PERFORMANCE EXECUTION comMUNITY FRAMEWORK ESSENTIAL The Global Supply Chain Forum of The Ohio State University has identified eight processes that form the foundation of supply chain success. The challenge is to integrate these e processes both internally and externally with key partners in the supply chain. Two of those key processes — customer relationship management and supplier relationship manage ment — help companies accomplish this integration and realize the revenue and profitability gains that inevitably follow. 1B Surpiy Ciisiy MANAceMEN® ReviEW - SrPreMmen 2004SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT PROCESSES ...... uccessful supply chain management requires cross-functional integration of key business processes within the firm and across the network of firms that comprise the supply chain. It is focused on relation ship management and the performance improvements that result. In many compa nies, however, executives struggle to achieve the necessary integration and, consequently, the resulting improvements. The problem is that they don't fully linkages necessary to in Drawing from work done by The Global Supply Chain Forurn, this article identifies the eight pro irate those processes. sses that need to bbe managed and integrated for successful supply chain man agement. (For more on the Global Supply Chain Korum, see the sidebar on p. ) Two of these processes provide the linkages required chain members to coordinate the other processes. These two bey lil and supplier relationship management (SRM to facilitate integration among the supply s are customer relationship management (C By understanding the key supply chain management processes—and recognizing why and how they should be integrated—supply chain managers can successfully position heir companies for higher revenues and profitability Just What Is Supply Chain Management? Before proceeding, i’ important to define supply chain mary agement because there’ still « great deal of confusion over Douglas M. Lamberts the Raymond E, Mason Chair in Transportation and Logisties and Director of The Global Supply Chain Forum at the Fisher College of Business, The Ohio State University. This article is adapted from his new bi hk Supply Chain Management; Processes, Partnersh (Supply Chain Management Institute, 2004) mation, visit wwesem-institute.org. For more infor the term. Many people consider it to be synonymous with logisties 0 suppliers. Others view supply chain mana the new name for purchasing or operations ion of purchasing, operations, and logisties. Inereasi uustomers and ment (SCM) as or the combi with logisties that also includes however, executives in leading companies are recognizing supply chain management as the management of relation They view SCM in terms of ships aeross the supply chain Dusiness process excellence the business and the relationships with other members of the supply chain In this article, we adopt the following definition of SCM, developed by the Global Supply Chain Forum: Supply chair integration of key business processes from ened user through original suppliers that provides products, ser n that add value for customers and other vices, and infor stakeholders This view of supply chain management is illustrated in Exhibit 1. I depicts the following: « simplified supply chain network structure of a manufacturer with wo tiers of cus tomers and two tiers of suppliers; the related information and product flows: and the eight supply chain management processes that must be implemented within organizations across the supply chain, All of the processes are ceass-fune tional and cross-organizational in nature. Further, as the ceshibit illustrates, every organization in the supply chain needs to be involved in the implementation of those process at the top, which can work against this integration. In reality, of course, a supply chain is much more com: plex than the row of silos depicted in Exhibit 1, For a com pany in the middle of the supply chain, the supply chain looks more like atv uprooted twee (see Exhibit 2) where the roots represent the supplier network and the branches rep resent the customer network, Moreover, the supply chain will look differently depending on a company’s position in it. For example, in the case of a retailer, like Wal-Mart, the Suprty Cuaiy Masaceanst Review» Seerewmen 2004 29‘Supply Chain Management Players and Processes Ter? Suter Tier ‘Sonate ‘Spy Chan Managemen Process wee Ad Dv M Lanter, Marta Gaps at Js. ah Si Chl Marana: emer sean earch Oran: intra ura Logis Haupt 9, 211998), 5. 2. end consumers would also he the “tier-1 customers” next to the dark square in the center (indicating the focal company, Wal-Mart). Managing the entire supply chain—that is, managing all suppliers back to the point of origin and all products/services ‘out to the point of consumption—can be a daunting task. ‘most executives tend to focus on managing their su chains to the point of consumption, The reasoning h that whoever has the relationship with the end user power in the supply chain. Inte, for examp! Lionship with the end user by having computer manufaetur crs place an “Intel inside" label on their eomputers. This posi tioning also affects the computer manufacturer's ability to switch mieroprocessor suppliers. Yet while most of the focus to date has been downstream, opportunities exist to signifi cantly improve profits by managing the upstream supplier network as well At the end of the day, a supply chain is managed link by link, relationship by relationship. And the key linkages i all of these activities are formed by the customer relation ship management (CRM) process of the seller organization and the supplier relationship management (SRMI) process of the buyer organization, CRM and SRM are the tools the supply chain manager uses to bring the eight key processes together. the created a rela ‘The Eight Key SCM Processes Successful supply chain management requires a change from ‘managing individual fun jig a set of integrated many leading corporations, management has processes. 20 Surrty Cuaiy Maxscemenr Rrvirw - Serrimere 2004 concluded that they cannot ine produet flows wi st imple rm process approach to the busi ness. Yet while several authors have suggested imple menting business processes in the context of supply chain ‘management, there is not yet an “industry standard” on what these processes should be. The value of having stan- dard business processes in place is that managers from forganizations across the sup- ply chain can use a common language and can link up their companies’ processes ‘with those of the other supply chain members “The eight key supply chain management processes iden: tified by members of The Global Supply Chain Forum (as shown in Exhibit 1) are: Customer relationship management, Customer service management Demand management Order fulfillment Manufacturing flow management. Supplier relationship management Product development and commercialization, Gustomer Relationship Management. The CRM process provides the structure for how relationships with customers are developed and maintained. Through this process, man: ‘agement identifies key customers and customer groups to be targeted as part of the firm's business mission. ‘The goal is to segment customers based on their value over time and to increase customer loyalty by providing customized products and services appropriate to the particular value proposition, Leaders in this process create eross-Funetional customer teams to tailor product and service agreements (PSA) that meet the needs of key accounts and customer segments and document how the two firms will engage in business. The PSAs specify levels of performance for the firm. They also provide the basis for performance reports that measure the profitability of individual customers as well as the fir Financial impact on the customer's financial performance CRM teams will then work with key customers to improve processes and eliminate demand variability and nonvalue: added activities ‘Customer Service Management, The customer service management process represents the company’s face to the customer. [tis the key point of contact for administering thecxworr2 ‘The Supply Chain Network Structure | Ter 310 Teste | ini) Tier Ter Tere Comumers_| Sapaies Supplies Suppers Custamers Customers End Uses 1 Foca! Conpany i) Members ofthe Fos! Companys Surly Chain Seurce: aged to Das Lanter, Marts Cae Jae D Pa “Suey Ca Mangere nomena sad Rare pares” The erator! dora of LepoesManeen WL 9 Ne 2198 8.3 PSAs developed by customer teams during the customer rele tionship management process. Customer service provides the customer with real-time information on promised shipping dates and product availability through interfaces with such funetional areas as manufacturing and logistics. The cus tomer service process may also include assisting the customer with produet applic Demand Management. Demand management is the process that balances customer requiements with supply chain capabilites. With the right process in place, manage- ment can match supply with demand proactively and execute the plan with minimal disruptions. It is important to note that this process is not limited to forecasting, Italo includes synchronizing supply and demand, increasing flexibility, and reducing variability. Demand management entails controlling, allof those practices that inerease demand variably, includ, ing end-of-quarter loading and terms of sale that encourage volume buys. A good demand management system uses, point-of-sale and key customer data to reduce uncertainty and provide efficient flows throughout the supply chain, It alo effectively coordinates marketing requirements and pro- duction plans Order Fulfillment. ‘This supply chain process involves more than just filling orders. It also encompasses all activities necessary to define customer requirements, design a net- work, and enable a firm to meet customer requests while minimizing the total delivered cost. While much of the actual order fulfillment work will be performed by the logisties fune- tion, the process needs to be implemented cross-funetionally and coordinated with key suppliers and customers. The objective is to develop a seamless system from the supplier to the firm, and then on to the various customer segments. Manufacturing Flow Management, Manufacturing flow management includes all activities necessary to obtain, implement, and manage manufacturing flexibility in the sup ply chain and to move products through the plants. The abil ty to make a wide variety of products in a timely manner at the lowest possible cost is a reflection of this process. To ichieve the desired manufacturing flexibility level, planning and execution must extend beyond the four walls of the man, ufacturer and out 10 the supply chain partners Supplier Relationship Management. The SRM process provides the structure for how relationships with suppliers are developed and maintained, As the name suggests, this process is a mieror image of customer relationship manage- ment. And as is the case for CRM. it involves developing close relationships with a small subset of suppliers based on the value that these suppliers bring to the firm over time, Note that these are long-term relationships that provide win- win outcomes for both parties. For each key supplier, the Firm should negotiate a product and service agreement that defines the terms of the relationship. For less critical suppli ers, the firm should follow the more traditional approach of simply providing the PSA, which in most cases would be non-negotiable. In shoet, supplier relatos about defining and managing these PSAs. Product Development and Commercialization. This sup- ply chain management process provides the structure for working with customers and suppliers to develop products and bring them to market. Effective implementation of this process not only enables management to coordinate the eff cient flow of new produets across the supply chain but also helps other members of the supply chain to ramp up manu- facturing, logistics, marketing, and other activities necessary to suppoct product commercialization. A product develop- ment and commercialization process team would work with CRM process teams to identify customer needs (both artcu: The Global Supply Chain Forum | The Global Supply Chain Forum of The Ohio State University group of noncompetig firms and a team of acad- temic researchers that has been meeting regulary singe 1992 The group's objective isto improve the theory and practice of supply chain management. The member companies of the Global Supply Chain Forum are 3M, Cargil, The Coca-Cola Company, Colgate-Palmotve Company, Defense Logistics Agency, Hewlett-Packard Company, International Paper, Limited Brands, Lucent Technologies, Masterfoods USA, Moen Inc, Shell Global Solutions International B.V., Taylor Made-adidas Golf Company, and Wendy's International Scrrewnen 2004 21 hip manage Surety CHaly Masscement Reviewiculated), with the SRM process teams to select materials and suppliers, and with the manufacturing, flow management process team to develop production tech- nology appropriate to the product/market combination. Returns Management. Returns management is the process by which activities associated with returns, reverse logistics, “gatekeeping,” and return avoidance are managed within the Firm and across key members of the supply ehain. Avoidance which is a key part of this process, involves finding ways to minimize the number of return requests. It ean include ‘ensuring that the produe’s quality and user friendliness are at the highest attainable level before the product is sold and shipped. Avoidance could also entail changing promotional programs that load the pipeline when there is no realistic chance that the product shipped will be sold. Properly imple- mented, then, the returns management process enables firms not only to manage the reverse product flow efficiently but also to identify opportunities to reduce unwanted returns and to control reusable assets such as containers. Effective returns management is an important part of SCM and pro- vides an opportunity to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. Each of the eight supply chain management processes has both strategic and operational elements—that is, a strategie clement in which the firm establishes and strategically man- ages the process and an operational element in which the firm executes the process. The strategic elements should be led by a management team comprised of representatives from multiple functions including marketing and sales, finanee, procluction, purchasing. logisties, and research and develop. ‘ment. This team is responsible for developing the procedures at the strategic level and secing that they are implemented. ‘The strategic team also identifies how the external partners will be integrated into the supply chain. ‘The operational component of each process, where the day-to-day activities take place, is exceuted by the managers within each funetion- al area Exhibit 3 shows how the business functions within the organization provide input to the eight supply chain manage ment processes. In the customer relationship management process, for example, marketing and sales provides the account management expertise, engineering provides the specifications, logisties provides knowledge of logistics and customer service capabilities, manufacturing provides the ‘manufacturing capabilites, purchasing provides knowledge of supplier ° ance provides customer prof itabilty reports, Customer service requirements must be fac- tored into the manufacturing, sourcing, and logisties inputs. Customers and suppliers are shown as bookends on the exhibit to reinforce the point that each of these processes, to be properly implemented, requires the involvement of cus tomers and suppliers CRM and SRM: The Critical Linkages Customer relationship management and supplier relation- ship management provide the critieal linkages throughout Functional Input to the Supply Chain Process ‘Business Fantini Business Processes ¥ Ges eerie Martina cos Capabilities coomiles ‘rettly ter Sere a ae Sa Canute arse” Anan Serge Sorieniom —Esrdon Armen’ Sere WS@ESEE DSEESUSS EISSES! iesueaEs HeaTres aeken jee CR eee ne Peer ee ee J wnt row ee, "ace gt Mice Manogenee : és oo . cones, Mie mies Peers Pree Feseaey fee | ‘Management Booking Planning Copaiities Delivered Cost | Peat * fs re re : = | RAD COR ——— eS eS Se I seenene] EEITTEE! sSRESERS CGMRSERE saEamUE 22 Suemiy CHAIN MANAGEMENY Review - Seeremeen 2004Processes the supply chain. As depicted in Exhibit 4, for each supplier in the supply chain the ultimate measure of success of the CRM process is the change in profitability of an individual ‘customer or segment of customers. For cach customer, the true measure of success of the SRM process is the impact that a supplier or supplier segment makes on that customer's profitability. (Note that in eases where commodities or tundifferentiated components are being bought for inclusion in another product, it makes more sense to do a total cost report than a specific profit-and-loss statement for each commodity/component.) The goal is to increase the joint profitability by developing the relationship. Accordingly, the ‘overall performance of the supply chain is determined by the combined improvernent in profitability of all members from fone year to the next CRM and SRM:The Critical Linkages PSL TtslCon PSL PHL PRL RL ras “Report Gr Bas forCas forhas for Bas Cantomer forDesGantorer Supplier Customer Supplier Stier Ler’s begin by considering the CRM linkage. Companies typically spend large sums of money to attract new cus tomers. Yer these same companies often are complacent when it comes to nurturing and strengthening relationships with existing customers? In most eases, however, existing customers represent the best opportunities for profitable growth, In fact, studies show strong, direct relationships between profit growth and customer loyalty, customer s faction, and the value of goods delivered to customers. CRM provides the structure for leveraging sand evaluating the prof ability—and potential profitability — ‘customers. Acting on this cross-functional customer tcams can tailor product and service agreements to meet the needs of key accounts and customer segments.+ PSAs document how the two firms will engage in business. or key customers, the PSAs are cus tomized; for segments of other customers, standard values are lement of the agreement. PSAs come in many Fors, both formal and informal, ancl may be referred to by different names from company to company. To achieve the desired results, however, they need to be formalized as writ of the used for each, documents. 3M, for example, has comprehensive, written PSAs that include the following: contact information includ: ing name, title, telephone numb both 3M and the customer representatives: all of the detai and e-mail address for 24 Surriy Cuats MaNaceMENT Revitw + Serremecn 2004 lated to transportation including deliveries, order mini ‘mums, driver instructions, will-calls, and appointments; bill cof-lading instructions: pallets to be used: purchase-order con- firmations; ordet-status information; details related to pricing inquires; availabilty of market-developmes Funcls; marketing promotional allowances; acceptability of back orders and how they will be handled: and contract terms. Supplier relationship management is the mirror image of customer relationship management. Remember that all sup, pliers are not the same. Some contribute more to a firm's profitability than others. It’s important to have cross-func- tional teams that interact closely with these high contribu tors, The strategic relationship should be led by a manage ment team responsible for developing strategies and seeing that they are implemented. At the operational level, teams are established far each key supplier and for each segment of rnonkey, or less critical, suppliers. These teams are comprised fof managers from several functions, including marketing, finance, R&D, production, purchasing, and logistics. While employees iho are not members of the SRM teams may be involved in executing the activities, the teams maintain over- all managerial control of the process. (The same holds true for the CRM process.) Given the current emphasis on business ethies, both the CRM and SRM teams need to have an agreement up front ton what types of data will he shared. Teams need to be mind: ful of the fine line between using process knowledge vs. using specific competitive marketing knowledge gained from a customer or supplier. In a similar vein, individuals should not be put in a position where they are working on teams involving competing suppliers or customers. ‘The reason: It's just too difficult to keep the two sets of relationships and PSA discussions separate and distinet (Supply chain managers should note that CRM and SRM themsehes have seven subprocesses, which are not addressed These subprocesses are differentiating cus: in this article Profitability reports that capture all costs and revenue implications of a relationship are the key to tracking supply chain process improvements over time. tomerssuppliers: preparing the aecount/segment management team intemally reviewing details related to the business con ducted; identifying opportunities For sales growth, cost reduc tion, and service impaoverents; developing the product and service ageet enting the product and service ‘agreements; and measuring performance and generating prot itabilty reports and total cost reports appropriate) tn adlition to inking partners across the supply chain, the CRM and SRM processes coordinate each of the other six processes, Any improvements made in these processes arereflected in customer and supplier profitability reports. For example, if the CRM and SRM teams identify an opportunity to improve performance by focusing on demand management they inform the demand management process teams from the ‘so companies. If those teams do improve the demand man agement process, then product availability improves—which increases revenue for the customer and the supplier. In addi tion, better demand planning could reduce inventories, thereby lowering the inventory carrying cost charged to the customer's profitability report. There also may be fewer last-minute pro- duction changes and less expediting of inbound materials, which will decrease the costs assigned to each customer. For these improvements to be realized, measurements must be in phice to motivate and compensate team members. Having accurate customer profitability reports is the key to tracking these kinds of process improvements. These reports nab the CRM process teams to track performance overtime ss all of the supply chain processes. Good profitability reports reflect all of the cost and revenue implications of the relationship. Variable manufacturing costs are deducted from net sales to calculate a manufacturing contribution. Next, vari able marketing and logisties costs, such as sales commission transportation, warehouse handling, special packaging, order processing, and account receivable charges, are deducted to caleulate a contribution margin. Assignable nonvariable costs, such as salaries, customer-related advertising expenditures, slotting allowances, and inventory carying costs, are subtract ced to obtain a segment-controllable margin. The net margin is obtained afier deducting a charge for dedicated assets. These statements contain opportunity costs for investment in receiv les and inventory as well asa change for dedicated assets, In this sense, they are much closer to cashflow statements than a traditional profit-and:-loss (P&L) statement Sysco, a $23.4 billion food distributor, began implement ing profitability reports by customer in 1999 with great suc cess, These reports have enabled management to make strategie decisions about the allocation of resources to accounts. The five-year cumulative annual growth rate (CAGR) for the period 1999 to 2003 was 11.3 percent for sales and 19.1 percent for net earnings. As shown in Exhibit 5, net earnings growth impreved sharply alter the profitability reports were implemented. One Success Story Management should work to implement process improve- ments that increase the profitability of the total supply chain, rot just that of a single firm. This means encouraging actions that benefit the entire supply chain while, at the same time, ‘equitably sharing the risks and the rewards. Its especially important to develop clear guidelines for sharing the rewards, IF any one of the parties perceives that it’s not gaining any thing from the process improvement efforts, it will be diffi cult to obtain that party's full eo The CRM and SRM teams must quantify the henefits of process improvements in financial terms. Cargill, a partici ‘Sysco Sales and Earnings History Sale Net Earnings (Bion) ‘ions 30 [Searcace: 00 Sales = 11 3%, Net Eatriegs = 19.9% ‘00 2 | rovearcace: | Ses = 10.19, Net Eatriegs = 1859% 0 20 | 20vearcace: 600 Ses = 146%, Net tries = 16.0% 35 | sa “ les — Net Earnings 400 10 300 200 5 100 ° ° m7 Ss Mw ‘Shes Ne Th ret Su CMe Sy Co pating member of the Global Supply Chain Forum, offers a szood example of how this can be done effectively. This inter- national provider of food and agricultural products worked with a key customer to develop a method for sharing supply chain benefits that incorporated these elements: © An agreement in principle on a far allocation of bene Fits. (Should it he 50/50, 60/40, or some other breakdown: A timelzame For benefit sharing. (Should it be for the life of the agreement, for five 4 A decision on what benefits/eosts to include A fair approach to handling capital expenditure costs. An accurate baseline to use as a starting point for mea suring savings. A common process to measure value captured A benefit review and approval procedures. A mechanism to accrue andl transfer value (where, how. how often, and so forth) A methodology review The process improvement teams from both companies agreed that benefits derived from supply cha must be explicitly recognized in supply chain project out comes (for example, reduced freight, lower inventory-earrying costs, and reduced transaction costs). Additionally, these benefits must be in excess of a predetermined baseline for each area. ‘They further agreed that the costs to be consid cred should (1) directly relate to recommended supply initiatives (capital costs, transaction costs, system-related costs, and so forth); (2) the addition or deletion of full-time cemployees (not the increase oF decrease in the workload of existing employees): (3) be greater than an agreed mum dollar amount; and (4) be fully documented. ‘The two companies decided that a 50/50 split of henefits was in keep. ing with the overall partnership. Plus, they felt that this arrangement would motivate both parties to maximize the “opportunities while acknowledging that neither party could have achieved the savings without the other. Fs, oF reassessed annually?) SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGkMNE Rivinw © Seevesteen 2004 25Processes Cargill's management believed that it was important to iden- tify the range of the expectations that each team brought to the project. This would help both parties reach agreement on reals nd mutually beneficial objectives in such arcas as process iy, growthiprofit stability, costs savings, improved cus vice, organizational alignment, and metrics The key lessons learned from Cargill's experience ean be summarized as follows: 1 Gain sharing agreements need to be determined at the ‘outset so that it doesn't undermine the accomplishment of the joint objectives, '& Working between intemal business units is challenging enough. When you add Hrading partners, the challenge intensifies because of issues of trust, culture, process, and systems eapa © Skeptics abound: and management support 1 Partnerships work: they may take a while to develop. but they work. Once trust is established, both parties will find many opportunities to learn from each other. = Exeryone involved in this initiative enhanced their knowledge and capabilities, which will prove advantageous in future initiatives, As reflected in the Cargill ewample, the customer relation ship management and supplier relationship management processes do a number of important things at the strategic level, Specifically, they identify customer and supplier seg, ments, provide criteria for categorizing customers and suppli crs, provide teams with guidelines for customizing product and service offerings, develop a framework for metrics, and offer guidelines for sharing process improvement benefits. At the operational level, these processes mainly focus on writing, and implementing the product and service agreements to the mis c res focused leadership How Are You Doing? Research among the participants of the Global Supply Chain Forum shows that successful supply chain management requires the integration of eight key business processes: both internally and externally with key members of the supply chain, When that necessary integy insufficient, resources are wasted and supply chain perfor- ce suffers. Failure to implement those cross-functional business processes can also result in missed opportunities and poor decisions, The following real-life example illustrates the point. A manufacturer of consumer durable goods imple mented a rapid delivery system that provided retailers with deliveries in 24 to 48 hours anywhere in the United States ‘The system was designed to enable the retailers to improve service to their consumers while holding less inventory and 26 Surriy CHAIN MANAGEMENT Review » Sreremnen 2004 thus improving per-unit profitability. Six years later, the man tufacturer had not seen the anticipated inventory reductions and reduced the service promise to 48 to 72 hours. Yet the reason that the rapid delivery system never achieved its full potential was that the manufacturer's sales and marketing organization was still providing, customers with incentives to buy in large volumes.> Obviously. the business processes of this company were not integrated anc! coordinated. This example should make it clear that failure to manage all the touches between supply chain partners will diminish the impact of any supply chain initiative. Conversely, imple- menting the eight supply chain management processes increases the likelihood of suecess bec wel as all key customers and suppliers—will be involved in the initiatives planning and implementation, This was cor roborated at the Spring 2004 meeting of The Global Supply Chain Forum, which featured a series of breakout sessions devoted to the topic, “The Supply Chain of the Future.” At the end of the day, the group concluded that if an organiza- mn successfully implement all eight of the proc have reached that supply chain of the future and be able tw respond to whatever challenges the business might face Has your company successfully integrated the cross-fune: tional business processes described in this article? If the answer is anything less than an unqualified yes, then you're not creating the most value for your shareholders and your supply chain partners. The time for action is now all Funetions—as tion Authors note: The author would like to acknonledge the conte- bution of the members of The Global Supply Chain Forum at The Ohio State University whose practice, insight, ideas, and comments have conteihuted significantly to this article. 5D Footnotes Lambert, Douglas M., and Terrance L. Pohlen. “Supply Chain Metrics." The International Journal of Logistics Management Vol. 12, No. 1 (2002): pp. 1-29. 2parry, Leonard |, and AA. Parasuraman, "Marketing to Existing Customers," Marketing Services: Competing Through Quality. Now Vork, NY: The Free Press, 1993, p12. Heskett, James L., W. Earl Sassser, and Leonard A. Schlesinger. The Service Profit Chain, New Vork, NY: The Free Press, 1997, p-12. Seybold, Patricia 8. "Get Inside the Lives of Your Customers.” Harvard Business Review Vol. 78, No. 5 (2001): pp.1-17. SLambert, Douglas M. and Renan Burduroglu, “Measuring and Selling the Value of Logistics.” The International Journal of Logistics Management Vol. 11, No. 1, (2000): pp. 1-17,