20 persons ~ 15.5 cu m/br }He|-\e 822] 9 3 = 12h eusmiday \ ae t [sal pieconorer etn about wie See ea 2 & nat of a daily paid worker. Assuming = 12357 = Re? | 3 the daily earnings as Rs 12/day cost per | ee | fourm (bank measure) Se eae | zs B. LONG HAULG km gt? ‘te sae cate as worked out in Table 12s taken ges ale eceltgs ¢ | “The productivity of a gang of 22 men plus one 5-t ig \ zi fated truck was 36 cu.n/day. 8 | 222 | Wages for Labour == 22 x 12 = Re 264jday ied oie ae clae te | Usage charges for truck = Rs SO[hr a eg |ehge | for 8 working hrs, = Red0 & 2820 . is 2.)a888 | coat per eum, (bank measure) = 654/95 = Ks 18st 3 go 24/5 58 P ' poe fe lcs ——————————— & «|= 22 43 /$ 823 & 3 Elakee i [Note The cost figures do_ not take into account incidental expenses suchas a oreo é 3 [|S o8= Bec stber mobiinion, roviton of hell, travel ad. tecoms Paddles « t {hodation faites to labour, small tools and plant, tc. Also, it should BElB BE] - ‘be understood that the unit wage rate assumed is Only for the purposes : i ttthis example, andthe actual prevalingistatutory wage rates sho -~\jaa «4 [8 4 bbe applied for actual cases. sd aed are ea© 60 “Taoue 21. Cost oF EARTHWORK ay Bauipwaner — Invasive Met#09 ‘SHORT HAUL 20m) Job details Excavation in ordisary soil by dozer + and hauling/spreacing at an effective haul distance of 30m: Equipment £90 BHP Dozer Productivity ‘Taken as mean of lines A and B Gverage conditions in Fig. $ \ Calculations, Productivity of dozer = 80 cu.mjhr (from Fig. 5) Usage charges for dozer = Rs 190/hr (from Table 19 Cost per cum, = 190)80 = Rs 24 B, LONG HAUL G km) 7 ) "The. stme case as worked out in Table 15 is considered. The productivity ‘of 1.15 tan fuadetencavator and 8 tipper teucks wil be 67 co mfr Usage charges for loader Rs 168 Usage charges for 8 trucks Bay = Reson Cost of spreading (using aR 50 HP Dozer) Total usage cost/he = Rs 862 ‘Cost per eum = 852/67 = Rs 12.9 ren Ce ‘The picture emerging is : . Costjcv.m (bank measure) Rupees | raat 20m =| Hau! 3 km (i) Labour method 20 18.4 Equipment method he | 29 This would show that while the labour methods will be generally cheaper for shorter hauls, equipment methods would be more economical for longer hauls. 7.4.2. As discussed in detail in the earleir sections, each method hae its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice has to be judicious taking all the factors into account. Whatever be the method chosen, the objective should be to look for measures for improving the productivity through organisational and mana~ gerial measures. While motivation of a large labour force for improved productivity will be a crucial factor for labour methods, for equipment intensive methods it will be better training of operators and prompt and better maintenance facilities for the equipment.