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1 j 7
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.8 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.9 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.10 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2 - 51
2.1 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.4 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.8 j j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3 j 123
3.1 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.4.2 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.4.3 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

3.5.3 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.6.2 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.8 J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

4 175
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.3 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.7 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.8 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.12.2 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.13.2 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.13.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.15 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

Bibliografija 261

Indeks 263

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P= , (1.11)

28
Entropy: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/16-2-entropy/

24


j j . , j ()
() j (1.11) j (S = kB ln ). ,
j, j j , j
. 1 j j (1 )
( ), 1 = 1 , j
:
1 1
S = kB ln , P = . (1.12)

j j j
j .
, j ,
, -
. j ? ,
j, ,
.

j j .
20. j -
j . . jj
j 1907. j j (
),
( ). j 29 1908. .
j 1963. ,
j , j j .
j
, j . j
. j j j j,

j .
,
j ,
j j. j
, ,
. jj j j
j jj (. )
. j , j
. j j
j () j .
j , j j
. , jj j j j
(j ), j,
j j j
. j ,
, j j j .
j , .
29
Max Planck (1858-1947), .

25


j () j j
. j
() j
j ,
j. j
j.
j j 30 j
j:
1
E = E0 , = , (1.13)
2
1 vc2
E0 j E j v.
c = 3 108 m/s .
j j j:
1 v2 1 1 v2
=1+ + ..., =1 + ..., (1.14)
2 c2 2 c2
, j
v c. j
j Ek = 21 m0 v 2 + . . . , j
E = E0 + Ek , (1.15)
j j m0 = E0 /c2 .
j , . , T
j j () v

T = T0 , (1.16)
j T0 j j. , j
(E) j (E0 ) (Ek ). j j
j, ()
j. , j, j
Q = Q0 , (1.17)
Q Q0 j. Q
j, j j j.
j, j (1.9) j
S = S0 /, (1.18)
j S0 j, j j (1.13).
j j .
j j j . ,
j j (1.5) j j j
,
j . j
j (1.10)
(1.16). j jj
, j.
30
j.

26


1.5
(1.16) j . -
( 1.7). j (,
700 nm) j (, 400 nm) .
- , j,
,
j.

Slika 1.7: .

j j
. j f , j j
j j31 cz = f . j
j j j .
32 0 j f0 , j
v j ,
j , :

1 + vc 1 vc
= 0
, f = f0

, (1.19)
1 vc 1 + vc

, .
c = 3 108 j . +
, j:

< 0 < + , (1.20)

j v > 0. ( ) (-
) j:
1 0
l = ( + + ) = . (1.21)
2 1 v2
c2

j j
, ()
0
t = . (1.22)
v2
1 c2
31
cz j 1500, 340, 0 .
32
- .

27


, j.
. ,
.
j , j
, j
j (j j
). , j
, - .
j - j
j ,
, , j j
. , j j
j j .
(j) -
j, ( j
) j j . ,
(1.21), -
(1.22),
, j j.

1.5.1 (j ). t t0
j
t = t0 , (1.23)
j = (1 v 2 /c2 )1/2 , v j .

. j j j
. , j
(r1 , t1 ) (r2 , t2 ) ,
r = r2 r1 t = t2 t1 ,

s2 = r2 c2 t2 (1.24)

j . K K
v j , :

r2 c2 t2 = (r )2 c2 (t )2 .

K t = t0 . j r = 0 ( j
), j:
r2 c2 t2 = c2 t20 ,
r 2 2
[( ) c ] t2 = c2 t20 ,
t
(v 2 c2 )t2 = c2 t20 ,
(1.23). , j.

j j f = c
j . j j (1.21) (1.22). j
(1.20).

28


j , j
j j j
j, j
. j ,
j . j j ,
. j j j
j. j j j j
j . , j (1.20)
j j , j .
.
j j ,
(1.16) j j .
j j -,
. (c = 3 108 m/s) j
j j (- )
j -. j (1.24) , j j
s = 0, j (s 0) j j
j . j
s2 j , j j.
(1.23) j
j . 1.8, j
(j)
r.
K , j
OA j
O A . K
OA OAA .
( OA)
j , .
j,

OA j
OA . , j Slika 1.8: .

, j.
j

v2
r = r0 ,
1
1
= 1 , (1.25)
c2

j r0 r j .
j j .
j.
j . j
, , (
j) j.
, j j (1.13) :

m = m0 , E = mc2 , (1.26)

29


j m0 m j E.
j.
j
j j , j
. j
. -
j , f = c, j
j , j
. j j j .
j, j -
j j j.
, j
j. j
j j j, j
-
j, j j (1.15), j
j j . ,
j j,
j (1.17), j 33 j .
j , j,
j. j v > 0
j E = E0
T = T0 , Q = Q0 , j S = S0 /.
, j v = 0,
j j , j -
() j j. j
j j j
.
j j j ,
j. j ,
j j j
. j
( j j j) .
j j, j.
j j ( ),
. j j j .
j ( ), j j
j j j.
, , j
( ) j. j ,
j j () j,
j . j j j j j
j
, j j j.

33
j.

30


1.6
j j j
j j j (1.17). j
j j j
j j , j . ,
j j j
. j j j
. j jj .
j ,
j . j
, j
,
j , , v 2 ,
j j.
,
, j . ,
() Pt , ()
v j34 j

1
Pt + v 2 + gz = const, (1.27)
2

j g , z j . ()
j j (), Pt j j
. j j j, j j
j j j .

Slika 1.9: j .

1.9 j j .
v 2 (1.25) .
j , j
j j
j j () j
. j , j j j
.
34
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), j .

31


j j j A
B, j j 1.10.
.
, A B , j .
, j A j jj j
B ? ,
j j B j j
?

Slika 1.10: A B j .

j ,
j . , j
A A
B, B j
j B. j
A B.
j (1.25),

V = V0 /, (1.28)
j V0 . j, j-
35 , j ,
j

P = P0 , (1.29)

j P0 j j. j j
(1.27) ()

Pt = P0 , (1.30)

j j P0 = P0t (v = 0).
j j j j
j j j . J
22,71 ,
273,15 ( ) 105 (
j ). (, , ,
) j . , j
, j j
j j j
.

, j . , j
35
Boyles law: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyle%27s_law

32


. j
j . ,
, j
.
, ,
j

P V = nRu T, (1.31)

j P ( ), V
( ), n j j , Ru 8, 31 J mol1 K1 j
, T ( ).
j jj . , j
, j ( ,
), .
j j .
1.10 B, A j
x-, j. j P
j F .
, j .
j F ,

P = F /, (1.32)

j .
j , j ()
E dv
= F / 2 + F , (1.33)
c2 dt
j F v , F
, j j ma. j
, j j
2 (E/c2 ). j , j j
, j (E/c2 ). , j
:
P = 2 P0 , P = P0 . (1.34)
j , j .
j j (1.16). , j
j j j (1.30) j-
.
(j) j j .
(1.33) j
j, j .
j E = mc2 , :
v pc
= , E 2 (pc)2 = const. (1.35)
c E
j j ( j
j ).

33


1.6.1. (1.35) (1.33).

. (1.35) :

dv/c (dp/dt)c pc dE dE dpc

= 2 , 2E 2pc = 0,
dt E E dt dt dt

dE dpc dv/c Fc pc pc2 F

E = pc = pc2 F, = ,
dt dt dt E E2 E
E dv pc pc v v
=F F = F ( F) ,
c2 dt E E c c
E dv v2
= (1 ) F + F ,
c2 dt c2
j F F v, F j .
j (1.33).

, j .
j ,
j (1.31) j .
, j
() j. j
( ), j
j j. j
j j j.
, j ,
j j.
kB = R/NA Ru
36 NA = 6, 02 1023 mol1 . j
, P V = nRT = kB N T , j n j
, N j . n = 1 mol, j N j j j
j , j. j. , j
j P = N mv2 /3V ,
j 12 mv2 = 32 kB T , ( j 12 kB T
j).
j , j (H) j j (E)
(P ) (V ) . j j
, j:

H = E + P V, (1.36)

j E j j (1.13), j
(P V ). je j

H = H0 , (1.37)

j H0 . Q0 j H0
j , . j .
36
(1776-1856), j .

34


1.7
j j S0 j
S j v j 1/.
j,
j 37 j.
j.
, O 1.11,
M , j j A1 A2 m1 m2
r1 r2 38 k1 k2 . j j
j j
j j j .
(j) j .
j j ?

Slika 1.11: j .

j j
j . , j
j j j j
j, j j ( j
). j ,
. j j
( , j), j
j .
1.7.1. .
37
Isaac Newton (1642-1727), .
38
j (, )
j.

35


. m r
M , :
mv 2 Mm
Fc = , Fg = G , (1.38)
r r2
j G = 6, 67 1011 N m2 kg2 . j j

v = GM /r, (1.39)
r j r1 < r2 , j v1 > v2 . j

j, r.
( ),
j j j ,
j j,
j (1.18)
(1.23). , j (r ), j
j j .
j j (1.39)
j j .
, j j
.
, j, j -
j j , j,
j. ,
j jj j !
1.7.2. j j
, .
. j ( r , v 0).
(1.39) -
j j , :

v2 t0
S = S0 1 2 , t = , (1.40)
c 1 v
2
c2

. j
, j j j
j:

v2 t
S0 = S 1 2 , t0 = , (1.41)
c 1 v
2
c2

j j (1.39):
GM t
S = S (1 ), t = , (1.42)
c2 r 1 GM
c2 r

j 39 (
j ).
39
Karl Schwarzschild (1873-1916), .

36


j 1916. j
j j j j, ,
jj j . , j
j j . j
j .
, M ,
m j , ( j) .
m ( M ) j
j m . j40 j
, j .
dr dm. :
GM m
dmc2 = dr,
r2
dm GM
= 2 2 dr,
m r c
GM
ln m = + const.
rc2
2
m = m0 eGM /rc , (1.43)
j m0 j.
j j j jj:

(1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . .





(1 x)0,5 = 1 21 x 18 x2 16
1 3
x ...

(1 x) 0,5
= 1 + 2 x + 8 x + 16 x + . . .
1 3 2 5 3
(1.44)


1 2 3

exp(x) = 1 + x1! + x2! + x3! + . . .



ln(1 x) = x 12 x2 31 x3 41 x4 . . .

, x = v/c 0, j:

(1 x)1 1 + x





(1 x)0,5 1 21 x

(1 x)0,5 1 + 12 x (1.45)




exp(x) 1 + x



ln(1 x) x

j j j (1.42) j j
(1.43). ( j) j
j j
j.
J (1.43) j M m
( j ), j
j j . j
~/c2 , j j 0 . j -
41 , j (1.43), j je = 0 eGM /rc . ,
2

40
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), j .
41
. [2]

37


j j R,
j j
2 GM
= eGM /Rc (1 ). (1.46)
Rc2
j . j j
, (1.16) ,
j. , ,
j j .
jj
, . j
r , j 0 j j
j t = 2/0 . , j
t, j j.
, j j j . ,
j .
2
j , j j 0 eGM /rc , -
2
j j t eGM /rc .
t, .
2
eGM /kc .
j , j
j . j
0 j j j n0 .
r, j n j j .
2
j , j 0 eGM /rc
, j j j j
2
n0 eGM /rc . j j j .
, j. , j
, ( )
2
eGM /rc .
, (
j ) r0 t0 ,
r t, j:
GM GM
r = r0 exp ( 2 ) , t = t0 exp ( 2 ) . (1.47)
rc rc
j ( ) j
j j j j ( M
r). j (1.45) :
GM GM
r = (1 2
) r0 , t = (1 + 2 ) t0 . (1.48)
rc rc
jj
2GM 1 2 2GM 2 2
ds2 = (1 2
) dr + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 (1 ) c dt , (1.49)
rc rc2
j jj j ( j ),
Or .
j
j .

38


1.8 j
j j j , j
j j . ,
j j ,
j . J j j:
, j j j j
. , 18. 19. j j
. , j
j j, j
. j
j j j.
j (
j) j j ( )
j j j . .

Slika 1.12: - .

j j j
j .
jj j, j j
, , , -, -,
j j -
. j 42 ,
.
j 43 j 44 :
42
Boeing (2015). Chaos Theory and the Logistic Map. Retrieved 2015-07-16.
43
Edward Norton Lorenz (1917-2008), .
44
Danforth, Christopher M. (April 2013). Chaos in an Atmosphere Hanging on a Wall. Mathematics of
Planet Earth 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2013.

39


j , j -
. , j j .
, j j -
j . , j , -
45 : j .
, ,
. j ,
, j .
j ,
j j .
j j j . j
(j ) 46 ( n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
n + 1 , j
), j . ,
j , j,
j j .
(1.3), j j jj, j
, j j jj
( j) . (1.4) j
j ( j j ,
j), p q (j
). j j ,
L . j
j j. ,
j j j
j ( ).
j.
j j (j) .
, j j
, j . , j
, . j ,
, .
, 10 000 . j
j , , , .
j . , j
j j 10 000
j j 20 000 . j j
, j j , j .
j j .
10 000 j 10 000,
3 000 7 000. j
8 000 j, .
j ,
j . .
. j
45
Ramseys theorem: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsey%27s_theorem
46
Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet (1805-1859), .

40


j
. j, .
. .
j. , j
j 47 (. 1.13).

Slika 1.13: .

j j
, j j
j . - 48
j j,
j j .
j (, , )
. j
j . , j j
, j . jj 2-
. j .
j j j j j
j , -.
( ) ( ),
. j,
jj . j j ,
j j .
, j , j
j j. j j j j . ,
j j ( j ), j
.
( ), j
, ( ).
j j , j , j
j .
47
. strange attractor - ,
48
PoincareBendixson theorem: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9%E2%80%93Bendixson_
theorem

41


1.9 j
j .
. j j
, -. ,
j j, j j
, j .
j j j (j
, ) ,
j
jj . ,
.
1.14 j j , y = a sin bx.
j (x-)
(y-) (a), j (a, b = const.) j.
j
( = 2/b) .

Slika 1.14: J .

a b ,
. j , a = a(x) b = b(x), j
j . ,
j . j ,
j j
, j .
. , j j (
) .
j j
. j
(-), (-
). , j
, j :

y y1 = a sin[(x + )b] = a sin(xb + ), (1.50)

= b.

42


= (t), j = d/dt. j
( 1.14).
j ()
j, j -
. j
j, j
j. j
, ,
j.
() ,
. -
() , j j
. , j j,
. j j. j ,
j . j j, (1.34)
j.
- j -.
49 , .
j (r, t),
, j j .
j, j j j
j . j j
jj = 2 .
. j.
j j j j j (1.1),
. j j ()
() j. j
j . , :
(j) mn
(j) m n , j .
j , j
j j .
j
, jj , j
j j . .

1.9.1. {x, y, z, t} j

+ = 0, (1.51)

j = (r, t) .

.
.

2 = ( ) = +

49
Max Born (1882-1970), .

43


2 = 0

j. j j , j j
j ( j j j).

j j 50 j,
3
(x, t)
[mc2 + c ( n pn )] (x, t) = i~ , (1.52)
n=1 t

j j. () j
j j jj j j ,
j , j
4- - .
j, j
j j . ,
= (x, t) j j (1.51).
1.9.2. j j.
. (1.51) , :
3

[mc2 + c ( n pn )] = i~ ,
n=1 t
3

[mc2 + c ( n pn )] = i~ ,
n=1 t


0 = i~ ( + ) ,
t t
(1.51).

j j j51 j,
j

~2
+ U (x, t) = i~ , (1.53)
2m x2 t
j j = (x, t). j j, j
j j, j
j j j.
j m, j U (x, t) i = 1 j j. ,
j j.
Jj j j
= (x) j j j U = U (x). jjj
j, -, j :
~ 2
(x) = Aeikx , k = E, p = ~k. (1.54)
2m
50
Paul Dirac (1902-1984), .
51
Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961), j .

44


j A , p , k () j, E j
, ~ = h/2, h = 6, 626 1034 Js j . j .
j (1.51)
:
(x) = Aeikx , (x) = Aeikx ,

= ik , = ik,
x x

= ik , = ik ,
x x

+ = 0,
x x
, j (1.51). , j j j,
j (1.53) j
j.
, , A = A(x) j ,

d d dA
+ = 2A 0, (1.55)
dx dx dx
dA(x)
j dx 0. j ,
j .
j j (1.1) j
= exp(L), j L j j. (1.51)
L+ L = 0, (L +L) = 0,
( ) j ( ).
, j = ln L .
. j
. (1.54) j , -
( ) j x-
j. j
(j D1 ) (j D2 ). j .
j j j j D1
D2 . j j () ,
j, j D1
j D2 . j D2
, j
j j, j D1 j j
j . , j D2 ,
j D1 . j, D1 D2 ,
j j
.
, j j j j . .
jj,
. j j j j j
j!

45


1.10 j
j j, j.
j, , j
j ( j ). , j
j j.
j, j
j j. , j j
. j
, j, j j j
j .
j, j. j
j j j, j j .
j ( j j
), j j
j . j
j (jj) j j.
j j,
j j, j j j.

1.10.1. j j, j j-
.

Slika 1.15: A j q B.

j. 1.15, A jj Q q
B. , Q q j j A j B.
, B j j B q, j A Q B QB = QB ,
j . j AP B , j P q ,
j ( AB = AQ + QB = AQ + QB)
, .

j j, j j .
j
. j j j j

46


, . , j ,
j j j .

Slika 1.16: .

j ( , , j)
j j .
52 . j j 13 (2, 3, ..., 10, ,
, , ) j j (, , , ).
j j j :
1
P= 0, 019 H = ln 52 3, 951. (1.56)
52
j j j ,
: 1. 2. j. j
:

H1 = ln 13 2, 565 H2 = ln 4 1, 386. (1.57)

J j j j, j

H1 + H2 = H. (1.58)

j j j j j.
j j.
, ,
1.8. K v K r-.
, , .
K r-.
, j
jj j ( ), jj K j
jj K.
j , j
j j. j j.
j , 39 , (1/39)
. j
j j j.
. j j
j ,
j. , , j
jj j ( ), j .

47


j j j. ,
j52 j pr j r
(, , , ct j pct = E/c
),
~
pr r , (1.59)
2
j ~ = 2
h
. j j-
j j j j , .
j L, j. j (1.4) , ,
j L.
j (j - )
j j j .
j jj (1.11)
(1.18). : j j
j , j j
j. , : j
j j, j
j . j .
j . 22, j j
, circulus vitiosus
j
j j j ( j ).
() j j
j j j j .
, j ,
j, j j . -
j j j . j
j jj j , ,
j ,
, -.
( ) j
j j j () . j
j ()
. ( j , j
j) j j j j.
j , j j j ,
jj , jj j j
j. j ,
j, jj. ,
, .
j, . ,
j j, j j . j,
j j ()
j , , , , W-, .
j j j
. j j jj j ()
52
Werner Heisenberg 1901-1976), j .

48


j: j j.
j j .
j j j53 j,
j j54 j
j . j
j . j j
, j .
j j .
j ?
j j ( ) -
j . ,
, j.
(
) j j
, j, j
. j j j
j, j, ,
j j . , j .
j , j
jj j j ,
jj . j
, j
j. j
. , j j
( ).
,
j -. j
, .
-, j , j
, .
j j, , j j
j j . j
-. , j
. , ,
j j, .
, j j ,
- j .
, - j
. , j j j j
j j j. j
. j j j j
, j , j
20. , j
j .

53
Richard Feynman (1918-1988), .
54
Feynman diagram: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman_diagram

49


50
Glava 2

, j . j
, j j
j j , j
. ,
j , j
j. j
, .
j j. j
j, . ,
j . j j
j 1 , j j ,
, . ,
j , j j .
, j , j j
j, j , ,
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.
j j . j
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j j j , .
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, .
j j , -
, j j .
j j j j j
. j j j j
j j j , j
j j, j .
1
Norbert Viner: KIBERNETIKA, upravljanje i komunikacija, ICS, Beograd, 1972.

51


2.1 j
Oxyz, 2.1, -
( x-, y- z-) j
j j j j O.
Oxy A (x, y, 0), z
A B (x, y, z).

Slika 2.1: .

j :
2 2 2 2
OA = x2 + y 2 , OB = OA + AB ,

l2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , l = OB. (2.1)

( ) OO ,
O O , B B , j j

(l)2 = (x)2 + (y)2 + (z)2 , (2.2)

, = x, y, z, l j

OO .
, j
, j j . j
Oxyz O x y z j, j j
t,
v = (vx , vy , vz ). {x, y, z}

52


t O v t O.
(t = 0) (O O ),
t j :
x = x vx t, y = y vy t, z = z vz t, t = t. (2.3)
j j, j
, O O , j .
j . j
j v = vx 0, (vy = vz = 0).
j j , -
j j2 . j 1887.
, c = 3 108 m/s, .
- j jj j j j
j 1905. , j j j j .
j , j
j j j j
.
, jj : 1. j j
2. .
2.1.1. j jj .
. jj ct j j
t. O j v O
, jj j :
x = (x ct), y = y, z = z, ct = A ct Bx, (2.4)
, b, A, B j j .
j j v j j
c. j j (2.3)
= 1, = v/c, A = 1 B = 0.
j j O j x = 0
v O, j x = vt, j = v/c x = (x vc ct).
, j O O j
, x = (x + vc ct ) j
. j t = x/c j t = x /c j
j xx = 2 (1 v 2 /c2 )xx . , j:
1 v
= , = . (2.5)
1 v2 c
c2

j (1.14).
j (2.4) j j ,
x = ct x = ct ct = (ct x).
, j :
x = (x ct), y = y, z = z, ct = (ct x), (2.6)
(2.5).
2
Wikipedia: MichelsonMorley experiment

53


jj ,
j j jj, j
j j ( ) j
j, j .
, j .
j , , j
. j ,
j.
jj ,
, l/t = l /t = c, j
j
(s)2 = (x)2 + (y)2 + (z)2 c2 (t)2 (2.7)
j j. j ,
4- - j j .

2.1.2. j (2.7) j j.

. (2.6) j, :

x = (x ct), ct = (ct x),

(x )2 = 2 (x ct)2 , c2 (t )2 = 2 (ct x)2 ,

(x )2 = 2 [(x)2 2 x ct + 2 c2 (t)2 ]
{
c2 (t )2 = 2 [c2 (t)2 2 ct x + 2 (x)2 ].
:

(x )2 c2 (t )2 = 2 [(x)2 c2 (t)2 ] 2 2 [(x)2 c2 (t)2 ]

= 2 (1 2 )[(x)2 c2 (t)2 ]

= (x)2 c2 (t)2 .
j (s )2 = (s)2 , j
j .

j j

2 2 2 1 2
+ + = 0, (2.8)
x2 y 2 z 2 c2 t2

j 1/c2 = 0 0 , j 0 = 4 107 N/A2 , 0 = 8, 854 1012 F/m

.

2.1.3. j (2.8) j.

. (2.6) j:

x y z ct
= + + + = ,
x x x y x z x ct x
x ct

54


x = x = 0, x = = . j j ,

j j y z
x ct
x
, :
2 x y z ct
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) =
x2 x x x y x x z x x ct x x
x ct
= ( ) + ( ) ,
x x ct x ct x ct x
2 2
2
2
2
2
2 2
= 2 + . (2.9)
x2 (x )2 x ct (ct )2
:


y = x y + + + =
x y z ct
x y y z y ct y y

z = x z + + + =
y z ct
y z z z ct z z ,
:
2 2 2 2
= , = . (2.10)
y 2 (y )2 z 2 (z )2
j j :
x y z ct
= + + + = + ,
ct x ct y ct z ct ct ct
x ct

j j y
ct = z
ct = 0, x
ct = ct
ct = . O:

2 x ct
= ( + ) + ( + )
(ct)2 x x ct ct ct x ct ct

2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
= 2 + . (2.11)
(ct)2 (x )2 x ct (ct )2
(2.9), (2.10) (2.11) (2.8) j
2 2 2 1 2
+ + = 0, (2.12)
(x )2 (y )2 (z )2 c2 (t )2
j .

j (2.8) (2.12), 3 j jj
j (2.6) j j. , j
. j - j
j , j .
, j j , j j -
, j
j . j 1902.
j .
j j j j ,
j j jj j j j j
j .
3
Hendrik Lorentz (1853-1902), .

55


2.2 j
j (2.6) :
t vx/c2 x vt
t = , x = , y = y, z = z, (2.13)
1 v 2 /c2 1 v 2 /c2
j j :
t0
t = , l = l0 1 v 2 /c2 , (2.14)
1 v 2 /c2
t0 l0 t l .
(1.23) 4-, (2.6).
:

ux + v uy 1 v 2 /c2 uz 1 v 2 /c2
ux = , uy = , uz = , (2.15)
1 + vux /c2 1 + vux /c2 1 + vux /c2
() u = (ux , uy , uz ) O,
u = (ux , uy , uz ) O . v v j O O :
t + vx /c2 x + vt
t= , x= , y = y, z = z, (2.16)
1 v 2 /c2 1 v 2 /c2
j.

Slika 2.2: j .

2.2.1. (2.13) j (2.14), j .

. j A1 (t1 , x1 ) A2 (t2 , x2 ) , x1 = x2 ,
O. j j
t0 = t2 t1 .
O :
t2 vx2 /c2 t1 vx1 /c2
t = t2 t1 = =
1 v 2 /c2 1 v 2 /c2
(t2 t1 ) (x2 x1 )v/c2 t2 t1
= = ,
1 v /c
2 2 1 v 2 /c2
j j x2 x1 = 0. .

56


2.2.2. (2.13) j (2.14), j .

. j A1 (t1 , x1 ) A2 (t2 , x2 ) , t1 = t2 ,
j j O.
j
l0 = x2 x1 .
j O t1 = t2 , j
l = x2 x1 .
:
x + vt2 x + vt1
l0 = x2 x1 = 2 1 =
1 v 2 /c2 1 v 2 /c2

(x2 x1 ) + v(t2 t1 ) x x1
= = 2 ,
1 v 2 /c2 1 v 2 /c2
j j t2 t1 = 0. .

2.2.3. (2.13) j (2.15), .

. j . , :
x +vt
t + v
x
x2 x1 x x + vt

1v 2 /c2
ux = = = = = ,
t2 t1 t t +vx /c2
t + vx /c
2
1 + cv2 x
t
1v 2 /c2

y2 y1 y y y 1 v 2 /c2
y
1 v 2 /c2
uy = = = = = t
,
t2 t1 t t +vx /c2
t + vx /c2 1+ v y
1v 2 /c2 c2 t

ux = x
t uy = y
t .

jj j
, j . j
(1.19) (1.22), j
j j , j j
j .
2.2.4. j j
v, :

cv
f = f0 (2.17)
c+v
f0 f j.
. j j j t = 1/f t = 1/f
x = ct. j t = (t + vt/c), :

1 (1 v/c)(1 + v/c)
f =f

=f ,
(1 + v/c) 1 + v/c
j .

57


( )
m0
m= . (2.18)
2
1 vc2
j m0 ( ) , m j
j v. j c.
2.2.5. (2.18).
. , v
(. ) j m uy
. j j
j j
jj . j ,
,
j .
, j.
m j m .
j uy ux = 0, j uy ux = v.
p p (
) , :
p = p ,
muy = m uy ,

uy 1 v /c
2 2
muy = m , ux = 0,
1 vux /c2

m = m 1 v 2 /c2 .
m m0 m m j (2.18).

j
m0 v
p= , (2.19)
2
1 vc2
m0 v. p = p0
p0 = m0 v.
j j .
, (j)
v1 = 0 v2 = v
2
Ek = F dx. (2.20)
1
j Ek j j E j v
j E0 j . j
m0 j j j
m0 c2
Ek = m0 c2 . (2.21)
v2
1 c2

58


j ()
jj 1905. .

2.2.6. j (2.20) (2.21).

. :
2 2 2 2
dp dx
Ek = F dx = dx = dp = v dp.
1 1 dt 1 dt 1

j d(vp) = vdp + pdv j vdp = d(vp) pdv, :

2 2 2 2
Ek = v dp = [d(vp) pdv] = d(vp) p dv,
1 1 1 1

(2.19) :
RRRv
2 RRR
v
2 2
Ek = d(pv)
m0 v R
dv = pv RRRR + m0 c
v R
1 2 RRRR =
2
1 1
2
1 vc2 RRR c RR
R0
0

m0 v 2 v2
= + m0 c2 1 m0 c2
1 vc2
2 c2

2
m c2 ( 1 v2 )
2 0
2
2
m0 v c
= + m0 c


2 2
1 vc2 1 vc2

m0 v 2 + m0 c2 m0 v 2
= m0 c2 ,
v2
1 c2

m0 c2
Ek = m0 c2 ,
v2
1 c2
j j .

Ek = E E0
j (j j)

E = mc2 , (2.22)

j m = m0 , (2.18). j j ,
jj j .
, j L
j j j. j
j j, j j , j
j , . jj
j j. j j j
() j .

59


j , jj ,
b
S= ds, (2.23)
a

j ( 4- -)
j, t1 t2 . ds (2.7), j
() :

(ds)2 = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 (cdt)2 . (2.24)

dl/dt = v j

ds = 1 v 2 /c2 icdt, i= 1, (2.25)

: t2
S= ic 1 v 2 /c2 dt. (2.26)
t1
j , j j

v2
L = ic 1 2 . (2.27)
c
j , j .
c j L 12 m0 v 2 j m0
( ) . j (2.27)
(1.45) x = v/c. j

iv 2
L = ic = const + L0 , (2.28)
2c
j j j, j
. j j

= im0 c. (2.29)

j j j
b
S = m0 c ds, (2.30)
a

j
v2
L = m0 c 2
. 1 (2.31)
c2
j m0 , v j , c j
.
(2.31) j
j (2.18), (2.19) j
(2.22). j
L
p= , (2.32)
v

60


j j L j
v j p. j
m0 v
p= , (2.33)
2
1 vc2
(2.19). j , j
E = p v L, (2.34)
(2.33) (2.31) :
v2
v 2 m0 v + m0 c (1 )
2 2
m0 v v c2
E= m0 c 2
1 2 = ,
1 v
2 c 1 v
2
c2 c2

m0 c2
E= , (2.35)
v2
1 c2
j j (2.22).
(2.33) j (2.35)
Ev
p= , (2.36)
c2
j j j j , j j j
j j j
- (p ) = (px , py , pz , pct ):
(p ) = (mvx , mvy , mvz , E/c). (2.37)
j jj j
j j 4- (p ).
2.2.7. j j 4- -
j j j .
. j j S = 0 j
, j j ,
. j jj j j
. j j :
b b b b
dx dx
S = (m0 c ds) = m0 c dx = m0 c
2 = m0 c u dx ,
a a a dx2 a

dx
j u = ds 4-, j x, y, z, ct.
j j j:
RRRb b
S = m0 cu x RRRRR m0 c x w ds = 0,
RRR a
a
du
j w = ds 4-. jj j
, (x )a = (x )b = 0, w = 0, j.
jj j - .
j j .

61


(x )b j x ,
S
S = m0 cu x , p = = m0 c u . (2.38)
x

j - p 4-
. j (2.37), .
4- -
( j ), j
j, j :

px = (px + E /c), py = py , pz = pz , E = (E /c + px ), (2.39)

(2.6). , (2.24) u2 = 1,
j (2.38) j
4
p = m0 c .
2 2 2
(2.40)
=1

(2.37) j

E2
2
= p2 + m2 c2 , (2.41)
c

j p = p2x + p2y + p2z , . j ,
j 4 j H.

p2
H = c p2 + m2 c2 mc2 + , (2.42)
2m
j
j.
j j ,
j j. (2.40)

m0 cs = x1 p1 + x2 p2 + x3 p3 + x4 p4 , (2.43)

j x4 = ict p4 = m0 cdx4 /ds (2.24),

(2.7). j j j j j
m0 . j
` = i h j j j j (. [1]).
( )
- j j
j j j j ,
j (2.43) .
j
(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) s, j
j (2.43).
,
j .
4
William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865), , .

62


2.3 j
j , j j,
. j j j,
j, j, j,
j. j j j .

Slika 2.3: j .

j j j
() j (),
. j j jj
j j
jj. , j
j, j 3- j j.
j j jj j ,
4- j 3- .
j j j j j
j. j
. j, ,
j, j.
, .
j j j
j.
2.4 OXY j j
OX Y j . T
T (x, y) T (x , y ). :
Ox1 = Ox + xx1 , Oy1 = Oy yy1 ,
x cos = x + y sin , y cos = y x sin .

63


Slika 2.4: j .

j:

x = x cos y sin x = x cos + y sin

{ { (2.44)
y = x sin + y cos , y = x sin + y cos .

j , :

x cos sin x
( )=( ) ( ) , (2.45)
y sin cos y

v = Rv , v v j R
.
x1 = x
x4 = ict, j j:

x1 = x1 cos x4 sin x = x1 cos + x4 sin

{ { 1 (2.46)
x4 = x1 sin + x4 cos ,

x4 = x1 sin + x4 cos .

= i, i = 1 ,
j j:

x = x ch ict sh x = x ch + ict sh
{ { (2.47)
ct = x sh + ct ch , ct = x sh + ct ch .

j 5 j
: sin = i sh(i) cos = ch i. j x = x1 = 0
:
v x ict sh
= = = = ith = tg . (2.48)
c ct ct ch
(th) (tg) j th = itg (i) = itg ,
= tg .
j j :

e e
sh = ch = e +e

2 2 (2.49)
e e

th = cth = ee +e


e +e e
.
5
, j j j
(Vincenzo Riccati, 1707-1775)

64


, , .
j (2.47) j j j
:

3 5 7 2 4 6
sh = + 3! + 5! + 7! + . . . , ch = 1 + 2! + 4! + 6! + . . . ,
(2.50)
3 5 7 2 4 6
sin = 3! + 5! 7! + . . . , cos = 1 2! + 4! 6! + . . . ,


j = i, i = 1. j (2.49)
ch2 sh2 = 1, :

th = sh / ch cth = ch / sh
{ (2.51)
sh 2 = 2 sh ch ch 2 = ch2 + sh2 ,

th 2 = 2th /(1 + th2 ), .

j . ,
j :

sin(x y) = sh x ch y ch x sh y


ch(x y) = ch x ch y sh x sh y (2.52)



th (x y) = (th x th y)/(1 th x th y).
.
j (2.47) j x ct , j(2.46)
j j j - .
2.5 j .

Slika 2.5: j .

j 60 , v = 1, 8 108
m/s, = v/c = 0, 6. j j = arctg 0, 6 31 . , x ct,
j (
j) j j j v = c. j

65


O x ct j (j) ct -,
j j x -.
Ox ct, j ct-,
j x-. 2.5
O O j .
O j O,
, j j
. , O
O j j .
( ) j ,
j .
j j j
j O j O j .
O j j
j j . , ,
j j ,
j . j .
j
. j j ,
j .
j , j j j ,
, j
j . j j
, j j ,
j () j.
j j j
. j j j ,
j. ()
, j
j j.
j j.
j (2.44) j. j
z = x + iy C j R(z) = x I(z) = y, j
j (x, y R), j z
, :
x = r cos , y = r sin . (2.53)

j j j r = z = x2 + y 2 .
j j = xOz = arctg(y/x). j j
j z0 = x0 + iy0 , j z0 = 1, j x0 = cos y0 = sin ,
j :

zz0 = (x + iy)(z0 + iy0 ) = r(cos + i sin )(cos 0 + i sin 0 ) =

= r[(cos cos 0 sin sin 0 ) + i(sin cos 0 + cos sin 0 )],

zz0 = r[cos( + 0 ) + i sin( + 0 )], (2.54)

66


. ,
j j z0 = x0 + iy0 j z = x + iy
j j z , 0 = arctg(y0 /x0 ),
j z0 . z0 0 .
j -
j , j

z = x + iy = rei , (2.55)

j r = x2 + y 2 tg = y/x. j j
j ( ei ) . Taj j
j j, j j e = 2, 71828 . . . ,
j j (1.46).

() j .
x ct, (-
) dx cdt, , j
j , j .
j j, dr dx. ,
d d j j Or
, j . ,
j ,
j . , , j
j, ,
j .
2.6.
j () , x1 = r, x2 = x3 = ,
, j x4 =
ict, j i = 1 j. j j
j () x , = 1, 2, 3, 4.

Slika 2.6: Or.

r = OB, :

x = OA cos , OA = r sin ,
{ (2.56)
y = OA sin , z = r cos ,

67


j:


x = r cos sin
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2



y = r sin sin = arctg xy (2.57)





z = r cos , = arccos r .
z

j :

dx = cos sin dr r sin sin d + r cos cos d


dy = sin sin dr + r cos sin d + r sin cos d (2.58)



dz = cos dr r sin d,

() (2.24),
j

ds2 = dr2 + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 c2 dt2 . (2.59)

j Or
-.
(1.49), j j
-
2 2
ds2 = e2GM /rc dr2 + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 e2GM /rc c2 dt2 , (2.60)

j (1.45)

2GM 1 2 2GM 2 2
ds2 = (1 2
) dr + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 (1 ) c dt , (2.61)
rc rc2
j j j j . j j j
. j jj j j -
j. j
, j j
j ().
Or
j , j (
) ( ) .

2.3.1. j j

dr = dr


+ i 1
1 2 2 cdt
{ (2.62)
cdt = i 1 2 2 dr + 2 cdt ,
2
j i = 1 j, = eGM /rc , C .
j j (2.60) j (2.59).

. j (d = d d = d )
:
dr = rr dr + rt cdt
{ (2.63)
cdt = tr dr + tt cdt ,

68


mn r. (2.60) j:

ds2 = 2 dr2 2 c2 dt2 =

= 2 (rr dr + rt cdt )2 2 (tr dr + tt cdt )2

= ( 2 rr
2
2 tr
2
) dr2 + 2( 2 rr rt 2 tr tt ) dr cdt + ( 2 rt
2
2 tt
2
) c2 dt2 .
jj j dr2 c2 dt2 j j:

2 2 2 tr
2
= 1,

2 rr
rr rt tr tt = 0,
2



rt tt = 1.
2 2 2 2

j ,
j rr = C.
j tr = i 1 2 2 . j
j rt = i 1
1 tt , j, :
2 2

2 (i 1 1 2 tt
2 ) 2 (i 1 2 2 ) = 0,
tt

1 2 tt
2 = 1
tt 1 ,
2 2

2 ( 2 tt
2
) = tt
2
( 2 2 ),
2 2 = tt
2 2
,

tt = 2 rt = i 1 1 2 2 . ,
j .

j ,
j j. , ,
. ,
2.3.1 j. , j
( )
jj () j, .
, j .
j (2.63)
i 1 j:
dr = dr

+ 1 2 2 icdt
{ 1 (2.64)
icdt = 1 2 2 dr + icdt ,
j (2.46), dx1 = dr, dx4 = icdt :

cos = , sin = 1 2 2 . (2.65)

, = exp(GM /rc2 ) 1/ 1 2GM /rc2 , C
1, j sin2 + cos2 = 1.
j

ds2 = (dr)2 ( 1 cdt)2 = (dr )2 (cdt )2 , (2.66)

j j j .

69


2.4 j
2.3.1
. , = 1/ 1 GM /rc2 = 1
(2.64), j j:

sin GM GM
tg = = 2
1 2 . (2.67)
cos rc rc
, (1.39) j v
j j j r ( M )
. ,

v v2
tg = 1 2 , (2.68)
c c
(2.15),
ux = 0 uy = v.
j j ,
j j . j j j ,
.

Slika 2.7: j , .

j j j ,
j ( r ). j
4- - , j
j. j - j j
j , j .
j j ( )
( ) , j .
j j (
) j j
j j. , j
j ().
6- - , j j
j ( ) () -
j 4- -.

70


j jj j j , j
j j .
j j
j ( ), (3- Oxyz)
j j (z ), .
(2.44), t A (x , y , z )
A(x, y, z) , j z = z j:
x = x cos t y sin t
x = x cos t + y sin t
{ { (2.69)
y = x sin t + y cos t,
y = x sin t + y cos t,

j A r = r = x2 + y 2 = t
. , j , ,
j:

i = i cos t j sin t
i = i cos t + j sin t



j = i sin t + j cos t j = i sin t + j cos t (2.70)




k = k ,
k = k.

j .

Slika 2.8: .

j j ,
d d


dt i = i sin t j cos t = j

dt i = i sin t + j cos t = j
d d
dt j = i cos t j sin t = i dt j = i cos t j cos t = i
(2.71)


d

d
dt k = 0, dt k = 0.

j
d
e =
e, (2.72)
dt
= k j, e {i, j}.
j
Oxyz,
2.8 . , ,
. j .
:

u
= uxi + uy j + uz k,
v = vxi + vy j + vz k, (2.73)

71


j

u =
u = u2x + u2y + u2z , u =
v = vx2 + vy2 + vz2 . (2.74)

Oxyz
, :

v = ux vx + uy vy + uz vz = uv cos (
u u, v),
{ (2.75)
v = (ux vz uz vy )i + (uz vx ux vz )j + (ux vy uy vx )k.
u

j , j u v = uv sin (
u, v),
, ( ):
j , j (,
).
j

u v) w
( = (ux vz uz vy )wx + (uz vx ux vz )wy + (ux vy uy vx )wz , (2.76)

= wxi + wy j + wz k.
j w
RRR u R
RRR x uy uz RRRRR
( = RRR vx vy vz RRR .
u v) w (2.77)
RRR R
RRwx wy wz RRRR
j j j j j jj
, j j ( )
j .
u , v w
j

(
u = v(
v w) w(
u w) u v), (2.78)

j . j

( v) = ( v) ( )
v, (2.79)

j
f f f
f = ( i+ j+ k) f = i+ j+ k, (2.80)
x y z x y z
f = f (x, y, z) j j. j j j f .
grad(f ) = f .
j j j , j:

(f + g) = f + g,


(u v) = (
u)
v + (v )u+u ( v) + v ( u
), (2.81)


1
2 u 2
=
u (
u ) + (
u )
u ,

j .
j f = f(x, y, z) j:

div(f) = f. (2.82)

grad f div f, .

72


2.4.1. j
d d
] f,
f = [( ) + (2.83)
dt dt r

j f(t) = fxi + fy j + fz k j, ( ddtf ) j j

r
j .

. j:
d d =
f (t) = (fxi + fy j + fz k)
dt dt

dfx di dfy dj dfz dk

=( i + fx ) + ( j + fy ) + ( k + fz )
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dfx dfy dfz
=( i+ j+ k) + f
dt dt dt
df
=( ) + f(t),
dt r
j.

j j . j
j j, j
d
r d
r
v0 = =( ) + r = vr +
r, (2.84)
dt dt r
j vr = vxi + vy j + vz k.
j r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, 0
, r j .
j , j:

d2 r d
v d d
r
0 = (
a 2
] [( ) +
) = ( ) = [( ) + r] . (2.85)
dt 0 dt 0 dt r dt r

j
d

r = a
a 0 2
vr
(
r) r, (2.86)
dt
2
r = ( ddt2r ) j ,
j a (

r)
r
, 2 vr .
j
, j , jj
. j j j
j. , j j j
jj j .
, j j
. 6 j 1913.
7 j j j
. ()
( ) r

73


Slika 2.9: .

j () , j
j (j) . j 2.9 .
j j j
j . j j j
j j ,
. j j , j
v = r, j j
c v, j j, j.

1 1 4rv 4
t = 2r ( )= 2 = 2 , (2.87)
cv c+v c v 2 c v2

j = r2 j . j
.
, j
j = 1/ 1 v 2 /c2 , j

4/c2
t0 = . (2.88)
1 v 2 /c2
j j , j r
j.

j j . j,
j , j j
j . j ,
, j ,
j j .
j j (1905) (1916) j
jj j j,
6
Georges Sagnac (1869-1928), .
7
j j j .

74


. , j ,
j j j
j .
j j j
j
j . j j
j , jj j 1905. .
j j j j
j, j j j, j 6-
-. j j j j
(. [1]) -
j j j . j
j .
j -
-j , () 6-.
, j , j
,
, j
j, j j
3- . , ()
j j .
j j , Orz j z
,
dr2 2 r2 2 2
ds2 = 2 r2
+ r2 d2 + dz 2 (1 ) c dt . (2.89)
1 c2
c2

j , j j
. j
? .

Slika 2.10: Orz.

Orz.
2.10 j r = OA, z = AB B(x, y, z), j:


x = r cos
r = x2 + y 2



y = r sin = arctg xy (2.90)





z = z, z = z.

75


dx = cos dr r sin d


dy = sin dr + r cos d (2.91)



dz = dz,

ds2 = dr2 + r2 d2 + dz 2 c2 dt2 . (2.92)

j ( -) .
j j j :

grad f = r er + r r e + z ez = f
f 1 f f
(2.93)
div f = 1r rr + 1r + f
(rf ) f
z = f ,
z

er , e ez = k j , f = f (r, , z) j
j, j f(r, , z) = fr er + f e + fz ez .
:

grad f = r er + r sin e + r e = f
f 1 f 1 f
(2.94)
1 (r fr ) = f,
2
1 f 1 (sin f )
div f = r2 r + r sin + r sin

f = f (r, , ) f(r, , ) = fr er + f e + f e j.
j j ,
j j,
. j j
, Or 8

r2 d2 r
ds2 = dr2 + (1 ) c2 dt2 , (2.95)
1 rru ru

j d2 = sin2 d2 +d2 , ru j . j j
j

dr2 rs 2 2
ds2 = rs + r d (1
2 2
) c dt , (2.96)
1 r r

j rs = 2GM /c2 , j 8, 9 mm,

j j 3, 3 105 j 3, 0 km. j .
M .
, jj j
, , j 6-
-, j .
8
j , . .

76


2.5
jj j : j, .
, j j j j j j j j
. , j j ,
j j ,
j j .
j . .

Slika 2.11: jj, 14.03.1879. - 18.04.1955.

jj j 1915. 1916. j j:
8G
G =T , (2.97)
c4
j j .
j jj j j ,
j j j . j
j j G j () j, j
j T j j. j 8G/c4 j
j . , j j
: j j , j -
.
j j , jj
9 , .
j j j ( j), j j
, .
j . j
j , j j j
j j j j.
j jj j G T .
9
Marcel Grossmann (1878-1936), .

77


j (2.97) j j
j , j10 R
j -, j j
j .
j j , j ,
. ,
j ? j ()
, j j j

`ij `i`
Rij = + m
ij `m i` jm ,
` m `
(2.98)
x` xj
j j ,
j .
j j
j (2.98).
, i, j, `, m j
j j. jj j (
) (2.98) 44 = 16
j j j, j j.
j j j 11
1 mk gki gkj gij
ij = g
m ( j + ), (2.99)
2 x xi xk
j, . g j j
, j

ds2 = g dx dx . (2.100)

(g ) j (g ).
(j, ) j R ,
T j j (2.97) () -
j, jj j j

G = R 12 R g + g . (2.101)

J , jj j j G jjj
j j , j () .
j j, j j .
j
jj j
j. j
.
j , jj j j j.
j T j, j,
j j . (
) , j . 20.
10
Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro (1853-1925), j .
11
Elwin Bruno Christoffel (1829-1900), .

78


. j .
j ,
. , j j , j , j
j j . , j
, j
j . () ,
, .
j j , 20. ,
j j . j (2.37)
j j ( ). j

j. j x j
j y - - T . ,
T j j E = mc2 .
j jj j.
j j, j
. , j j -
, j
j (2.97), j .
j 1916. , j
j. j , j
J 12 (1886-1963) .
,
j , j .
j (2.60), jj (. [6]).

2.5.1. (2.61) (2.97),

ds2 = e2B(r) c2 dt2 + e2A(r) dr2 + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 , (2.102)

A(r) B(r) j r.

. (g ) (g ) j , :

e
2B
0 0 0 e2B 0 0 0
0 e 2A
0 0 0 e2A
0 0
,
0 r2 sin2 0 0 1
0
0 0 r2 sin2
0 0 0 r2 0 0 0 1
r 2

(2.99). x0 = ct, x1 = r,
x2 = x3 = , :
3
1 gk1 gk1 g11 1 g11 g11 g11
111 = g 1k ( 1 + 1
k
) = g 11 ( 1 + )=
k=0 2 x x x 2 x x1 x1

1 g11 1 e2A 1 2A 2A (2A) A

= g 11 1 = e2A = e e = = A (r),
2 x 2 r 2 r r
111 = A , 112 = 0, 113 = 0, 110 = 0.
12
Johannes Droste: http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath697/kmath697.htm

79


ij = ji , j j . j:
j , m m

3
1 gk2 gk2 g22 1 g12 g12 g22
122 = g 1k ( 2 + 2
k
) = g 11 ( 2 + )=
k=0 2 x x x 2 x x2 x1

1 g22 1 (r2 sin2 )

= g 11 2 = e2A = e2A r sin2 ,
2 x 2 r
133 = e2A r, 100 = e2(BA) B (r),
1
212 = 221 = , 223 = 232 = ctg ,
r
1
313 = 331 = , 322 = sin cos ,
r
010 = 001 = B (r),
. j (2.98), :
3 `11 `1` 4
R11 = [ + (m ` m
1` 1m )] =
`
`=0 x` x1 m=1 11 `m

3 `11 `1`
= [ + (111 ``1 11` `11 )m=1 (21` `12 )2 (31` `13 )3 (01` `10 )0 ]
`=0 x` x1
1 1
= [ A ] + [ A ] + [B + A B (B )2 ]`=4 ,
r `=2 r `=3
2
R11 = B (B )2 + A B + A ,
r
R22 = [1 e2A (1 rA + rB )] sin2 ,

R33 = 1 e2A (1 rA + rB ),
2
R00 = [B + (B )2 A B + B ] e2(BA) .
r
j j j:
3
2 1
R = R = 2e2A [B + (B + ) (B A ) + 2 (1 e2A )] .
=0 r r

jj (2.97):

1
G11 = (1 + 2rB e2A ),
r2
1
G22 = r2 e2A [B + (B + ) (B A )] sin2 ,
r
1
G33 = r2 e2A [B + (B + ) (B A )] ,
r
1
G00 = 2 e2(BA) (1 2rA e2A ) .
r

80


1 2B d
G00 = e [r (1 e2A )] ,
r2 dr
j. j j .
j (2.97) j j13 . j j j
j (, ) r0
, (r) . j j
j j

P
T = ( + ) u u + P g ,
c2
j = (r) , P = P (r) j
, u 4- , g j .
j u1 = u2 = u3 = 0, j (u0 )2 = c2 e2B ,
g u u = c2 . , j - :

T11 = P e2A , T22 = P r2 sin2 , T33 = P r2 , T00 = e2B .

j jj j (2.97), j j
0 = 0, = = 2 = = 3 j j. :

= 11 r12 (1 + 2rB e2A ) = 8G P e2A ,

c4
= 22 e2A [B + (B + r ) (B A )] = 8G
1
P,



c4
= 00 1 2B d
r2
e dr
[r (1 e 2A
)] = 8G 2B
c4
e .

() :

1 2GM (r)
A(r) = ln (1 ), M= 4r2 dr.
2 rc2 c2

j M (0) = 0. , E = mc2 j /c2 , M (r)

r.
j j ( = 11) j r > r0 . (
), M j , j ( P = 0), :

2GM 1
1 + 2rB e2A = 0, e2A = (1 ) ,
rc2

1 1 2GM 1 1 2GM
B(r) = dr = d ( ),
2 1 2GM
rc2
r2 c2 2 1 2GM
rc2
rc2
1 2GM
B(r) = ln (1 ),
2 rc2
2GM
e2B = 1 .
rc2
, (2.102) j (2.61).
13
Stressenergy tensor: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor

81


2.6
jj j j
, j . j,
j.
j ,
, ( )
, j j .
j j .
j jj .

. , j j j j j
, j j j
j . j
, j. , -,
j .
j j j j j.
j j , j
j . j j j .
j j j j, ,
, j . j
, j , j j j
j .
j j j j, j jj -,
j j -,
j j . j
j (1.1), j j j
j, j j j j.
j j j ,
j j j j, j j , j
j . j j, j
j j, j
, j .
j ,
, j j
. j j j j
j. j
j j j
(1.10). j , j ,
j j. j
j, j j j j ,
! , j j j,
j j, j j
. , j (1.10)
j.
.
j,
jj j.

82


, j j ,
, j j.
j j j j
.
j j ( j )
j . jj j j
j,
(j j) -, () j
j . j
j , j j
j . j j j
j j .
j j j
j j . j

. -j ,
j , j.
, j ,
( j j) j j
( j ). j
j , j
j,
, .
(j)
OX1 . . . Xn OY1 . . . Yn n N j. j
j j -, j
( j) j j -
j . ,
j , X Y , j
j .
j ,

, , Tijk
( i, j, k) (, , ) . j,
j.

. j j . j
, ()
. Oxyz, = (x, y, z)
r = (x, y, z) dr = (dx, dy, dz) j

d = dx + dy + dz = () (dr). (2.103)
x y z

j j, grad = ,
j j , j j.
j , j d j j
dr , .
, O, j

83


, j :



= x
+ y
+ z

x y z ,


= x
+ y
+ z
z , (2.104)



x y



=
x
x
+
y
y
+ z
z .

, j
j . , j
j :
dx = x
d + d + d,
x x




dy = y
d + d + d,
y y
(2.105)




dz = d + d + d,
z z z

j .

. j n- -
Ox1 . . . xn Oy1 . . . yn , j j a1 , . . . , an b1 , . . . , bn .
T , T (x1 , . . . , xn )
T (y 1 , . . . , y n ), x a y b , j x a = y b . 14
= 1, . . . , n.
j j
j , j

a = A b , b = B a , (2.106)

A B j j A B,
j
() j. j

1, =
A B = = { (2.107)
0, ,
j . ,
j j , AB = I,
j j j
j j .
T ,
x y, j:
x = x a = x (A b ) = (x A )b = (x A )(B a ),
{ (2.108)
y = y b = y (B a ) = (y B )a = (y B )(A b ),
, :
x A = y , y B = x , (2.109)
j ,
. j ,
, j , -
j. ,
. , j,
j.
14
.

84


. j OX 1 X 2 OY 1 Y 2
j Y 1 X 2 Y 2 X 1 T , 2.12. ,
j j j (-
j ), j
(j ). j = X 1 OX 2 ,
= Y 1 OY 2 . j j = X 1 OY 1 =
X 2 OY 2 .

Slika 2.12: j T j T .

j + = = ( )/2. j:

x1 = y 1 cos x2 = y 2 cos
(2.110)
y1 = x1 cos y2 = x2 cos ,

j X
cos j Y , .
. j j
. 2.12 :

x1 x1 = x2 sin x2 x2 = x1 sin
(2.111)
y 1 y1 = y 2 sin y 2 y2 = y 1 sin .

, j , < , j
j, .
j :

y 1 = x1 cos + y 2 sin
(2.112)
y 2 = y 1 sin + x2 cos ,

j j:

x1 = cos1 y 1 tg y 2 y 1 = cos1 x1 + tg x2
{ 2 { 2 (2.113)
x = tg y 1 + cos1 y 2 , y = tg x1 + cos1 x2 .

`2 = OT 2 j `
Oy1 T :
`2 = (y 1 )2 + (x2 )2 ,

85


2 2
1 1
`2 = ( x1 + ctg x2 ) + (x2 )2 , `2 = (y 1 )2 + ( tg y 1 + y2) ,
cos cos
= /2 = /2, :

`2 = [(x1 )2 + 2 cos x1 x2 + (x2 )2 ]/ sin2 ,

{ (2.114)
`2 = [(y 1 )2 + 2 cos y 1 y 2 + (y 2 )2 ]/ sin2 .

j,

`2 = g x x , (2.115)

j j j cos = 0, j.
= /2, j .
j .
, Oxyz, Orz Or j j-
. j
:

d`2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ,

2
d` = dr2 + r2 d2 + dz 2 , (2.116)



d`2
= dr 2
+ r 2
sin2
d2
+ r 2 2
d .

j - j ds2 = d`2 c2 dt2 .

j g (2.115) j j . j
j j (2.104). ,
x = x (y 1 , . . . , y n ) :

x k x j
dx = dy , dx = dy ,
y k y j

x x k j
d`2 = g dx dx = g dy dy ,
y k y j

d`2 = gkj dy k dy j ,

x x
gkj = g , (2.117)
y k y j
j g j .

. j OX 1 X 2 OY 1 Y 2
A, 2.13. j e , x1 X 1 y 1 Y 1
j Ax1 X 2 Ay 1 Y 2 . j x1 X 1 y1 Y 1
j Ax1 Y 2 Ay1 X 2 . B Y 1 j j Bx1 Y 2 .

= X 1 OB, = BOX 2 = X 2 OY 2 , j OA j
= X 1 OA.
j:

sin B sin 1
Oy 1 = OB + By 1 = 1
Ox1 + x A, (2.118)
sin x sin B

86


Slika 2.13: j A .

j B = + x1 = 180 ( + + ). j Oy 1 = y 1 Ox1 = x1 ,
j x1 A = x2 , j:
sin( + ) sin
y1 = x1 + x2 . (2.119)
sin( + + ) sin( + )
j:
y 1 sin( + ) y 1 sin
= , = , (2.120)
x 1 sin( + + ) x 2 sin( + )

y 1 1 y 1 2
y1 = x + 2x . (2.121)
x1 x
(2.105) x1 , x2 y 1 j
. j j .
, j 2.13, Oy 1 Ay 2
j OA , :
y1 y2
= . (2.122)
sin( + + ) sin( )
y 1 (2.119), j j y 2 , j
j j
y 2 1 y 2 2
y2 = x + 2x , (2.123)
x1 x
j (2.121).

. j j
x
y = x . (2.124)
y
. , ,
:

x2
y1 = y11 x1 + y1 x2 ,
x
(2.125)

y = x1
x + x2
x .
2 y 2
1 y 2
2

87


15 j .
2.14 OX1 X2 OY1 Y2 V

j OV . j v = OV , j
j X1 OV = Y1 OV = , jj
A X1 B Y1 , j OA = x1 OB = y1 .

Slika 2.14: j V .

x1 y1
y1
x1 cos
OV = = tg = .
cos cos( ) sin

y1 = OA = OP + P A = x1 cos + V A sin = x1 cos + v sin sin ,

sin sin
y1 = x1 cos + y1 ,
cos( )
y1
x1 cos sin
y1 = x1 cos + x1 sin = x1 (cos ctg sin ) + y1 ,
sin sin

sin( ) sin
y1 = x1 + y1 . (2.126)
sin sin
15
Projective geometry: http://nct.goetheanum.org/

88


j 2.15. j OX1 = x1 OX2 = x2 ,

OX1 Y1 j:

x1 x1 sin( ) x2 x2 sin
= = , = = , (2.127)
y1 y1 sin y2 y2 sin

j (2.126) (2.124), j j .

Slika 2.15: jj .

. F s j A = F s.
A j ,
. j j
j , j .
j j .
X X :

x x

A = F s = ( F ) ( s )
x
x

x x

=( ) F s = F s = F s = A.

x
x

A = A,
(2.128)

j j j, j .
, j j j .
j j j j.
j j , j ,
j. , j jj
j , . , j
j , 2- ,
.

89


2.7
j , j . J
j j v = (v 1 , . . . , v n ),
v
v = + v . (2.129)
x
j .
j j . v (A1 )
v (A2 ) A1 A2 , j

, . , j
j j ,
j j.
j , j j -
j.
, , j . v
A1 , j
j A1 A2 , A2 . ,
j j A1 A2 , j
v.

Slika 2.16: j Ox1 x2 .

j16 , j 2-
2.16.
r 1 r 2
r=
d dx + 2 dx , (2.130)
x1 x

r = g1 dx1 + g2 dx2 .
d (2.131)
16
Wiley Online Library: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/

90


r
,g = (2.132)
x
j , j j j. j :

= g , = g , (2.133)
x x
j j , . j j /x j -
j j.
j , g , j .
, j :

v = g
(v g ) = v = g (v g ). (2.134)
x x
,
v
g
v = g [(
) g + v ( )] . (2.135)
x x
:

g
= g . (2.136)
x
j j
j g .
, j


g
g = ( g g ), (2.137)
x
j
g
= g , (2.138)
x
j j g g = . j j (2.132),
j
2 r
= g . (2.139)
x x
j

= . (2.140)

J (2.139) j jj , j
j .

g = g g , (2.141)

j j:

= g . (2.142)

91


,
. (2.140)
j j

= . (2.143)

, (2.138) :

g
g
= g g
= g . (2.144)
x x
j
g
g
g

= g ( ) + ( ) g , (2.145)
x x x

g
= + . (2.146)
x
:
g
= + , (2.147)
x
g
= + . (2.148)
x
j (2.148) (2.147), (2.146) j
, j
1 g g g
= ( + ). (2.149)
2 x x x
j
1 g g g
= g ( + ). (2.150)
2 x x x
j j .
j (2.135)
v
v = g (v

g ) =
g
( g + v g ) . (2.151)
x x
j j j j , j

v
(v

g ) = ( + v ) g . (2.152)
x x
, = 0, j j
j j
v
(v

g ) = ( ) g , (2.153)
x x
j .


v = g (v g ), (2.154)
x

92


v
v = ( g g ),
+ v ) ( (2.155)
x
j j.
, j
j 2, j j 2 2 2 = 8, j, j 6.
- j 4, j j 43 = 64, j j 40.

2.7.1. .

. Oxyz , {x, y, z}.

d`2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ,
j j :

gxx gxy gxz 1 0 0

(g ) = gyx gyy gyz = 0 1 0 .
gzx gzy gzz 0 0 1

2.7.2. .

. j , {r, , z},

d`2 = dr2 + r2 d2 + dz 2 ,

1 0 1 0
g = ( ), g = ( ).
0 r2 0 r1

j (x gyz = gyz /x) :

0 0 0 0
r g = ( ), g = ( ).
0 2r 0 0

:
0 0 0 r1
r = ( ), = (
).
0 r r1 0
j 3- Orz 2- r

j . z .

(2.136) :

r gr = rr g = 0, gr = r g = 1r g ,
{
r g = rr g = 1r g , g = r g = r

g r,

j gr , g gz . .

2.7.3. .

93


. r, , .
jj j j Oxy j , a j
z j . j

d`2 = dr2 + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 ,

j j :
2
r 0 r 0
2
0 0
g = 0 r2 sin2 0 , g
= 0 (r sin )2 0 . (2.156)
0 0 r2 0 0 r2

0 0 0 0 1/r 0 0 0 1/r
= 0 r sin 0 ,
r 2
= 1/r

0 ctg , = 0 sin cos 0 .

0 0 r 0 ctg 0 1/r 0 0

j j A = 0 2.5.1. j = /2 j
.

dx1 , dx2 dx3 dx0 = icdt,

j, . j
j s(x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) , (2.130)
j

s
s=
d dx , {0, 1, 2, 3}. (2.157)
x
(2.131), j

s = g dx ,
d (2.158)

j g (2.132),
. j -

ds2 = d s = g g dx dx = g dx dx ,
s d (2.159)

j , j. g0k = 0,
k = 1, 2, 3, j . , j
, -

ds2 = d`2 g00 c2 dt2 , (2.160)

jj .
j, j ,
cdt j j j , j
g00 = 1. , j j
j . j , j ,
j g00 . j
j -. (160)
g00 j , ,
j j.

94


2.8 j j
j j17 j : j .
jj
j , jj j j
, j, j18 . j j
, j j .
j , j j
j . j , j
j , j.
j ,
j j ,
.
N , 3 , 3N
j j. 3N .
q j j j N
.

Slika 2.17: j j.

2.17 q(t) t1 t2 ,
j.
j j j j ( j), j j 19
j, j L = Ek Ep , j. j j:
t2
S= L dt. (2.161)
t1

17
Principle of least action: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_action
18
Richard Feynman (1918-1988), j .
19
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813), j .

95


j j j ,
j .
j j,
.

2.8.1. j j
:

= F .
mx (2.162)

. . j ,
j j m

1 1 dx 2
Ek = mv 2 = m ( ) . (2.163)
2 2 dt
j jj j x , j (2.161) j:
t2
m dx d 2
S(x + ) = [ ( + ) Ep (x + )] dt
t1 2 dt dt
t2
m dx 2 dx d m d 2
= [ ( ) +m + ( ) Ep (x + )] dt.
t1 2 dt dt dt 2 dt
j j j
1
Ep (x + ) = Ep (x) + Ep (x) + 2 Ep (x) + . . . , (2.164)
2
j
t2
m dx 2 dx d
S(x + ) = [ ( ) Ep (x) + m Ep (x) + . . . ] dt. (2.165)
t1 2 dt dt dt

S = S(x) S() jj j. jj j
j , j:
t2
dx d
S = [m Ep (x)] dt =
t1 dt dt

RRRt2 t2 t2
dx R
R
= m (t)RRR
d dx
(m ) dt Ep (x)(t) dt
dt RRR t1 dt dt t1
t1
t2
d2 x
= [m 2 Ep (x)] (t) dt.
t1 dt
jj j S j j , j. j .
j
d2 x
m 2 + Ep (x) = 0, (2.166)
dt
j F = ma.

96


j L = Ek Ep j
q(t), q(t)
t,

L = L(q(t), q(t),
t). (2.167)

, j , j
j j
L d L
= 0, (2.168)
q dt q
j j- j.
2.8.2. j- j (2.168).
. q(t) (t). (2.161)
j j: t2
S= L[q(t) + (t), q(t)
+ (t),
t] dt.
t1
. j  , dS/d = 0,
j j j
t2
L L
( + dt = 0.
)
t1 q q
j j
Rt2 t2
t2
L L RRRR d L
dt =
(t) RRR (t) dt,
q q RR dt q
t1 Rt1 t1

j ( ).

t2
L d L
( (t) (t)) dt = 0.
t1 q dt q
j (t), jj (t)
j , j. (2.168).

J (2.167) j20 1970. , j .

. j
, j.
j j 1755. j.
, j
. j , j
j 1766. .
2.8.3. l
j j
g
+ sin = 0, (2.169)
l
j g .
20
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), j .

97


. 2.18 j jj , l j
, j, j j j m. j v = l, j
j Ek = 2 mv = 2 ml . j j Ep y
1 2 1 2 2

. j = 0 j Ep = 0, j y = l(1 cos ), j Ep = mgy.

j j j j :
1
L = Ek Ep = ml2 2 mgl(1 cos ),
2
j q1 = . :
L L d L
= mgl sin , = ml2 ,
( ) = ml2 ,

dt
j j- j. j:
d L L
( ) = ml2 + mgl sin = 0,
dt
g
+ sin = 0,
l
j j.

Slika 2.18: .

j- j j ,
(2.31) j j j L = g x x .
J (2.168) j
d L L
( ) = 0, (2.170)
d x x
.

2.8.4. j .

98


. 2.18 j . j j j

d`2 = sin 2 d2 + d2 . (2.171)

2.7.3 j r = 1.
j j j

L = sin2 2 + 2 ,

L L d L
= 0, = 2 sin2 ,
( ) = 2 sin2 + 4 sin cos ,

d

L L d L
= 2 sin cos 2 , = 2,
( ) = 2.

d
j j- j (2.170), j:

+ 2 ctg = 0,
{ (2.172)
sin cos 2 = 0.

j j j j . j
.

(2.172) jj 2.7.3, j

+ x x = 0.
x (2.173)

j j j . j
, 21 j .
j

ds2 = g dx dx , (2.174)

g j , = 0, 1, 2, 3. jj
j ,
jj. j j j c = 1.
j, A B,

B B B
x x
AB = ds2 = g dx dx =
g d, (2.175)
A A A d d

. -
j d /d j j j f ( ())

df df d df
= =L , (2.176)
d d d d
j j.
21
Dr. Russell L. Herman: Derivation of the Geodesic Equation, March 13, 2008

99


j- j jj
d L L
( ) = 0, (2.177)
d x x
j x = x /d. . :
L 1 g dx dx L g dx dx
= = . (2.178)
x 2L x d d 2 x d d
:
L 1 x dx
= g ( + ) = (2.179)
x 2L d
1 dx dx
= (g + g )
2L d d
1 dx
= g .
L d
:
d L d 1 dx
( )= ( g )= (2.180)
d x d L d
d dx
=L (g )
d d
d2 x g dx
= L (g + )
d 2 d d
d2 x g x x
= L (g + )
d 2 x d d
d2 x 1 g g dx dx
= L [g + ( + ) ].
d 2 2 x x d d
(g = g ). -
, j .
:
d L L
0= ( ) = (2.181)
d x x
d2 x 1 g g dx dx L g dx dx
= L [g + ( + ) ] .
d 2 2 x x d d 2 x d d
j , j:
d2 x 1 g dx dx 1 g g dx dx
g = ( + ) = (2.182)
d 2 2 x d d 2 x x d d
1 g g g dx dx
= ( + )
2 x x x d d
1 g g g dx dx
( + )
2 x x x d d
dx dx
= g .
d d
dx
j (2.173) j j, j x = d . ,
(2.150) .

100


2.9
j (1.49), j
2.5.1.
, j j .
x0 = ct , (2.96),
rs = 2GM /c2 . j

rs 2 2 rs 1
ds2 = (1 ) c dt + (1 ) dr2 + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 . (2.183)
r r
j ds2 j, j d` dt
. j ds .

Slika 2.19: .

j dx0 = cdt dr j j (1)

(r ), (r )
(2.183)

ds2 = c2 dt2 + dr2 + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 , (2.184)

Or.

rs 1 2
d`2 = (1 ) dr + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 (2.185)
r
j dr, d2 = sin2 d2 + d2 .
j j j j j
j (2.184). j ds
j j j r
(2.183). , j j j
. j ds j
, j j, j:
rs 2 2
(1 ) c dt + d`2 = c2 dt20 + d`20 , d` = d`0 = 0,
r

101


dt0
dt = . (2.186)
1 rrs
j j ,
, j. j r rs ,
j.
, j

rs
dS = dS0 1 , (2.187)
r

j dS0 j22 .
j j? J,
j j .
j j, j ,
(1.41) j j j
j (2.187).
j , j
() j .
, j v = d` 0
dt0 ,
r , j
:
rs
(1 ) c2 dt2 + d`2 = c2 dt20 + d`20 , d` = 0,
r
rs 2 2
(1 ) c dt = (c2 v 2 )dt20 ,
r
j

1 v2

dt =
c2
dt0 . (2.188)
1 rrs
2
j j vc2 = rrs , j (1.41).
j j j j
, , j j
jj j .
j ??.
j , j j ,
j .
, j j .
j j
j ,
. j j

rs
dr = dr0 1 , d = d0 , (2.189)
r
j .
22
j , .

102


(2.186) , .
j j (2.189). , j
(c) j , (c ).
j j
c
c = . (2.190)
1 rs
r

j, r rs ,
. j j
j jj23 . j (2.190) 24 , j
.
j j () ,
(j) jj . ,
j , , .
jj j j j
, .
, j.
(2.183) :

000 = 0 00r = 0r0 = 2r2 (1r

rs
s /r)
0rr = 0
r00 = 12 (1 rrs ) rrs2 r0r = rr0 = 0 rrr = 2r2 (1r
rs
s /r) (2.191)
r = (1 rrs ) r sin2 r = r (1 rrs ) r =
r = 1
r
= = ctg = r = 1r = sin cos

r

dx
j 4- u = ds :

rs cdt 2 rs 1 dr 2 d 2 d 2
1 = (1 )( ) + (1 ) ( ) + r2 sin2 ( ) + r2 ( ) , (2.192)
r ds r ds ds ds
rs rs 1
) (u0 )2 + (1 ) (ur )2 + r2 sin2 (u )2 + r2 (u )2 ,
1 = (1
r r
j ( ds) .
J j j (u = du ds ) , :

u + u u = 0. (2.193)

ds = d , j C ,
j j , j j .
j j:

u 0 + rs
u0 ur = 0


r2 (1 rrs )


u r + 2r 2 (1 r ) (u ) 2r 2 (1 r ) (ur )2 r (1 )
r [sin (u ) + (u )2 ] = 0
rs rs 0 2 rs rs 1 rs 2 2



u + r u u + 2 ctg u u = 0
2 r




u + 2r ur u sin cos (u )2 = 0.

j j j j.
23
Hawking radiation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation
24
.

103


, ur = u = u = 0, (2.185)

cdt i
(u 0 )t=0 = ( ) = , i2 = 1, (2.194)
ds t=0 1 rs
r0

j r0 . j ,
j j . j:

u + r2 (1 rrs ) u u = 0
0 rs 0 r
(2.195)


u + 2r2 (1 r ) (u ) (1 ) (ur )2 = 0,
r rs rs 0 2 rs rs 1
2r2 r

j j

rs rs 1
1 = (1 ) (u0 )2 + (1 ) (ur )2 . (2.196)
r r
j:
rs
du0 + u0 dr = 0,
r (1 rrs )
2

du0 1 1
=( ) dr,
u 0 r r rs

rs 1
u0 = C0 (1 ) , (2.197)
r

j C0 = i 1 rr0s j, j (2.194).
j j (2.196):
2
rs rs 1 rs 1
1 = (1 ) [C0 (1 ) ] + (1 ) (ur )2 ,
r r r

rs 1 rs 1
1 = C02 (1 ) + (1 ) (ur )2 ,
r r
rs
(1 ) + C02 = (ur )2 ,
r
rs rs
(1 ) (1 ) = (ur )2 ,
r r0

rs rs
u =
r
. (2.198)
r0 r
, r < r0 , j ,
j j 4- , j. j,
. ur = dr/ds ds = dr/u2 , :

dr 1 rdr
s= = .
rs
r0 rs
r
rs r
r0 1

104


y = r j dy = 12
dr
, j (2.49)
r
y = r0 ch dy = r0 sh d. :

2 y 2 dy 2 (r0 ch )2 r0 sh d
s= 2 = =
rs rs sh
r0 1
y

2(r0 )3/2 (r0 )3/2
= ch d =
2
(ch2 + 1 + sh2 )d
rs rs

(r0 )3/2 (r0 )3/2 1
= (ch 2 + 1)d = ( sh 2 + )
rs rs 2

(r0 )3/2 r
= (sh ch + ch1 ),
rs r0

r0 r0 r
s= r+ r0 ch 1
, (2.199)
rs rs r0
j ch1 x j ch x.
j (2.195), j u0 :

rs rs rs rs 1 r 2
0 = u r + (1 ) (u )
0 2
(1 ) (u ) ,
2r2 r 2r2 r
rs rs rs 1 rs rs 1 r 2
0 = u r (1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (u )
2r2 r0 r 2r2 r
rs 1 rs 1
u r = [ (1 ) + (ur )2 ] ,
r(r rs ) 2 r0 2
j u1 = dr
ds :

ur dur rs
= dr,
2 [(1 rs /r0 ) + (u ) ]
1 r 2 r(r rs )

2ur dur
= ln r ln(r rs ),
(1 rs /r0 ) + (ur )2
rs rs
ln [(1 ) + (ur )2 ] = ln (1 ) ,
r0 r
rs rs rs rs
(ur )2 = (1 ) (1 ) = , (2.200)
r r0 r0 r
(2.198).
(2.197) j :

cdt i 1 rr0s rs rs rs rs
= = i (1 ) (1 ) = i (1 ) = i,
ds 1 r
rs
2r0 r r0 r

1 d2 r
ds2 = c2 dt2 , (ur )2 = . (2.201)
c2 dt2

105


2.10
.
j, j .
j
v = r
r + r sin + r,
(2.202)
, r, Or.
( ) j
= r p
L

= m
r (r
r + r sin + r)

= mr sin r + mr r ,

= mr r (sin + ).
L (2.203)
, L ,
, j = 2 .

j v j Oxy :

v = r
r + r ,
= mr2 k,
L (2.204)

j k j z-. ,
jj , 2.20.

Slika 2.20: .

j j
1 GM m
E = m(r 2 + r2 2 ) . (2.205)
2 r
j j j :
E
l = r2 ,
E= . (2.206)
m
j = l/r2 , :
1 2 l2 GM
E= (r + 2 ) ,
2 r r

106


l2 2GM
r = 2E + .
r2 r
j , r(), = 1/r2 j (u = 1/r):

ldr
=
2
r2 2E rl 2 + 2GM
r

ldu
=
2E l2 u2 + 2GM u

ldu
= .
2
( GM
l lu) + 2E +
G2 M 2
l2
2 2
y = GM
l lu, A2 = 2E + G lM
2 , :

dy A cos d y
= = = = arcsin ( ) ,
y + A
2 2 A cos A

GM GM l
A sin = y = lu = ,
l l r
1 GM A
= 2 sin ,
r l l
r2
r= GM
,
2l2 E
1 1+ G2 M 2
sin
a
r= , (2.207)
1 e sin
j j Or.
Oxy j, :

r er sin = a,

r = a + ey,
r2 = a2 + 2aey + e2 y 2 ,
x2 + y 2 = a2 + 2eay + e2 y 2 ,
x2 + y 2 2eay ey 2 = a2 ,
ae 2 e2
x2 + (1 e) (y ) = a2 (1 + ),
1e 1e

x2 (y y0 )2
+ = 1, (2.208)
b2 c2
j y0 = ae/(1 e), b = a2 [1 + e2 /(1 e)], c2 = b2 /(1 e). j
(0, y0 ) j j j (E < 0).
j, j, j
j .

107


j . j j
j (2.193), j (2.183) = 2 , u2 (0) = 0, :

u 0 r2 (1r
rs
u0 ur = 0,


s /r)
u r + (1 rrs ) 2r 2 (u ) (ur )2 (1 )
r r(u ) = 0,
rs 0 2 rs rs 2
2r2 (1rs /r)


u + 2r ur u = 0,



u = 0.

j u = 0. :

du 2

= dr,
u r
const.
u = ,
r2
j , r2 dd = l0 . (2.197)
j j, j C0
.
ds2
j d 2 = 1,
d j j, :

C02 1 dr 2 l02
1 = rs + 2 ( ) + ,
1 r c (1 rs
r
) d c2 r2

rs 1 dr 2 l2 rs
1 + = C02 + 2 ( ) + 20 2 (1 ) ,
r c d c r r
1 dr 2 rs l02 rs
2
( ) = C 2
0 1 + 2 2
(1 ) .
c d r c r r
C0 , j = 0, j dr
d = 0. :

C02 l02
1 = + ,
1 rrs c2 r02

l02 2GM l02

C02 = (1 + ) (1 ),
c2 r02 c2 r02

2 2
1 + l0 2GM 2GM l0 ,
C0 =
c2 r02 c2 r02 c4 r03

j rs = 2GM /c2 , j:

dr 2 2GM 2GM l02 2GM l2 2GM

( ) = + + 2 (1 2 ) 02 (1 2 ) .
d r0 r r0 c r0 r c r

J 2 = l02 /r4 :

dr 2 2GM 2GM 1 2GM 1 2GM

( ) = r4 [ 2
+ 2
+ 2 (1 2 ) 2 (1 2 )] ,
d r0 l0 rl0 r0 c r0 r c r

108


dr
d = .
r2 2GM
r l2
+ 2GM
rl02
+ 1
r02
(1 2GM
c2 r0
) r12 (1 2GM
c2 r
)
0 0

= 1/r j:

12 u2 d
d = ,
2GM
l2
0 + 2GM
l02
+ u20 (1 2GM
c2
0 ) 2 (1 2GM
c2 r
)
0

d 2 2GM 2GM 2GM 2GM

( ) = [02 (1 2 0 ) 2 0 ] + 2 2 + 2 3 ,
d c l0 l0 c
j j .
:
d 2GM 2GM
= , A = 02 (1 2
0 ) 2 0 ,
d c l0
2GM 2GM
B= , C= ,
l02 c2
j:
( )2 = A + B 2 + C 3 ,

d
d = . (2.209)
A + B 2 + C 3
,
, , j j j .
j 2.21.

Slika 2.21: .

(2.209) , ,
j . 2 ,
+
d
2 = 2 ,
A + B 2
. j 2 :
+
d
= 2 2 . (2.210)
A + B 2 + C 3

109


j , j 43 , j
j .
ds2
j j d 2 = 0,
. j :

rg 0 2GM
(1 ) u = C0 = 1 ,
r r0

d
= l0 = cr0 ,
r2
d
j r0 j j j. :

rg dt 2 1 dr 2 r2 d 2 r2 d 2
0 = (1 )( ) + rg ( ) + sin2
( ) + 2( ) ,
r d c (1
2
r
) d c2 d c d

C02 1 dr 2 l02
= rg + 2 )(+ .
1 r c (1
rg
r
) d c2 r2
, rg = 2GM /r j:

dr 2 c2 r2 2GM
( ) = C02 c2 20 (1 ).
d r r
j j j:

l02 2GM
0 = C02 c2 2
(1 ),
r0 r0

2GM
0 = C02 (1 ).
r0
. j j r .
j
A = l0 = r0 1 2GM
C0 c 1
r0 , :

dr d r2 l02 2GM
/ = c2 C02 (1 ),
d d cr0 r2 r
dr
d =
l02
r2
cr0 c2 C02 r2
(1 2GM
r
)

dr
=
l02
(1 )
2
r rr2 C02 c r02
2
2GM
r
0

dr
=
2 r2 2GM
r rr2 1 + 2GM
r r02 r0
0

dr
= .
3 3
2 2GM r0 /r 1
r rr2 1 1 + r0 1r02 /r2
0

110


j j r0 .
, j

dr
= + 2 .
3 3
r2 2GM r0 /r 1
r r2 1 1 + r0 1r2 /r2
0 0

j MG
r0 << 1 r0
r = sin :
2
3 2 1 2
= + 2
dr 1 + GM (1 r0 ) (1 r0 ) + O ( G M )

1
r0 r 3 r 2 r02
r2
r r02

2 1
3
= + 2
r0 dr
1 + GM (1 r0 ) (1 r0 )

r2 1
r02 r0 r3 r2
r2
/2
GM
= + 2 d [1 + (1 sin3 )(1 sin2 )1 ]
0 r0
/2
GM
= + 2 d [1 + (1 + sin + sin2 )(1 + sin )1 ]
0 r0
R/2
2GM RRRR
= (1 + sin ) (cos + sin ) [cos cos + (cos 2) sin ] RRR
1
r0 2 2 2 2 RR
R0
2GM 1 2m
= ( 2) (2) ,
2r0 2 r0
4GM
= . (2.211)
r0

Slika 2.22: j .

4GM 4 6, 67 1011 1, 99 1030

= = 1, 748 ,
r0 6, 69 108
1,75 . j
.

111


2.11
25 Rijkl
j
j j j. j j j
, 2.23.
,
A --
N
B A.
, j
j
. j 0, j .
j j
j j
, j j

0,
j j
.
j j j

, = 0.

j j
j j
j
Slika 2.23: .
j . j ,
j j f = f (x)
, j A(x, f (x)) j

f (x + h) f (x) df
f (x) = lim = = tg , (2.212)
h0 h dx

j = (x) (x-) A.

Slika 2.24: j .
25
Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866), .

112


2.24 j tg = BC AC . f j , j
j .
j j ( ), j , j
, 0 < < 90 , j j j
j, j. f (x) = tg (x) > 0. j j j j, j
j . ()
j j ( ),
( ) . j,
j j .
, 3- Oxyz j,
, T = T (x, y, z) j .
,

T T T
grad T = i+ j+ k = T, (2.213)
x y z
j j. J ,
i, j k.
,
,
T = T (x, y, z),
. j j
j
j , j
j . j

, j

j (2.213), j j
.
j n = n(x, y, z) j
,
j . j
j -
. , nx , ny nz , j j.
j j . j j
, ,
j j:
T T T
grad T n = nx + ny + nz = grad T cos . (2.214)
x y z
j (j) j j j j
, = 0, j j , cos 0 = 1. j j T0
, , j j (2.214) .
2.11.1. (2.214) j j j
j T .
. - j ( 4.2.2)

x1 y1 + x2 y 2 + + xk yk x21 + x22 + + x2k y12 + y22 + + yk2 , (2.215)

113


j xi , yj R, j j
j j xi = yi i = 1, 2, . . . , k. (2.214) j
j T = n , {x, y, z}. grad T n.

Oxyz Or, :
T T r T T
= + + , (2.216)
r
{x, y, z}. j
T 1 T 1 T
grad T = gr + g + g , (2.217)
r r sin r
gr , g g j r, .
2.11.2. j .
. j
,
. ( j )
-, j , .
j T0 , j

T0 2GM
T= , rs = , (2.218)
1 r
rs c2
j .
rs T0
grad T = 2
gr . (2.219)
2r (1 rs )
3
r

j T j
j .

( ),
j

rs
S = S0 1 , (2.220)
r
j S0 j j . ,
jj j j (1.9),

Q = Q0 . (2.221)
, Q j H ( j) jj
j j .
j jj, , j j
.
j j (2.220)
rs S0
grad S = gr . (2.222)
2r2 1 rs
r

114


j j j j
j j . ,
j , .
, r1 r2
j j j (2.220). j r1 < r2 j S1 < S2 ,
j j (j) j. j
() ( j )
, j .
, j j
.
, j v1 > v2 , j r1 < r2 .
j . J ,
j j . , j j
, ( ) j j, ,
j . j j j .
j , j j
, , j
() , j j (j).
, j
. j j ,
. j j
, j .
j 1.11. j
r j (1.39), j j
j .
j .
, j j j.
j () j A
B. , j.
A (j
)
(j) .
A B .
B j . j
, j ,
j .
j, j j ,
j ? j.
, j.
j j AB, BA, j
j A B.
j j . jj
j j , j
. j j j
j j . j ()
j, .
j . j
j (2.129) j j .

115


j. j Ak j j
:
Ak
j Ak = j
+ Ai kij . (2.223)
x
j (2.150).
: 1. j j j
j; 2. j j :

j (uk + v k ) = j (uk + v k ) + (uk + v k )kij = j uk + j v k , (2.224)

. j = /xj .

2.11.3. j

j Bk = j Bk Bi ikj . (2.225)

j j j Bk .

. j

j (Ai Bi ) = j (Ai Bi ) = (j Ai )Bi + Ai (j Bi ),

j :
j (Ai Bi ) = (j Ai )Bi + Ai (j Bi ) =
= (j Ai + Ak ikj )Bi + Ai (j Bi ).
j j:

(j Ai + Ak ikj )Bi + Ai (j Bi ) = (j Ai )Bi + Ai (j Bi ),

Bi Ak ikj + Ai (j Bi ) = Ai (j Bi ),

Bi Ak ikj + Ak (j Bk ) = Ak (j Bk ),

[Bi ikj + (j Bk )]Ak = Ak (j Bk ).

i k , Ak j
, :
Bi ikj + (j Bk ) = j Bk ,
j j j .

j (2.223) (2.225)
j j j ,

l Cjk
i
= l Cjk
i
+ Cjk
m i
lm Cmk
i
lj Cjm lk .
m i m
(2.226)

2.11.4. j
j gkl = 0. (2.227)

116


. :

j gkl = j gkl m
jk gml jl gkm =
m

1 1
= j gkl g mn (k gjn + j gnk n gkj )gml g mn (l gjn + j gnl n gjl )gkm
2 2
1 1
= j gkl (k gjl + j glk l gkj ) (l gjk + j gkl k glj )
2 2
= 0,
j gij = gji . , j j j
, j .

2.11.5. j j

2GM
v = (1 , 0, 0, 0) (2.228)
r
j .

. j j
2
0 GM
r2
(1 2GM
r
) 0 0
3GM 0
j v =
k
r
2 0 0 .
(2.229)
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

j Or.

j j ,
j j j .
Ak x x + dx xj j:

Ak (x + dx) = Ak + Ak = Ak (x) kij Ai xj , (2.230)

Ak (x + dx) Ak (x) xj
= kij Ak ,
ds ds
dAk
+ kij Ai Aj = 0,
ds
j j (2.173).
, j x + dx,
j , j:

(Ak Ai gki ) = 2(Ak )Ai gki + Ak Ai gki =

= 2kmn Am xn Ai gki + Ak Ai gki,n xn , gki,n = n gki

= g kj (gjm,n + gjn,m gmn,j )gki Am Ai xn + Ak Ai gki,n xn

= (gim,n + gin,m gmn,i )Am Ai xn + Ak Ai gki,n xn = 0.

117


j j, ()
j :

(Ai B j gij ) = (Ai )B j gij + Ai (B j )gij + Ai B j gij = (2.231)

= imn Am xn B j gij jmn B m xn Ai gij + Ai B j gij,n xn

1
= g ik (gkm,n + gkn,m gmn,k )gij Am B j xj
2
1
= g jk (gkm,n + gkn,m gmn,k )gij B m Ai xn + Ai B j gij,n xn
2
1
= (gjm,n + gjn,m gmn,j )(Am B j + Aj B m )xn + Ai B j gij,n xn ,
2

(Ai B j gij ) = 0. (2.232)

P (xi ), Q(xi + dxi )
A j Ak P Ak + dAk Q. j dAk
j , Ak j. ,
j Ak + Ak Q Ak P j j -
j DAk = dAk Ak , j j , j .
Ak + Ak j , Ak P Q.
jj j j Ak = kli Al dxi , j

DAk = dAk + kli Al dxi = Ak;i dxi , (2.233)

(2.223) DAk = i Ak j j.
j j .
j , -
. j j
, .
2.11.6. j j j j
:
k
Rlji jl jm il .
= i kjl j kil + kim m k m
(2.234)

. j j j j j, :

ij m T + im j T
i j Ak = i (j T k ) m k k m
(2.235)

= i j T k + i (kjm T m ) m
ij (m T + ml T ) + im (j T + jl T )
k k l k m m l

= i j T k + (i kjm )T m + (i T m )kjm m
ij (m T + ml T ) + im (j T + jl T ).
k k l k m m l

( i j)
, j

i j T k j i T k = (i kjl j kil + kim m

jl jm il )T ,
k m l

(i j j i )T k = Rlji
k
T k,
Ak j.

118


2.12
j j j
. j .
j - j
. , -
j .
j26 j j. j Rjkl
l

Rki = Rmki
m
. (2.236)

X n j j : Rik = Rki . j
j X n j

R = g ij Rij (2.237)

j j X n .
j 27 gij
g = det(gij )

2 ln g k m ln g
Rij = k ij + ik mj ij
m k
, (2.238)
xi xj x xm

kij gij .
, j .
, (gij ) (g ij ) j j . ,
(j j), :

Rlijk = gls Rijk

s
, m
Rijk = g ml Rlijk . (2.239)

j ,
-:

Rabcd = Rcdab , Rabcd = Rbacd = Rabdc . (2.240)

j . jj :

Rabcd + Racdb + Radbc = 0,

{ (2.241)
Rabcd;e + Rabde;c + Rabec;d = 0,

j Rabcd;e = e Rabcd .

2.12.1. .

. Or j

ds2 = r2 sin2 2 + r2 d2 , r = const. (2.242)

26
G. Ricci, Atti R. Inst. Venelo, 53: 2 (19031904), pp. 12331239.
27
Encyclopedia of Mathematics: www.encyclopediaofmath.org

119


sin2 0 sin2 0
(gij ) = r2 ( ), (g ij ) = r2 ( ), (2.243)
0 1 0 1

j j (gij )(g ij ) j .

0 ctg sin cos 0

ij = (ctg

0
), ij = (
0 0
). (2.244)

2- j j


R = + k k k k ,

R = sin2 . (2.245)
j :

sin2 0 2
(Rij ) = ( ), R= . (2.246)
0 1 r2

2.12.2. .

. (2.183)
(2.191).

2GM 2GM 1
t
Rrtr = (1 ) . (2.247)
r3 r
j , - j . ,
r Rrtr
t
0,
. , j

Rij = 0, (2.248)

j , R = 0.

j j j , j? j
. j 4 ,
j, j
- .
jj j (2.97), j (
) j T j28 . j
j j () j, j
j j .
j ,
. , Rij = 0 Tij = 0, j ,
28
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93energy%E2%80%93momentum_pseudotensor

120


(. ). j
j , .
j 29 j .
j j ,
(K 0), 2.25, j j
.

Slika 2.25: .

j j j (K = 0).
j (180 ).
a2 + b2 = c2 a b c.
O d = 2r j j j j = 3, 14159 . . .
( O d = ). . :
j . ,
j j j .
j K > 0. j
j j , 180 ,
j j
. j a2 + b2 > c2 .
j . ( ) .
, j .
j K < 0. j
30 . ,
j , j .
, .
j j
= 1/, j j
j. , K = 1 2 ,
2.25. j j .
j 1827. ,
j. , 
, j .
2, j . ,

 2
O = 2 sin 2 (1 2 ) . (2.249)
6
j j j j, j jj ,
29
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), .
30
, (1792-1856), .

121


j . j j
6 O
K = lim 2
(1 ). (2.250)
0  2
j j j
.
, j j j ,
j j (2.234). J j
j
K(u, v) = Rlijk ul v i uj v k , (2.251)
j K , (u, v) j
u v, Rlijk j (2.239). , j
j
Al = Rijk
l
Ai uj v k , (2.252)
j A
u v. j A Al .
j j j jj j.
j j x (s, t), j s t
. j S = dx /ds j j j j j
, T = dxm u/dt j j . j
j
tt S = R

ST T , (2.253)
. S j,
T j , j j
.
j j, , . j,
j v u .
j jj v
u . j v u ,
jj jj v j .
j .
j j j
j. ,
, j

. V x0 T = dx d

( V )K ( V )K=0 = V R T T , (2.254)
j j. (2.237), j j j
j , j . j j j
D > 2,  j
D 1 x0 . j V (),
j V0 (), j

6D V ()
R = lim [1 ] (2.255)
0 2 V0 ()
.

122
Glava 3

4- - j j
. 4- j j
jj j j j
j. , j
, j j , (2.253),
: j ?
J -j j1
j , j j . j
j . j 1.2 .
j j j, j
j j j . ,
j , j .
j , .
j (), j
j ( j ) j j.
j j , j j
j j ( ) .
j j ,
j . j ,
j j. , j j
. -
j j .
j ,
j j
j . ,
j j, j
j . j j j
j j j , j j
- . , j
, .
j j j .

1
KaluzaKlein theory: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory

123


3.1 j
j j j (R C)
j j j (
). , j
j ,
. , j.
J jj j j
2 2. J j
1 0
I = ( ). (3.1)
0 1
, j j
A ( ) IA = AI = A.

, j j:

2 = I.
(3.2)

j (+) j j2 :

0 1 0 i 1 0
1 = (
), 2 = (
), 3 = (
). (3.3)
1 0 i 0 0 1

j () j :

i 0 0 1 0 i
4 = (
), 5 = (
), 6 = (
). (3.4)
0 i 1 0 i 0

j:

2 = i
1 3 3 = i
2 1 1 = i
3 2
{ (3.5)
5 =
4 6 6 =
5 4 4 =
6 5 ,

j i = 1 j. j

4 =
3 1 = iI.
6 (3.6)

, j .
j , j
j,
j .
J j j ( )
2 2. A j j
j x, y, u, v j

m + y
x n + u
p + v I = A,
(3.7)

m, n, p 1, 2 3 4, 5 6.
4- .
j ( ) j (
) j .
2
Wolfgang Pauli (1900-1958), j-j- j .

124


3.1.1. j j .

. (3.6):

1 + y
x 2 + u
3 + v I = A,

0 1 0 i 1 0 1 0 a b
x( )+y( ) + u( )+v( )=( ),
1 0 i 0 0 1 0 1 c d
u + v x iy a b
( )=( ),
x + iy u + v c d
u+v =a
x = c+b




2

x iy = b
y = i cb
2

x + iy = c
u = da





2
u + v = d,
v= 2 .
d+a

, j a, b, c, d j j
j x, y, u, v, j j .

3.1.2. j
.

. (2.262) :
4 + y
x 5 + u
6 + v I = A,

i 0 0 1 0 i 1 0 a b
x( )+y( ) + u( )+v( )=( ),
0 i 1 0 i 0 0 1 c d
ix + v y + iu a b
( )=( ),
y + iu ix + v c d

x y i ad bc
( ) = ( b+c2
a+d ) .
2
u v i 2 2
j a, b, c, d j j x, y, u, v, j
.

4- - j

4 , j j 4 . j
0 j. ,
j , j j
, j. , j,
, , j
j .
j , j j ,
j j C. j z = x+iy, x y
j, (x, y) .
(x-) j, (y-)
. j C j
C. j 3.1.
j j (2.53).
j. O j z,

125


Slika 3.1: C.

z, j z j z.
() j Oz j z
j arg(z). 3.1 :
y
z = x2 + y 2 = , arg(z) = arctg = , (3.8)
x
:
x = cos , y = sin . (3.9)
, j z = x + iy :

z = (cos + i sin ). (3.10)

j j j z .

3.1.3. j z1 = x1 + iy1 z2 = x2 + iy2 :

1. z1 z2 = (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + y1 x2 );
2. z1 z2 = z1 z2 ;
3. arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).

. 1. , j, j:

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 + ix1 y2 + iy1 x2 y1 y2 ,

j, j.
2. :
x1 x2 y1 y2 x1 y2 + y1 x2
z1 z2 = (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + y1 x2 ) = ( +i ), (3.11)


j = (x1 x2 y1 y2 )2 + (x1 y2 + y1 x2 )2 . j

x1 x2 y1 y2 2 x1 y2 + y1 x2 2
( ) +( ) = 1,
r r
j = z1 z2 , (x1 x2 y1 y2 )/ = cos (x1 y2 + y1 x2 )/ = sin ,
j = arg(z1 z2 ).

126


3. j 1 = arg(z1 ) 2 = arg(z2 ). :

x1 y1
z1 = x1 + iy1 = x21 + y12 + i , (3.12)
x1 + y1
2 2 x1 + y1
2 2

j 1 j:
x1 y1
cos 1 = , sin 2 = , 1 = x21 + y12 , (3.13)
1 1

j j cos2 1 + sin2 1 = 1. z2 .
j:

cos(1 + 2 ) = cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2

x1 x2 y1 y2 x 1 x 2 y1 y2
= =
1 2 1 2 x21 + y12 x22 + y22
x1 x2 y1 y2
=
x21 x22 + x21 y22 + y12 x22 + y12 y22
x1 x2 y1 y2
=
(x21 x22 2x1 x2 y1 y2 + y12 y22 ) + (x21 y22 + 2x1 x2 y1 y2 + y12 x22 )
x 1 x 2 y1 y2 x 1 x 2 y1 y2
= = ,
(x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
2 2
cos(1 + 2 ) = cos .
sin(1 + 2 ) = sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2 = sin .

. j j
.
i i j z = x + iy z = x iy.
j , j z z
, 3.1.

3.1.4. j z1 = x1 + iy1 z2 = x2 + iy2 :

1. z1 z2 = (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 y1 x2 );
2. R( z1 z2 ) = z1 z2 cos ;
3. I( z1 z2 ) = z1 z2 sin ;
j = z1 Oz2 j Oz1 Oz2 .

. 1. y1 y1 , 1. 3.1.3.
2. Oz1 z2 :

z1 z2 2 = z1 2 + z2 2 2z1 z2 cos .

:
1
z1 z2 cos = (z1 2 + z2 2 z1 z2 2 ) =
2
1
= [(x21 + y12 ) + (x22 + y22 ) (x1 x2 )2 (y1 y2 )2 ]
2

127


1
= [2x1 x2 + 2y1 y2 ] = R(
z1 z2 ),
2
z1 z2 cos = R(
z1 z2 ),

j .
3. j cos2 + sin2 = 1, :

z1 2 z2 2 sin2 = z1 2 z2 2 z1 2 z2 2 cos2 =

= (x21 + y12 )(x22 + y22 ) (x1 x2 + y1 y2 )2

= x21 y22 2x1 x2 y1 y2 + y12 x22

= (x1 y2 y1 x2 )2 = I2 (
z1 z2 ),

z1 z2 sin = I(
z1 z2 ),

j .

j ,
a j, :

z1 z2 = R(
z1 z2 ), z1 z2 = I(
z1 z2 ). (3.14)

j j3
j, :

1 1
z1 z2 = (
z1 z2 + z1 z2 ), z1 z2 = (
z1 z2 z1 z2 ), (3.15)
2 2
j j j:

z1 z2 = R(
z1 z2 ), z1 z2 = iI(
z1 z2 ). (3.16)

() j (j.
) , j j
- j .
j.
j,
j, j, j
j -. j jj
, j , j
. . j
j, ,
, .
, j,
.
3
j .

128


3.2
j O z j C

Oz, j z = x+iy. , z1 z2 z3
3.2, M z1 z3 N z2 z3 j zM = 12 (z1 + z3 )

z = 1 (z + z ), j M N j
n 2 2 3 zz. , 1 2
j zM = z1 + 21 (z3 z1 ) = 21 (z1 + z3 ) zN = 12 (z2 + z3 ) j
1 1 1
M N = zN zM = (z2 + z3 ) (z1 + z3 ) = (z2 z1 ), (3.17)
2 2 2

z1 z2 = z2 z1 . , 3.2 :
1 1 1
zM = (z1 + z3 ), zN = (z3 + z2 ), zP = (z2 + z1 ). (3.18)
2 2 2
j j P z1 z2 j zP . j
z1 N , z2 M z3 P G j
j, j j zG z1 N z2 M z3 P .

Slika 3.2: Complex plane C.

3.2.1. j
1
zG = (z1 + z2 + z3 ). (3.19)
3
. j ( 1 , 2 R):
zG = z1 + 1 (zN z1 ), zG = z2 + 2 (zM z2 ),
z1 + 1 (zN z1 ) = z2 + 2 (zM z2 ),
(2 21 22 )z1 + (1 22 2)z2 + (1 2 )z3 = 0,
2
1 = 2 = ,
3
j.

, j j:
z1
z
G + z 2 zG + z3 zG =

= (zG z1 ) + (zG z2 ) + (zG z3 ) = 3zG z1 z2 z3 = 0,

j (3.19) j .

129


3.2.2. (G) j j 2 1
.

. (zG z1 ) (zN zG ) =
z1 + z2 + z 3 z2 + z 3 z1 + z2 + z 3
=( z1 ) ( )=
3 2 3
z1 + z2 2z3 3(z1 + z2 ) 2(z1 + z2 + z3 )
=
3 6
z1 + z2 2z3 z1 + z2 2z3
= = 2 1,
3 6

(zG z1 ) (zN zG ) = 2 1, (3.20)

.

3.2.3. j z1 = 1 + 2i z2 = 2 + i j 1 2 ,
. z.

. ` = z2 z1 = 2 j j `1 , `2
. :

`1 `2 = m2 m1 ,

m2 ` 2 2 m1 ` 2
`1 = = , `2 = = ,
m1 + m2 3 m1 + m2 3

`(z2 z1 ) 2(1 i)
z = z1 + = (1 + 2i) + ,
m1 + m2 3

2 2
z = (1 + ) + i(2 ).
3 3

z1 = z2 = 5 2, 24 z 2, 12.

3.2.4. z1 = 2 + i, z2 = 5, z3 = 6 + 3i z4 = 1 + 2i .
.

. j :
z1 + z 2 + z3 z2 + z3 + z4 z3 + z4 + z 1 z 4 + z1 + z2
G1 = , G2 = , G3 = , G4 = ,
3 3 3 3
13 + 4i 12 + 5i 9 + 6i 8 + 3i
G1 = , G2 = , G3 = , G4 = .
3 3 3 3
G1 G3 G2 G4 j G. ,
:
G = G1 + (G3 G1 ) = G2 + (G4 G2 ),
13 + 4i + (4 + 2i) = 12 + 5i + (4 2i),
(4 + 2i) + (4 + 2i) = 1 + i,
(4 + 4) + (2 + 2)i = 1 + i,

130


4 + 4 = 1, 2 + 2 = 1,
3 1
= , = ,
8 8
46 + 19i
G= .
12
G j .

j
j j. j ,
.
n = 3, 4, 5, . . . , j .
k j .
j , j = 1, 2, . . . , k Gj j . j

Tj = j Gj j . Tj j .
A(Ax , Ay ), B(Bx , By ) C(Cx , Cy ) -
, 3.3. j (ABC)
j Ax Cx CA Cx Bx BC Ax Bx BA.

Slika 3.3: Triangle ABC.

: (ABC) = (Ax Cx CA) + (Cx Bx BC) (Ax Bx BA) =

1 1 1
= (Cy + Ay )(Cx Ax ) + (By + Cy )(Bx Cx ) (By + Ay )(Bx Ax )
2 2 2
1
= [Ax (By Cy ) + Bx (Cy Ay ) + Cx (Ay By )],
2
RRA B C RRR
1 RRRR x x xR
R
(ABC) = RRRAy By Cy RRRR . (3.21)
2 RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR
j j. j :

2(ABC) = [A, B] + [B, C] + [C, A], (3.22)

j
[A, B] = Ax By Bx Ay , (3.23)
B C. j [A, B] A B.

131


3.2.5. A, B, C, :

1. [A, B] = [B, A],

2. [A + B, C] = [A, C] + [B, C] ,

3. [A, B] = 0 A O B, .

4. A C B [A, B] = [A, C] + [C, B].

. 1. [A, B] = Ax By Bx Ay = (Bx Ay Ax By ) = [B, A].

2. [A + B, C] = (Ax + Bx )Cx Cx (Ay + By ) =

= (Ax Cy Cx Ay ) + (Bx Cy Cx By ) = [A, C] + [B, C].

3. [A, B] = 0 Ax By = Bx Ay Ax Ay = Bx By .
4. [A, B] + [B, C] + [C, A] = 0 [A, B] = [B, C] [C, A] = [A, C] + [C, A].

Slika 3.4: j .

3.4 , j ABCD:

(ABCD) = (ABC) + (CDA) =

= ([A, B] + [B, C] + [C, A]) + ([C, D] + [D, A] + [A, C])

= ([A, B] + [B, C] + [C, D] + [D, A]) + ([C, A] + [A, C]),

(ABCD) = [A, B] + [B, C] + [C, A] + [A, D]. (3.24)

j :

[A , B ] + [B , C ] + [C , D ] + [D , A ] =

= [A , E ] + [E , B ] + [B , C ] + [C , E ] + [E , D ] + [D , A ]
= ([A , E ] + [E , D ] + [D , A ]) + ([E , B ] + [B , C ] + [C , E ])
= (A E D ) + (E B C ) = (A B C D ),

(A B C D ) = [A , B ] + [B , C ] + [C , D ] + [D , A ]. (3.25)
, (3.24) (3.25), .

132


3.2.6. A1 (2, 1), A2 (5, 0), A3 (6, 3) A4 (1, 2) .

T (Tx , Ty ) .
. j A1 A3 j .
:

2(A1 A2 A3 A4 ) = [A1 , A2 ] + [A2 , A3 ] + [A3 , A4 ] + [A4 , A1 ] = 16,


21 (A1 , A2 , A3 ) = [A1 , A2 ] + [A2 , A3 ] + [A3 , A1 ] = 10,



22 (A3 , A4 , A1 ) = [A3 , A4 ] + [A4 , A1 ] + [A1 , A3 ] = 6.
, :
2+5+6 1+0+3 6+1+2 3+2+1
G1 ( , ), G2 ( , ),
3 3 3 3
5 3
G1 , T 2 = G2 ,
T1 =
8 8
5 13 4 3 9 6 5 13 + 3 9 5 4 + 3 6
T = T1 + T2 = ( , ) + ( , ) = ( , ),
8 3 3 8 3 3 24 24
46 19
T = ( , ).
12 12
j j .

j
(xk , yk ), k = 1, 2, . . . , n , j

gx = 1
6 k=1 (xk + xk+1 )(xk yk+1 xk+1 yk ),
n1
(3.26)
gy = 1
6 k=1 (yk + yk+1 )(xk yk+1 xk+1 yk ),
n1

j , (gx , gy ).
3.2.7. (3.26).
.
gx = 68 [(2 + 5)(2 0 5 1) + (5 + 6)(5 3 6 0) + (6 + 1)(6 2 1 3) + (1 + 2)(1 1 2 2)]
1

gy = 68 [(1 + 0)(2 0 5 1) + (0 + 3)(5 3 6 0) + (3 + 2)(6 2 1 3) + (2 + 1)(1 1 2 2)],

1

gx = 48 [7(5) + 11 15 + 7 9 + 3(3)] = 48 = 12
1 184 46

gy = 48 [1(5) + 3 15 + 5 9 + 3(3)] = 48 = 12 ,
1 76 19

j j .

, ( j) j j j j. j
j j, j
j. n N Gk mk ,
k = 1, 2, . . . , n, j
1 n n
G= mk Gk , m = mk . (3.27)
m k=1 k=1

, , n > 3 n-
j . (3.27) ,
(3.26), j .

133


3.3
ABC 3.5.
j A = Ax + iAy , B = Bx + iBy C = Cx + iCy , Ax , Ay , . . . , Cy R.
a = ax + iay = C B, b = bx + iby = A C c = cx + icy = B A.
j .

Slika 3.5: ABC j C.

3.3.1. j 4 = (ABC) :

2 = I(
ab) = I(bc) = I(
ca), (3.28)

I(ab) = I(b
c) = I(c
a) = 2.

. j (3.22) : I(ab) = I[(C B)(A C)] =

= I[(C B)(A C)]

= I(C A C C B A + B C)
=

= I[(Cx + iCy )(Ax iAy ) (Cx + iCy )(Cx iCy )

(Bx + iBy )(Ax iAy ) + (Bx + iBy )(Cx iCy )]
= I[(Cx Ax iCx Ay + iCy Ax + Cy Ay ) (Cx2 + Cy2 )
(Bx Ax iBx Ay + iBy Ax + By Ay ) + (Bx Cx iBx Cy + iBy Cx + By Cy )]
= Cx Ay + Cy Ax + Bx Ay By Ax Bx Cy + By Cx
= [C, A] [A, B] [B, C] = 2.
, j I(b c) = I(ca) = 2. z = ab j z = a
b
z ) = I(z), (3.22).
I(

3.3.2. A(2, 0), B(3, 0), C(0, 4) .

4
.

134


Slika 3.6: A = 2, B = 3, C = 4i.

. A = 2, B = 3 C = 4i. j:
A+B+C 1 4
G= = + i.
3 3 3
3.6. C :

a = C B = 3 + 4i, b = A C = 2 4i,

b = (3 4i)(2 4i) = 10 + 20i,

a
2 = I(
ab) = 20.
, j = 10.

3.3.3. j = (ABC) :

2 = I(AB)
+ I(BC)
+ I(CA).

. :

= (Ax iAy )(Bx + iBy ) = (Ax Bx + Ay By ) + i(Ax By Ay Bx )
AB


= (Bx iBy )(Cx + iCy ) = (Bx Cx + By Cy ) + i(Bx Cy By Cx )
BC



CA = (Cx iCy )(Ax + iAy ) = (Cx Ax + Cy Ay ) + i(Cx Ay Cy Ax ),

:
+ I(BC)
I(AB) + I(CA)
=
= (Ax By Ay Bx ) + (Bx Cy By Cx ) + (Cx Ay Cy Ax )
= (Bx Cy By Cx ) (Ax Cy Ay Cx ) + (Ax By Ay Bx )
RRRA B C RRR
RR x x xR
R
= RRRRAy By Cy RRRR = 2,
RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR
j (3.21), j .

3.3.4. :
1. A(2, 0), B(3, 0), C(0, 4); 2. A(1, 0), B(5, 0), C(0, 4);
3.3.3.

135


. 1. j A = 2, B = 3 C = 4i, A = 2, B
=3
C = 4i, j: AB
= 6, BC
= 12i CA
= 8i. :

2 = I(AB)
+ I(BC)
+ I(CA)
= 0 + 12 + 8 = 20.

, ABC j = 10.
2. j A = 1, B = 5 C = 4i :

2 = I(AB)
+ I(BC)
+ I(CA)

= I(5) + I(20i) + I(4i)

= 0 + 20 4 = 16,
, j = 8.

j j ,
. j
. j a, b c j j
( 3.5) AA , BB CC .
j
j ( 3.1.3). , j i = 1 j
90 O. 5 j j ia
a, j ib b ic c.
, R j:

A () = A + ha () = A ai

h
Bh () = B + hb () = B bi (3.29)



Ch () = C + hc () = C ci,
AA , BB CC .
, Ah (0) = A, Ah (a ) = A a = 2/a2 . ,
= 12 aha , a = 2/a2 j

2 2
A A = (A a ai) A = ai = = ha ,
a2 a

A = A + ha . :

= 2/a2 A = A + ha (a ) = A a ai

a
b = 2/b2 B = B + hb (b ) = B b bi (3.30)



c = 2/c C = C + hc (c ) = C c ci.
2

j:

a2 a + b2 b + c2 c = 6, (3.31)

j j A , B , C , j .
j j
A , B C , A, B
C .
5
i jj .

136


3.3.5. j:
1 1 1 1 1 1
a b c = = . (3.32)
ha hb hc a b c

. j aha = bhb = chc (3.30).

3.3.6. A(2, 0), B(3, 0), C(0, 4) .

Slika 3.7: A = 2, B = 3, C = 4i.

. 3.7. j:

A = 2, B = 3, C = 4i,
(3.33)
a = 3 + 4i, b = 2 4i, c = 5.

( 3.3.2) :
1 1
(ABC) = I(bc) = I[(2 + 4i)5] = 10,
2 2
(3.30), :
2 20 4 4
a = = 2 = , b = 1, c = .
a2 3 +4 2 5 5
j :

A = A a ai = 2 45 (3 + 4i)i = 65 + 12
5 i,
B = B b bi = 3 (2 4i)i = 1 + 2i,
C = C c ci = 4i 45 5i = 0.

, :

ha = A A = ( 65 + 12
5 i) (2) = 5 +
16 12
5 i, ha 2 = 16,
hb = B B = (1 + 2i) 3 = 4 + 2i, hb 2 = 20,
hc = C C = 0 4i = 4i, hc 2 = 16.

j ha 2 hb 2 hc 2 = a b c , (3.32).

137


3.3.7. j ABC 6 :

a + Bb + C
A c = 4i.

. , :

a + Bb + C
A c = A(C B)
+ B(A C)
+ C(B
A)

= AC AB
+ B A B C + C B
C A

= AB
+ B A B C + C B
C A + AC

= 2iI(AB)
+ 2iI(BC)
+ 2iI(CA)
= 4i,

j .

3.3.8. j ABC :

+ B b + C c = 2i,
A a

AA , BB CC .

, b, c :
. j (3.25) a

+ B b + C c = (A
A a a a a
ai) + (Bb b bbi) + (C
c c c
ci)

= (A
a + Bb + C
c) i(a2 a + b2 b + c2 c ),

3.3.7 (3.31):
= 4i 6i = 2i,

j j .

3.3.9. (3.16) j z1 = x1 + iy1

z2 = x2 + iy2 , :
1. z1 z2 = x1 x2 + y1 y2 ; 2. x1 x2 + y1 y2 = 0 z1 z2 .

. 1. z1 z2 = 21 (z1 z2 + z1 z2 ) =

1
= [(x1 + iy1 )(x2 iy2 ) + (x1 iy1 )(x2 + iy2 )]
2

1
= [(x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) i(x1 y2 y1 x2 ) + (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 y1 x2 )],
2
z 1 z2 = x 1 x 2 + y1 y2 .

2. j x1 x2 + y1 y2 = 0 j xy11 xy22 = 1 tan 1 tan 2 = 1, 1 = arg(z1 )

2 = arg(z2 ), 3.1. 2 1 = 90 z1 z2 .
6
j .

138


j j
j. , j AA a, .
, AA a (hc A) a = 0, :
1
(hc A) a = (a ai) a = [(a ai)
a + (a ai)a] =
2
1 1
= [a a
ai + a a
ai] = a (a
aa
a)i = 0.
2 2
j AA a.
j j
j. , P Q :

d(P, Q) = P Q = (P Q)(P Q). (3.34)

.
3.3.10. j P AA . :

d(A, C)2 + d(B, P )2 = d(B, A)2 + d(C, P )2 . (3.35)

Slika 3.8: P AA .

. j j P = ha () j j:

d(A, C)2 + d(B, P )2 = d(B, A)2 + d(C, P )2 ,

bb + (ha B)(ha B) = c
c + (ha C)(ha C),
bb + (ai c)(ai c) = c c + (ai + b)(ai + b),
bb + (ai c)(
ai c) = c
c + (ai + b)(
ai + b),
bb + (2 a
a + a
ci
aci + c
c) = c
c + (2 aa abi +
abi + bb),
(aca c)i = (ab ab)i,
ca) = I(
I( ab),
ca) = I(
j , I( ab) = 2 (3.28).

139


3.4
3.5 , AA a, BB b,
CC c H ABC. j
, j jj () .
jj . j C j
A, B, C a, b, c, j:

A = Ax + iAy , a = C B = ax + iay ,


B = Bx + iBy , b = A C = bx + iby , (3.36)



C = C x + iC y , c = B A = cx + icy .

j Ax , Ay , . . . , cx , cy j, i = 1 j j.
P AA , 3.8, j H
BB CC . j:

H = B + hb (b ) = B b bi, H = C + hc (c ) = C c ci,

j b , c R. (3.29).
(3.34) :
d(A, C)2 + d(B, H)2 = d(B, A)2 + d(C, H)2 ,
b2 + b bi2 = c + c ci2 ,
b2 (1 + b2 ) = c2 (1 + c2 ).
P = AA BB , j:

H = ha (a ) = A a ai


H = hb (b ) = B b bi (3.37)



H = hc (c ) = C c ci.
a , b , c R j:

a2 (1 + a2 ) = b2 (1 + b2 ) = c2 (1 + c2 ), (3.38)

a, b, c j , 3.8.
, j j . j H
j (3.37), ABC.

3.4.1. ABC :

a2 a + b2 b + c2 c = 4.

, b, c, j
. (3.37) a
j. :

a + H b + H c = (A
H a a a
ai) + (Bb b bbi) + (C
c c c
ci),

a + b + c) = A
H( a + Bb + C
c i(a a
a + b bb + c c
c),
+ b + c = a + b + c = 0 z z = z2 , :
a

a2 a + b2 b + c2 c = i(A
a + Bb + C
c)

140


= i[A(C B)
+ B(A C)
+ C(B A)]

= i[(AC C A)
+ (B A AB)
+ (C B
B C)]

= i[2iI(AC)
+ 2iI(B A)
+ 2iI(C B)]

= 2[I(AB)
+ I(BA)
+ I(CA)]
= 4,
j j .

3.4.1
j , :
. j j ( 90 )
( 90 ). j 90 .
j j j , 90 .
, j .
j . ,
j j ,
j . ,
, j .
j 3.9. s O
r A, B C, j AB . j p O
C j C1 , C2 p, j C1 O C2 O.
j , ABC j (C = = 90 ) j j ABC1
(1 > 90 ), ABC2 (2 < 90 ).

Slika 3.9: ACB = 90 .

H ABC j C.
H1 ABC1 j . H2 ABC2 j
.
j j,
( C1 C1 C1 H1 ). , j j,
j , ( j).

141


a2 + b2 c2 j j , j
, . , j j
. j , a + b c > 0, .

3.4.2. C = 90 :
1. a2 a + b2 b + c2 c = 4;
2. a b + b c + c a = 1;
j ABC.

. 1. a ai = b, b bi = a, c ci = 0 a , b > 0, :

a a = b, b b = a, c c = 0,

a2 a + b2 b + c2 c = ba + ab + 0 = 4,
j .
2. a = b/a, b = b/a c = 0 :

b b
a b + b c + c a = + 0 + 0 = 1.
a a

j = 12 ab ABC.

3.4.3. :

a b + b c + c a = 1. (3.39)

. j , C > 90 , 3.9 :

2(ABC) = 2(BH1 A) 2(BH1 C1 ) 2(C1 H1 A) =

= I[(H1 B)(A H1 )] I[(H1 B)(C1 H1 )] I[(H1 C1 )(A H1 )]

= I[(b bi)(a ai)] I[(b bi)(c ci)] I[(c ci)(a ai)]
= I[(bbi)(a ai)] I[(bbi)(c ci)] I[(c ci)(a ai)]
= I(b aba)] I[(b cbc)] I(c a ca)
= b a I(ba) + b c I(bc) + nuc a I(
ca)
= 2b a + 2b c + 2c a ,
a b + b c + c a = 1.
j, , j .

3.4.4. ABC :

a b b = ic

a
b b c c = ia (3.40)



c c a a = ib,
a, b, c j A B C.

142


. 3.9 ABC1 H1 . j
ABH1 , C1 BH1 , AC1 H1 , j,

, ABH1 : AB + BH1 + H1 A = 0. :

ABH1 c + (b bi) + a ai = 0,


C1 BH1 a + (b bi) + c ci = 0,



AC1 H1 b + (c ci) + a ai = 0.
, j. AH1 = a ai.
(3.40).
j ABC2 H2
ABH2 , BCH2 CAH2 j:

ABH2 c + (b bi) + a ai = 0,


BCH2 a + (c ci) + b bi = 0,



CAH2 b + (a ai) + c ci = 0,
j (3.40).

(3.40) j j (3.37),
. , j
j, .

3.4.2 j
3.4.5. j H ABC :

= (a2 + b2 + c2 )/4,

a
b = (a2 b2 + c2 )/4, (3.41)



c = (a + b c )/4,
2 2 2

j .

. j (3.40) :

b b = a a ic, bb = a a
+ i
c,

a + ia a
b2 bb = a2 a c ia a
c + c
c,
b2 b2 = a2 a2 4a + c2 .
(3.38) j a2 (1 + a2 ) = b2 (1 + b2 ), :

a2 + a2 a2 = b2 + b2 b2 ,

a2 + a2 a2 = b2 + a2 a2 4a + c2 ,
4a = a2 + b2 + c2 ,
j (3.41). .

j , j a , b c . ,
j , j j . 3.9 j
C > 90 a2 + b2 < c2 c < 0.

143


3.4.6. A(2, 0), B(3, 0), C(0, 4), 3.3.6,

.

. j . j 3.7 (3.35). a2 = 25, b2 =

20, c2 = 25, (3.41) j:
1 3 1
a = , b = , c = .
2 4 2
(3.37) :

1 3
H = A a ai = 2 (3 + 4i)i = i.
2 2
j j (3.37) j .

3.4.7. A(1, 0), B(5, 0), C(0, 4).

Slika 3.10: A = 1, B = 5, C = 4i.

. 3.10 : A = 1, B = 5, C = 4i,

a = C B = 5 + 4i, b = A C = 1 4i, c = B A = 4,

= 5 4i,
a b = 1 + 4i, c = 4,
a2 = 41, b2 = 17, c2 = 16,
= 21 I(bc) = 8. j (A > 90 ) :

a2 + b2 + c2 = 41 + 17 + 16 = 8 < 0,

j a + b + c 1.72 > 0 :

a2 b2 + c2 = 41 17 + 16 = 40,

a2 + b2 c2 = 41 + 17 16 = 42,
8 1 40 5 42 21
a = = , b = = , c = = .
4 4 4 4 4 16

144


(3.39) j :
1 5 5 21 21 1
a b + b c + c a = + = 1.
4 4 4 16 16 4
j j:
1 5
H = A a ai = 1 + (5 + 4i)i = i.
4 4
(3.30). , :
16 16 16
a = 0.39, b = 0.94, c = = 1,
41 17 16
ha , hb hc 39%, 94% and 100%
a, b c. :
64 80 64 16
ha = a ai = i, hb = + i, hc = 4,
41 41 17 17
ha 2.5, hb = 3.9, hc = 4.
:
1
= aha = 0.5 41 2.5 8.0,
2
1
= bhb = 0.5 17 3.9 8.0,
2
1
= chc = 0.5 4 4 = 8.
2
.

j j j -
. j j j j.

3.4.3 j
3.4.8. j H ABC :

a2 = bc cos ,

2 a a
b b b = ca cos , (3.42)



c c c = ab cos ,
2

= A, = B = C .
.

a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos ,

2
b = c2 + a2 2ca cos , (3.43)



c = a + b 2ab cos ,
2 2 2

j, j (3.41) j:
2bc cos = a2 + b2 + c2 = 4a = 2aha a = 2a2 a a ,
bc cos = a2 a a .
j (3.42). .

145


3.4.9. j a , b c (3.37) :

a b c = R(b
c) R(c
a) R(ab). (3.44)

a, b c ABC.

z ) = R(z) = x z = x + iy C. j ic c (3.40):
. j R(

(a a b b) c = (ic) c,

1 1
[(a a b b)
c + (a a b b)c] = (ic c i
cc),
2 2
(a a
c b b
c) + (a a
c bbc) = 0,
a (a
c+a
c) b (b
c + bc) = 0,
c) 2b R(b
2a R(a c) = 0,
c+a
j a c = a
c + a
c = 2R(a
c). :

= R(b c) R(a
c)

a b
b c = R(c
a) R(b
a)



c a = R(ab) R(cb),

j (3.44).

3.4.10. j (3.37) ABC :

cos cos cos

a b c = , (3.45)
a b c

, , j .

. (3.15):

b c = bx cx + by cy = R(b
c), (3.46)

j b = bx + iby , c = cx + icy , bx = Ax Cx , ..., cy = By Ay . j

b c :
b c = bx cx + by cy = bc cos ,
j = BAC b c j 7 . j
j j . :

c) = bx cx + by cy = bc cos ,
R(b (3.47)

:
a b = (b c) (c a) = (b cos ) (a cos ),
= CBA. , (3.45).

3.4.11. : A = 2, B = 3, C = 4i.
7
j 180 .

146


. :

a2 = 25, b2 = 20, c2 = 25,

a = 54 , b = 1, c = 54 ,
a = 12 , b = 34 , c = 12 ,

(3.43) j :

a2 +b2 +c2
cos = 2bc = 5 0.44721,
5
63.435
a2 b2 +c2
cos = 2ac = 35 = 0.6, 53.130 ,

a2 +b2 c2
cos = 2ab = 5 0.44721,
5
63.435 .

j 3.4.8 . :

c) R(c
R(b a) R(ab) =

R[(2 4i)5] R[5(3 4i)] R[(3 + 4i)(2 + 4i)] =

= (10) (15) (10)
1 3 1
= a b c ,
=
2 4 2
j 3.4.9 . :

cos cos cos 5/5 3/5 5/5
= = a b c ,
a b c 5 2 5 5

j 3.4.10 .

3.4.12. : A = 1, B = 5, C = 4.

. :

a = 5 + 4i, b = 1 4i, c = 4,
a2 = 41, b2 = 17, c2 = 16,
a = 16
41 , b = 16
17 , c = 1,
a = 14 , b = 54 , c = 21
16 ,

j :

cos = 1717 0.24, 104
cos = 5 0.78, 39
41
cos = 21 0.80, 37 ,
4117

3.4.8 :
a2 a a = bc cos ,

16 1 17
41 ( ) = 17 4 ( ),
41 4 17
j . , j (3.42). ,
3.4.8 j .

147


c) R(c
R(b a) R(ab) =

R[(1 4i)4] R[4(5 4i)] R[(5 + 4i)(1 + 4i)] =

1 5 21
= 4 (20) (21) = = a b c ,
4 4 16
j 3.4.9 . :

cos cos cos 17/17 5/ 41 21/ 41 17
= = a b c ,
a b c 41 17 4

j 3.4.10 .

ABC 3.4.10 :

a b c
= = = 2R, (3.48)
sin sin sin

j R , j:

a b c = cot cot cot . (3.49)

j
, .
j j j
j j () j
.
, j -
j. A, B, C, j
jj jj . j j
A, B C, j j . jj j ,
.
, jj i j , j , ,
j j. j j
j j , j [1] j
j 3.6 j .
j j j
j, j, , , ,
. j
j j.
, j
, j
.
j j j
, j j
j . j
, j j
, j j j .

148


3.5
j ABC A(Ax , Ay ), B(Bx , By ), C(Cx , Cy ). j-
(3.12) j:

RRA B C RRR
1 RRRR x x xR
R
(ABC) = RRRAy By Cy RRRR . (3.50)
2 RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR

,
j , j. j
, j , j 8
.
, a = BC, b = CA, c = AB, j:

a (By Cy )x (Bx Cx )y = Cx By Bx Cy ,


b (Cy Ay )x (Cx Ax )y = Ax Cy Cx Ay , (3.51)



c (Ay By )x (Ax Bx )y = Bx Ay Ax By .

j j j. , j
j , j j :

0 = [Ax (By Cy ) + Bx (Cy Ay ) + Cx (Ay By )],

j. 0 = 2, j (j j
). , j j j .
BC

B x + Cx B y + Cy
A1 ( , )
2 2

B1 CA, C1 AB. , ga = AA1 , gb =

BB1 , gc = CC1 :

g (Gy Ay )x (Gx Ax )y = Ax Gy Gx Ay ,

a
gb (Gy By )x (Gx Bx )y = Bx Gy Gx By , (3.52)



gc (Gy Cy )x (Gx Cx )y = Cx Gy Gx Cy ,

j G(Gx , Gy ) :

Ax + B x + C x Ay + By + Cy
Gx = , Gy = . (3.53)
3 3

j j 0 = 0, j
j j . , -
j j j j j .
j j G(Gx , Gy ).
8
Rastko Vukovic: Determinants of the triangle centers, Academia.edu, June 2014.

149


3.5.1
H ABC j ha , hb , hc .
(3.51) j j y = mx + n, j
B C B C C B
m = Bxy Cyx j, x-, n = xByx Cxx y j
y-. j
1 B x Cx
m = = . (3.54)
m B y Cy

j j A j y Ay = m (x Ax ).
, j j:

h (Bx Cx )x + (By Cy )y = (Bx Cx )Ax + (By Cy )Ay ,

a
hb (Cx Ax )x + (Cy Ay )y = (Cx Ax )Bx + (Cy Ay )By , (3.55)



hc (Ax Bx )x + (Ay By )y = (Ax Bx )Cx + (Ay By )Cy .
j j , j
j , j -
H(Hx , Hy ). , j j
.

3.5.1. j
Dx Dy
H( , ), (3.56)
D D
j , :
RRRA B C RRR
RR x x xR
R
D = RRRRAy By Cy RRRR = 2. (3.57)
RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR

RRRB C + B C C A + C A A B + A B RRR
RR x x y y x x y y x x y yR
RRR
Dx = RRRR Ay By Cy RRR , (3.58)
RRR RRR
RR 1 1 1 R
RRRB C + B C C A + C A A B + A B RRR
RR x x y y x x y y x x y yR
RRR
Dy = + RRRR Ax Bx Cx RRR . (3.59)
RRR RRR
RR 1 1 1 R
. H ha hb . j (3.55)
.
j, :

B Cx By Cy
D= x = Ax (By Cy ) + Bx (Cy Ay ) + Cx (Ay By )
Cx Ax Cy Ay
RRRA B C RRR
RR x x xR
R
= RRRRAy By Cy RRRR = 2,
RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR
j. j j j ABC. j (3.57).

150


x j j, :

(B Cx )Ax + (By Cy )Ay By Cy

Dx = x =
(Cx Ax )Bx + (Cy Ay )By Cy Ay

(B Cx )Ax By Cy (B Cy )Ay By Cy
= x + y
(Cx Ax )Bx Cy Ay (Cy Ay )By Cy Ay

= [Ax Bx (By Ay ) + Ax Cx (Ay Cy ) + Bx Cx (Cy By )]+

+[Ay By (By Ay ) + Ay Cy (Ay Cy ) + By Cy (Cy By )]

RRRB C A C A B RRR RRRB C A C A B RRR

RR x x x x x xR R y y
R R y y y yR
R
= RRRR Ay By Cy RRRR RRRR Ay By Cy RRRR
RRR R R R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR RRRR 1 1 1 RRRR
RRRB C + B C C A + C A A B + A B RRR
RR x x y y x x y y x x y yR
RRR
= RRRR Ay By Cy RRR .
RRR RRR
RR 1 1 1 R
j (3.58).
y j, :

B Cx (Bx Cx )Ax + (By Cy )Ay

Dy = x =
Cx Ax (Cx Ax )Bx + (Cy Ay )By

= [(Bx Cx )(Cx Bx Ax Bx ) (Cx Ax )(Bx Ax Cx Ax )]

+[(Bx Cx )(Cy By Ay By ) (Cx Ax )(By Ay Cy Ay )]

= [(Bx Cx )Cx Bx + (Ax Bx )Bx Ax + (Cx Ax )Cy Ax ]

+[(Bx Cx )Cy By + (Ax Bx )By Ay + (Cx Ax )Cy Ay ]

RRRC B C A B A RRR RRRC B C A B A RRR

RR x x x x x xR R y y
R R y y y yR
R
= RRRR Ax Bx Cx RRRR + RRRR Ax Bx Cx RRRR
RRR RRR RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RR RR 1 1 1 RRRR
RRRB C + B C C A + C A A B + A B RRR
RR x x y y x x y y x x y yR
RRR
= RRRR Ax Bx Cx RRR .
RRR RRR
RR 1 1 1 R
j (3.59).
j j (3.55) j .
J j H(Hx , Hy ):

Dx Dy
Hx = , Hy = ,
D D
D, Dx , Dy .

151


3.5.2
j F fa , fb , fc ,
a, b, c . j j .
a = BC j m, fa ,
j m = m 1
, ha . fa
,
B x + Cx B y + Cy
A1 ( , ).
2 2
J j

y A1y = m (x A1x ).

j fa . j j
:

f (Bx Cx )x + (By Cy )y = (Bx2 Cx2 + By2 Cy2 )/2,

a
fb (Cx Ax )x + (Cy Ay )y = (Cx2 A2x + Cy2 A2y )/2, (3.60)



fc (Ax Bx )x + (Ay By )y = (Ax Bx + Ay By )/2.
2 2 2 2

j , , j j j j
. , j j , F (Fx , Fy ) j j
j j j (3.60).
3.5.2. j :
Dx Dy
F( , ), (3.61)
D D
j , j:
RRRA B C RRR
RR x x xR
R
D = RRRRAy By Cy RRRR = 2, (3.62)
RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR
RRA2 + A2 B 2 + B 2 C 2 + C 2 RRR
1 RRRR x y x y x yR
R
Dx = + RRR Ay By Cy RRRR , (3.63)
2 RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR
RRA2 + A2 B 2 + B 2 C 2 + C 2 RRR
1 RRRR x y x y x yR
R
Dy = RRR Ax Bx Cx RRRR . (3.64)
2 RR R R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR
. F fa fb , j. j (3.60)
. j
(3.57), j. D(F ) = D(H) = 2(ABC), j (3.62).
, x j, :

(B 2 Cx2 + By2 Cy2 )/2 By Cy

Dx = x2 =
(Cx A2x + Cy2 A2y )/2 Cy Ay

1 Bx2 Cx2 + By2 Cy2 Cx2 A2x + Cy2 A2y

=
2 By Cy C y Ay

152


RRB 2 C 2 + B 2 C 2 C 2 A2 + C 2 A2 C 2 + C 2 RRR
1 RRRR x x y y x x y y x yR
R
= RRR By Cy Cy Ay Cy RRRR
2 RRR R
RR 0 0 1 RRRR

RRB 2 + By2 A2x A2y Cx2 + Cy2 RRRR

1 RRRR x R
= RRR By Ay Cy RRRR
2 RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR
RRA2 + A2 B 2 + B 2 C 2 + C 2 RRR
1 RRRR x y x y x yR
R
= RRR Ay By Cy RRRR .
2 RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR
, (3.63) j .
j y j:

B Cx (Bx2 Cx2 + By2 Cy2 )/2

Dy = x =
Cx Ax (Cx2 A2x + Cy2 A2y )/2

(B 2 Cx2 + By2 Cy2 )/2 Bx Cx

= x2 .
(Cx A2x + Cy2 A2y )/2 Cx Ax
j , j:
RRA2 + A2 B 2 + B 2 C 2 + C 2 RRR
1 RRRR x y x y x yR
R
Dy = RRR Ax Bx Cx RRRR .
2 RRR R
RR 1 1 1 RRRR

j (3.64).
, F (Fx , Fy ) :

Dx Dy
Fx = , Fy = ,
D D
j .

3.5.3 j
, jj j j
j 9 . j
j .

3.5.3. j A(m, 0), B(n, 0), C(0, p).

G, H F :

m+n p mn m + n mn + p2
G( , ) , H (0, ), F ( , ) (3.65)
3 3 p 2 2p

jj j, 3.11.

9
Euler line: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_line

153


Slika 3.11: Triangle A(m, 0), B(n, 0), C(0, p).

. j (3.53), G j . (3.62) -
:
RRRm n 0RRR
RR RR
D(H) = D(F ) = RRRR 0 0 pRRRR = p(n m), (3.66)
RRR R
RR 1 1 1RRRR
j j j H F . j -
j H :
RRR0 0 mnRRR RRR 0 0 mnRRR
RR RR RR RR
Dx (H) = RRRR0 0 p RRRR = 0, Dy (H) = RRRRm n 0 RRRR = mn(m n).
RRR R RRR R
RR1 1 1 RRRR RR 1 1 1 RRRR

, j F :
RRm2 n2 p2 RRR
1 RRRR RR
0 p RRRR = (m2 n2 ),
p
Dx (F ) = + RRR 0
2 RR R R
1 1 RRRR
2
RR 1

RRm2 n2 p2 RRR
1 RRRR RR m
Dy (F ) = RRR m n 0 RRRR = (n2 p2 ) (p2 m2 ).
n
2 RRR R 2
1 1 RRRR
2
RR 1
D
DDx Dy H F j j (3.65) .
( j j) G, H, F
GHF . j , .
:
RRR m+n 0 m+n RR
RR RRR 2 0 3 RRR
RR 3 m + n RRRR p RRR
mn+p2 RRR
2
2(GHF ) = RRRRR p3 mn 2p RRR
R = R p
mn mn+p2 RRR =
RRR p 6 RRRR 3 2p RRR
RR 1 1 1 RRRR RRR 1 1 1 RRR

154


RRR 2 RRR
m + n RRRR p
0 0 R m + n RRRR mn R
p2 RRRR
p RRR
mn+p2
= R p
mn mn+p2
R= RR p RRR
6 RRRR 3 2 RRR 3 RRRR 1
2p

RRR 1
2p
R 12 RRR
1 2
1
RRR R

m + n mn mn + p2 p
= ( + ) = 0.
6 2p 2p 2
,
.

j j j
j 3.11, j m, n, p. ,
G, H F
. j j j (j
) j j .
, j
,
j. , H, G F ABC
, j

d(H, G) d(G, F ) = 2 1. (3.67)

, HG GF = 2 1. j jj H, G and F j
j 3.11.
j -
, . , j H, G
and F j (3.65), . ,
j HG = 2GF , j (3.67).
, j H, G F j (3.67),
F j j
.
, j

3 1
F = H + (G H) = (A + B + C H). (3.68)
2 2

, j:

R = F A = 12 (A + B + C H)

A
RB = F B = 12 (A B + C H) (3.69)



RC = F C = 2 (A + B C H),
1

j j F A, B C . J
j j
3.5.1, j (3.65) 3.11.
, j
.

155


3.6
3.2.5, jj
. j jj p = M N
px = Mx Nx py = My Ny . j j 10
j.
p, q j j [p, q] = px qy qx py . j j
, j j j .
j j, (3.24) ..

3.6.1.
j j . j ()
() .

3.6.2. j ABCD p = AC q = BD,

j (ABCD) = [p, q].

. [p, q] = px qy qx py = (Ax Cx )(By Dy ) (Bx Dx )(Ay Cy ) =

= (Ax By Ax Dy Cx By + Cx Dy ) (Bx Ay Bx Cy Dx Ay + Dx Cy )

= (Ax By Bx Ay ) + (Bx Cy Cx By ) + (Cx Dy Dx Cy ) + (Dx Ay Ax Dy )

= [A, B] + [B, C] + [C, D] + [D, A] = (ABCD).

(3.24).

3.6.3. a = BC, b = CA, c = AB ABC :

ax + bx + cx = 0, ay + by + cy = 0, (3.70)

[a, b] = [b, c] = [c, a] = 2(ABC). (3.71)

. j ( {x, y}):

a + b + c = (B C ) + (C A ) + (A B ) = 0.

: [a, b] = ax by bx ay =

= (Bx Cx )(Cy Ay ) (Cx Ax )(By Cy )

= [A, B] + [B, C] + [C, A] = 2(ABC).

j .

.
10
Rastko Vukovic: Coordinates of inscribed circles in a triangle, May 2014

156


j. j P (x, y) j AB [A, P ] +
[P, B] = [A, B] 3.6.3 :

(Ax y xAy ) + (xBy Bx y) = [A, B],

(Ay By )x + (Ax Bx )y = [A, B],

cy x cx y = [B, A],
j , j. :

cy x cx y + [A, B] = 0. (3.72)

j. j c = AB j (3.52)
P (x, y) j:
cy x cx y + [A, B]
d(c, P ) = , c = c2x + c2y . (3.73)
c
j, c .

3.6.1
j j j (j) .
, j j j .
A ABC sA , j
3.12. S. ,
sA .

Slika 3.12: Labeling the bisectors of the triangle.

j ABC ( ), :

a ay x ax y + [B, C] = 0,


b by x bx y + [C, A] = 0, (3.74)



c cy x cx y + [A, B] = 0.

157


j SA (x, y) j b, c j-
d(b, SA ) = d(c, SA ):

by x bx y + [C, A] cy x cx y + [A, B]
= . (3.75)
b c

J (3.54) (3.55) (3.52) (3.53). j

:

b xb y+[C,A]
sA y x b
c xc y+[A,B]
y xc = 0,



sB cy xcx y+[A,B]
ay xax y+[B,C]
= 0, (3.76)



c a

sC
ay xax y+[B,C]

by xb x y+[C,A]
= 0,
a c
a, b, c ( ).
j ,
. j j j j .

. j A(1, 1), B(4, 2), C(3,

5). S .
ax = Bx Cx , ay = By Cy , a = a2x + a2y , . . . :

ax = 1 ay = 3 a = 10 [B, C] = 14
bx = 2 by = 4 b = 20 [C, A] = 2 (3.77)
cx = 3 cy = 1 c = 10 [A, B] = 2

j :

a 3x y + 14 = 0,


b 4x 2y 2 = 0, (3.78)



c x + 3y 2 = 0.
j (3.56):

sA 4x2y2
x+3y2 = 0,




20 10
sB = 0,
x+3y2 3xy+14
(3.79)



10 10

s 3xy+14
4x2y2
= 0.
C

10 20

j. 10
j, j :


sA (2 2 + 1)x ( 2 + 3)y 2 + 2 = 0,


sB 2x + 4y 16 = 0, (3.80)
s (3 2 2)x (1 2)y + 14 + 2 = 0.


C
, j. j 0 = 0.
j j j S(Sx , Sy ) sA sB sC .
j j j j:

4+2 2 2+3 2
Sx = , Sy = . (3.81)
1+ 2 1+ 2
Sx = 2, 82843 Sy = 2, 58579. j 3.13.

158


Slika 3.13: (3.76), -.

3.6.2 j
j (3.76). j j
j :


b c
sA ( by cy ) x ( bbx ccx ) y + ( b c ) = 0,
[C,A] [A,B]



c a
sB ( cy ay ) x ( ccx aax ) y + ( c a ) = 0,
[A,B] [B,C]
(3.82)




a b
sC ( a b ) x ( a b ) y + ( a b ) = 0,
y y a x bx [B,C] [C,A]

a = a2x + a2y , b = b2x + b2y , c = c2x + c2y . j j,
. , j j .
, j (3.76) (3.82) j , j
. , j 0 = 0, j
j . j j.
j, j j j (3.82) 1 , 2 , 3
, , R. j:

b c a
x by ( 1 ) + cy ( 2 ) + ay ( 3 ) = 0,



y bbx ( 1 ) + ccx ( 2 ) + aax ( 3 ) = 0, (3.83)




z b ( 1 ) +
[C,A]
c ( 2 ) +
[A,B]
a ( 3 ) = 0.
[B,C]

j j j:
1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , 3 = 3 .
j j 1 = 2 = 3 = 0.
, . ,
j:
RRR by ay RR RRR b ay RRRR
cy
RRR b a RRR R
R y cy
R
D = RRRR bbx
c
cx ax R R
R = abc RRRR bx ax RRRR =
a RR
cx
RRRR [C,A] [A,B] [B,C] RRRR
c R
RRR[C, A] [A, B] [B, C]RRRR
R b c a R R R

159


= abc ((ax cy cx ay )[C, A] + (bx ay ax by )[A, B] + (cx by bx cy )[B, C])

= abc (2[C, A] + 2[A, B] + 2[B, C])
= abc(2) ([C, A] + [A, B] + [B, C]) = abc(2)2 ,
j = (ABC) ABC. ,
(3.83) j:
D = 2abc2 0,
j:

1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 0. (3.84)

j , , 1 , 2 , 3 j
(j j j j ),
jj S j j .
j j +, +, . = , = = + = , j
.
, +, , j. , j , , 0
+ = 0, = 0, = 0, = , = = , = .
j j = , j. = 0 j j
0.
+, +, + j. , + = 0, + = 0, + = 0
= , = = +, = , = 0, j j.
jj j, :
, , , +, +, , +, , +, , +, +. .

3.6.4. j (3.62) j
j j , j .

j , j (3.82)
j .
, j j j .

. j A(1, 2), B(3, 2), C(5, 3). Sc -

c.
j :

ax = 2 ay = 5 a = 29 [B, C] = 19
bx = 4 by = 1 b = 17 [C, A] = 7
cx = 2 cy = 4 c = 20 [A, B] = 8

, [B, C] + [C, A] + [A, B] = 18, j .

. j
j j j , 3.14.
Sc . A B :

sA ( 17 + 4 ) x ( 4 + )y = ( 7 + 8 ) ,
1 2

20 17 20 17 20 (3.85)

sB ( 20 +
) x ( 2 + )y = ( 8 + ),
4 5 2
19

29 20 29 20 29

160


Slika 3.14: Bisectors of the triangle ABC.

, :

D = 0, 912917, Dx = 0, 834981, Dy = 1, 97448.

j Sc (xc , yc ), c = AB .
:
Dx Dy
xc = = 0, 91463 yc = = 2, 16283. (3.86)
D D

3.6.3
j
.
3.6.5. (3.82) j , j:
Ax a + Bx b + Cx c Ay a + B y b + C y c
x= , y= . (3.87)
a+b+c a+b+c
. (3.76) (3.82) :

b c
sA ( by cy ) x ( bbx ccx ) y = b c ,

[A,C] [B,A]



sB ( ccy aay ) x ( ccx aax ) y = [B,A] a ,
[C,B]
(3.88)



c
ay by
sC ( a b ) x ( a b ) y = a b .
ax bx

[C,B] [A,C]

j j , S(x, y) j j
. , S sA sB , j j.
j:
by c
y cx bx
D = cby acy acx cbx =
c a a c

by ax by cx cy ax cy cx cy cx cy bx ay cx ay bx
=( + 2 )( 2 + )
ba bc ca c c cb ac ab

161


by ax ay bx cy bx by cx ay cx cy ax
= + + .
ab bc ca
[a, b] = [b, c] = [c, a] = 2 j j
. :
1 1 1 2
D = 2 ( + + ) = (a + b + c). (3.89)
ab bc ca abc
j j (3.88).
j x j (3.88) , :
RRR [A,C] [B,A] R
c cx
bbx RRRR
Dx = RRRRR [B,A]
b c RR =
RRR c [C,B]
a
ax
a ccx RRRR

[A, C]ax [A, C]cx [B, A]ax [B, A]cx

=( + )
ba bc ca c2
[B, A]cx [B, A]bx [C, B]cx [C, B]bx
( + )
c2 cb ac ab
[A, C]ax [C, B]bx [B, A]bx [A, C]cx [C, B]cx [B, A]ax
= + +
ab bc ca
Cx (2) Ax (2) Bx (2)
= + + .
ab bc ca
, (3.89), j j [A, C]ax [C, B]bx = Cx (2).
j j. , j x j:
C x Ax B x 2
Dx = 2 ( + + )= (Ax a + Bx b + Cx c). (3.90)
ab bc ca abc
j y j j:
C y Ay B y 2
Dy = 2 ( + + )= (Ay a + By b + Cy c). (3.91)
ab bc ca abc
, j (3.88) j j j jj
S(x, y) j j . x =
Dy
D , y = D , j.
Dx

x ( bc + ca + ) (1
ab / bc + ca + ab )=
Ax Bx Cx 1 1 Ax a+Bx b+Cx c
,
Ay B Cy
a+b+c
Ay a+By b+Cy c (3.92)

y ( bc + cay + (1
ab ) / bc + ca + ab ) =
1 1
.
a+b+c

j .

j:

1 10 + 4 20 + 3 10 4 + 2 2
x= = ,
10 + 20 + 10 1+ 2

1 10 + 2 20 + 5 10 2 + 3 2
y= = .
10 + 20 + 10 1+ 2
j j (3.81).

162


3.6.6. (3.76) j +, +, , j:
Ax a + B x b C x c Ay a + B y b C y c
xc = , yc = . (3.93)
a+bc a+bc
Dokaz. (3.76) (3.82) :

b c
sA ( by + cy ) x ( bbx + ccx ) y = b + c ,

[A,C] [B,A]



sB ( ccy + aay ) x ( ccx + aax ) y = [B,A] + a ,
[C,B]
(3.94)



c
a b
sC ( a b ) x ( a b ) y = a b .
a b

y y x x [C,B] [A,C]

3.6.4, j j (3.94) , Sc (xc , yc ),

c ABC.
, Sc sA sB , j Sc A B.
j. :
2
D= (a + b c), (3.95)
abc
2
Dx = (Ax a + Bx b Cx c), (3.96)
abc
2
Dy = (Ax a + Bx b Cx c). (3.97)
abc
j . Dy .
RRR by cy [A,C] [B,A] RRR
+ + c RR
Dy = RRRRR cby acy [B,A] b
[C,B] RRR =
RRR c + a c + a RR
R
by [B, A] by [C, B] cy [B, A] cy [C, B]
=( + + + )
bc ba c2 ca
cy [A, C] cy [B, A] ay [A, C] ay [B, A]
( + + + )
cb c2 ab ac
ay [A, C] by [C, B] by [B, A] cy [A, C] cy [C, B] ay [B, A]
= + +
ab bc ca
Cy (2) Ay (2) By (2)
= + + .
ab bc ca
C Ay By
ay [C, A] by [B, C] = 2 Dy = 2 ( aby + bc + ca ) (3.97).
Dy
, j xc = Dx
D , yc = D , :
Ax a + Bx b Cx c Ay a + B y b C y c
xc = , yc = . (3.98)
a+bc a+bc
j .
, A(1, 2), B(3, 2), C(5, 3) :

1 29 + 3 17 5 20
xc =

= 0, 91463
29 + 17 20

2 29 + (2) 17 5 20
yc =

= 2, 16283.
29 + 17 20
j (3.86).

163


3.6.4
j (3.73) S c :
cy xu cx yu + [A, B]
r= .
c

(3.87) : r = c(a+b+c) 1
(Ay By )(Ax a + Bx b + Cx c) (Ax
Bx )(Ay a + By b + Cy c) + (Ax By Bx Ay )(a + b + c) =
Ax (By Cy ) + Bx (Cy Ay ) + Cx (Ay By ) 2
= = .
a+b+c a+b+c
:
2
r= . (3.99)
a+b+c
, Sc c :
cy xc cx yu c + [A, B]
rc = .
c

(3.97) : rc = c(a+bc) 1
(Ay By )(Ax a + Bx b Cx c) (Ax Bx )(Ay a +
By b Cy c) + (Ax By Bx Ay )(a + b c) =
Ax (By Cy ) Bx (Cy Ay ) Cx (Ay By ) 2
= = .
a+bc a+bc
j, :
2 2 2
ra = , rb = , rc = . (3.100)
a + b + c ab+c a+bc
j (3.99)

r a + b + c < min(a, b, c), (3.101)

a , b , c P BC, P CA, P AB,

P ABC, j [11].

. A(1, 1), B(5, 0), C(0, 3).

j OBC, OCA, OAB.
(3.101), j P = O.
J :

a 3x 5y + 15 = 0,


b 4x y + 3 = 0,



c x + 6y + 5 = 0.
j 15 + 3 + 5 = 23. :

sA 4xy+3
x+6y+5 = 0,





s y = 0, 92x 0, 08,
17 37
A
sB = 0, sB y = 0, 19x + 0, 95,
x+6y+5 3x5y+15
(3.102)



37 34
s y = 2.41x + 3.


s 3x5y+15

4xy+3
= 0. C
C

34 17

164


Slika 3.15: Incircle of the triangle with the origin within.

(3.102) 3.15.
(3.99) j:

23
r= = 1.4342.
34 + 17 + 37

(OBC) [O, B] + [B, C] + [C, O] = 15,


(OCA) [O, C] + [C, A] + [A, O] = 3,



(OAB) [O, A] + [A, B] + [B, O] = 5.

(q = OQ) :


OBC a = 34, b =5, c = 3,


OCA a = 2, b = 17, c = 3,



OAB a = 2, b = 5, c = 3.

, j (3.01) j

15 3 5
1.4342 + + < 17,
34 + 8 2 + 17 + 3 2+8

1.4342 1.96703 < 4.12311.

j .
j,
j j
. j j j , j
. (j)
j . , j
.

165


3.7
(: pseudes - )
j j. je j .
, j (x-)
, j (y-)
w, j w = iy, i = 1.
, (x, y) C (x, w)
j w = iy, y = iw.
j C j j. ab C j iab,
j i, . (2.50), j
. j

cis() = cos + i sin = ei , (3.103)

j e = 2, 71828 . . . . j j, j j j j j:

2 3 4 5 6
e = 1 + + + + + + + ... (3.104)
2 3! 4! 5! 6!
j j j
.
i j j j .
3.16 j, .
sh()
th() = ch() j .

Slika 3.16: .

j 3.17 , j ( r = 1)
j j sin , cos tg , BC, OB AD,
= AOC j KC.
j (KOC)
, j KOC = 21 r2 2 = .
, , j x2 + y 2 = 1 j j
j x2 y 2 = 1 KOC j
= , j j sh = BC, ch = OB th = AB.

166


Slika 3.17: J .

j j
j :

sin z = i sh z, cos z = i ch z, tg z = i th z
{ (3.105)
sh z = i sin iz, ch z = i cos iz, th z = i tg iz,

j j z C. j(2.51), :

cosz + sin2 z = 1, cos2 z = 1/(1 + tg2 z), sin2 z = tg2 z/(1 + tg2 z),
{ (3.106)
chz sh2 z = 1, ch2 z = 1/(1 th2 z), sh2 z = th2 z/(1 th2 z),

(2.52), j .
, j. j
j ,
j , . j j j -
j j ,
. j j j ,
j j j.
Oxy -
O j Ox y 3.18.

Slika 3.18: j O .

A(x, y) A (x , y ) :

x = x cos y sin , y = x sin + y cos , (3.107)

167


Oxy. , j Ox = Ox, Oy = Oy
3.18 :

x2 = x cos , x2 x1 = y sin ,

y2 = x sin , y1 y2 = y cos ,
x1 = x cos y sin , y1 = x sin + y cos ,
(3.107). (2.44) 2.4.
3.1.3, j A(x, y) A
j z = x + iy j j
cis(), (3.103). , :

z cis() = z ,

(x + iy)(cos + i sin ) = x + iy ,

(x cos y sin ) + i(x sin + y cos ) = x + iy , (3.108)

j (3.107).
, j j j
j. j (2.47) j
jj j j . 2.3.1
j, j
j . j j j j
j ,
. .
(3.23) Or, j:

x = r cos , y = r sin . (3.109)

[A, B]xy j:

[A, B]xy = Ax By Bx Ax =

= (Ar cos A )(Br sin B ) (Br cos B )(Ar sin A )

= Ar Br (cos A sin B cos B sin A ),

[A, B]r = Ar Br sin(B A ). (3.110)

j :

[A, B]r = 2(AOB), (3.111)

OA OB,
A, O B. ABC j:

2(ABC) = [A, B]r + [B, C]r + [C, A]r , (3.112)

sin(B A ) = sin(A B ).

168


3.7.1. A1 A2 . . . An j

2(A1 A2 . . . An ) = [A1 , A2 ]r + [A2 , A3 ]r + + [An , A1 ]r ,

j n = 3, 4, . . . .
. j A1 A2 , A2 A3 , . . . , An A1
j O. (3.112),
j Ak1 OAk Ak1 Ak j
, .
j .

ABC j
xy Oxy, j:
(), O

x = xx x
+ xy y, y = yx x
+ yy y, (3.113)

x xy x
( ) = ( xx )( ), (3.114)
y yx yy y
j () . j j
, (3.113) :

xy xy
det ( xx ) = xx = xx yy yx xy 0, (3.115)
yx yy yx yy

[x , y ] = xx yy yx xy 0.
j j
Oxy Oxy. , :

[A, B] = Ax By Bx Ay =

= (xx Ax + xy Ay )(yx B
x + yy B
y ) (xx B
x + xy B
y )(yx Ax + yy Ay )

= xx yy (Ax B
y B
x Ay ) + xy yx (Ay B
x Ax B
y )

= (xx yy yx xy )(Ax B
y B
x Ay ),

[A, B] = [x , y ][A,
B],
(3.116)
j [x , y ] = xx yy yx xy . j . j:

(ABC) = [A, B] + [B, C] + [C, A] =

= [x , y ]([A, + [B,
B] + [C,
C] A]),

(ABC) = [x , y ](AB
C).
(3.117)
O xy, (3.113),
[x , y ] j j j (j)
(j) j . j j , j (3.115)
j . j j j, j
j - j.

169


3.7.2. j :
(i) , (ii) j.
xy Oxy j :
. (i) j O

x=x
cos y sin , y=x
sin + y cos , (3.118)

j [x , y ] = cos2 + sin2 = 1, j j j,
( j ).
(ii) j O xy Oxy j :

x=x
ch + y sh , y=x
sh + y ch . (3.119)

[x , y ] = ch2 sh2 = 1, j j
j, .

j j j,
j j j. j ,
j j 2.3.1 j.
3.7.3. j:

dr = d
r + i 1 1 2 2 cdt

{ (3.120)
cdt = i 1 2 2 d
r + 2 cdt,

j.
. :

[r , ct ] = ()( 2 ) (i 1 2 2 )(i 1 1 2 2 ) =

= 2 2 + (1 2 2 ) = 1,
j.

j (3.120) j () , j
j jj j .
j j j , j
. J j j j
j j j
, (3.119). (3.120)
j j
j ().
j,
- j j .
, ( j
), j ( ) j j
. j j (3.116), j
j (3.120), .
j j .
j , jj
j j, - . j
.

170


3.8 J
j (3.107), j :

x1 cos sin x
( )=( )( ), (3.121)
y1 sin cos y

z1 = R()

z , j R() j . j:

1 0 0 1

R() =( ) cos + ( ) sin , (3.122)
0 1 1 0
, :

R() = I cos + i
2 sin , (3.123)

R() = I cos
5 sin , (3.124)
5 j (3.3) (3.4) , I j
2
, ( 2 2).

3.8.1. j R()
R() = R(
+ ) .

. (3.124) (3.5):

R()
R() = (I cos
5 sin )(I cos
5 sin )

= I cos cos
5 sin cos
5 cos sin + (I)
sin sin

= I(cos
cos sin sin )
5 (sin cos + cos sin )
= I cos( + )
5 sin( + )
= R(
+ ),

j j .

, = 4, 5, 6,
2 = I j j 3-
j,

Oxyz. i, j k:

z = z0 I + z1i + z2 j + z3 k,
z0 , z1 , z2 , z3 C,
(3.125)

j . i =
4 , j =
5 k =
6 . j i = 1
i, j k.
j z C z = x + iy,
x, y R i = 1 j j.
j z R(z) I(z), j x y .
j z = x + iy z = x iy, :

f (z) = f (
z ), (3.126)

j f (z) j. ,
(3.125)

z = z0 I z1i z2 j z3 k,
z0 , z1 , z2 , z3 C, (3.127)

171


j j :

i 0 i 0 1 0


ii = 4 = (
4 )( )=( ) = I,



0 i 0 i 0 1



0 1 0 1 1 0
j j = 5 = (
5 )( )=( ) = I,
(3.128)

1 0 1 0 0 1





0 i 0 i 1 0

kk = 6 = (
6 )( )=( ) = I,


i 0 i 0 0 1

A ( A ) :

a b a
c
A = ( ), A = ( ) . (3.129)
c d b d

j j () j,
z z = z2 . , j

a + bb a
a c + bd
tr (AA ) = tr ( ) = a
a + bb + c
c + dd R. (3.130)
a + db c
c c + dd
, ,
.
(3.125) (3.127), j:




z = z0 (
1 0
) + z1 (
i 0
) + z2 (
0 1
) + z3 (
0 i
)

0 1 0 i 1 0 i 0
(3.131)


1 0 i 0 0 1 0 i

z = z0 ( ) z1 ( ) z2 ( ) z3 ( ),

0 1 0 i 1 0 i 0
:
z + iz1 z2 + iz3 z0 i
z1 z2 i
z3
z = ( 0 ), z = ( ), (3.132)
z2 + iz3 z0 iz1 z2 i
z3 z0 + i
z1
j (3.129).
1
tr (
z z ) = z0 z0 + z1 z1 + z2 z2 + z3 z3 , (3.133)
2
j (3.125).
,
, . j
:
u = u0 I + u1
4 + u2 5 + u3 6 ,
{ (3.134)
v = v0 I + v1
4 + v2
5 + v3
6
j u , v j. :
RRR 6 RRRR
3 3 RRR 4 5
R
v = u v I (u0 v u v0 )
u
+3 RRRu1 u2 u3 RRRR , (3.135)
=0 =1 R
RRR v v v RRRR
R 1 2 3R

RRR 6 RRRR
3 3 RRR 4 5
R
v = u
u
v I + (u0 v u +3 RRRu
v0 ) 1 u 3 RRRR ,
2 u (3.136)
=0 =1 R
RRR v v v RRRR
R 1 2 3R

172


v = 12 (
, u uv + u
v) u
v = 21 (
uv u
v), j:

3 3
1
u +3 (D
v = R(u v )I i I(u v0 u0 v ) 1 + D2 ),
(3.137)
=0 =1 2

3 3
1
v = i I(u v )I + R(u v0 u0 v )
u +3 (D 1 D2 ),
(3.138)
=0 =1 2

i =
4 , j =
5 , k =
6 :
RRR i j k RRR RRR i j k RRR
RR RR RR RR
D1 = RRRRu1 u2 u3 RRRR ,
D2 = RRRRu
1 u 3 RRRR .
2 u
RRR R RRR R
RR v1 v2 v3 RRRR RR v1 v2 v3 RRRR

, j j (3.15), j
.
= v = z, (3.136) j:
, j u
RRR i j k RRR
3 RR RR
zz = z z I RRRRz1 z2 z3 RRRR ,
(3.139)
RRR R
=0
RRz1 z2 z3 RRRR

j (3.133).
2 = I.
j (3.3) j j :

1 0 0 1 0 i 1 0
I = ( ), 1 = (
), 2 = (
), 3 = (
), (3.140)
0 1 1 0 i 0 0 1

j I.
.
, j :

p + p3 p1 ip2


p = p0 I + p1 1 + p2
2 + p3
3 = ( 0 ),

p1 + ip2 p0 p3
(3.141)


p + p3 p1 i
p2

p = p0 I + p1
1 + p2
2 + p3
3 = ( 0 ),

p1 + i
p2 p0 p3

j p C = 0, 1, 2, 3. (3.133) :

1
tr (
pp ) = p0 p0 + p1 p1 + p2 p2 + p3 p3 . (3.142)
2

q = q0 I + q1
1 + q2
2 + q3
3 j q :
RRR 3 RRRR
3 3 RRR 1 2
R

+ i RRR p1 p2 p3 RRRR .
pq = p q I + (p0 q + p q0 ) (3.143)
=0 =1 R
RRR q q q RRRR
R 1 2 3R

(3.143), (3.135), j
.

173


, u v n- u , v C, = 1, 2, . . . , n,

u v = u
1 v1 + u
2 v2 + + u
n vn . (3.144)

j j ,
j . ,
j u = u u. , u = 1 (1i ) v = 1 (1i ) j
2 2
, j j
1 1 1 i 1 i 1
u v = ( ) ( ) = (1, i) ( ) = (i i) = 0,
2 i 2 1 2 1 2
j u = v = 1.
j (3.121) Oxy.

R()v = v C,

cos sin x x
( )( ) = ( ). (3.145)
sin cos y y

j j .
v R,

j j j R()
v . , j j
Oxy , j j j ( 180 ).
, j . j :

x cos y sin = x
{
x sin + y cos = y,

x(cos ) y sin = 0
{
x sin + y(cos ) = 0.
j j x = y = 0, j j .
j , :

cos sin
= 0,
sin cos

2 2 cos + 1 = 0,

12 = cos i sin = e . (3.146)

j , j
1 1
v12 = ( ) (3.147)
2 i
j j j11 ,
j j j j
. Oxy ,
j jj , j v1 v2 .
11
j j

174
Glava 4

j j j jj jj
. - j j j
j, j
. j
, , .

j. j
jj j (j) j j j j
. , j jj j
j , j .
j j j, j
j j j j j
j j , .
j j .
j j j j
[1]. j , j j, j j
` = i h. j ( j
j j )
` j j. , `
j, i
j , h j
, j. j j
`, j j j i j jj
h , j, j j
j t = s/v.
j j,
.

. .
jj j j
. j,
, j j j
, j . ,
j j.

175


4.1
, , j A = (A, ), j A
, A, j j A.
: , (), , ,
.1 .
j (G, ), j j G. e G
j x G e x = x
x e = x. e G j 2 (x G) e x = x e = x.
j j , e1 = e1 e2 = e2 .
j (S, ) j j j:
j S (a b) c = a (b c). j .
x j x j
x x = e x x = e. j x
, x . x
1 = x
j , x 1 e = x
1 (x x
2 ) = (
x1 x) x
2 = e x
2 = x
2 .

4.1.1. j (M, , e) . x, y M , e, x y
: 1. e = e; 2. x y = y x
x = x.
; 3. x

. 1. e e = e.
2. (
yx ) (x y) = y (
x (x y)) = y ((
x x) y) = y (e y) = y y = e
(x y) (
yx) = e j y x
x y.
3. x x =e=x x.

(G, , e) j . (,
) j (x, y G) x y = y x.
.

4.1.2. j (G, ) . :
1. (G, ) j (x G) x
x = e e x = x;
2. (G, ) j (z G)(x G)(z x = x (y G) y x = z).

. j .
1. x x
= (e x) x
= ((x
x) x) x
= (x
(
x x)) x
= (x
e) x
=x (e x
) = x
x
= e,
x e = x (x x) = (x x
) x = e x = x.
2. j z e, y x x ,
x , .
x

4.1.3. j (M, ) .
G = {x M (y M ) y x = e = x y}. e G, G j j j
(G, ) j .

. e e = e e G. j . x, y G. j
, y M j x, y. 4.1.1 j y x
x = x y
x y, x y G. Ako je x G x
M , j x
x
, x G.
1
, : http://www.matf.bg.ac.rs/
2
-

176


, (N, +) j . j (N, nzd), j j

j j ( j). j G =
{0, 1, 2, 3} m = 4 jj3

+4 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2

j . j 0, n G j m n,
j j n +m (m n) = 0 (mod m). j (3.121) Oxy
R j j .
(P, +, ) j j (P, +) (
0 x x) j (x, y, z P )
x (y + z) = (x y) + (x z) (y + z) x = (y x) + (z x). j j
j j j, x, y, z P (xy)z = x(y z).
j j 1 j , j
j. j (P, ) , . j .
4.1.4. j (P, +, ) . :
1. x 0 = 0 = 0 x;
2. x (y) = (x y) = (x) y, (x) (y) = xy;
3. x y = x + (y), x (y z) = x y x z, (x y) z = x z y z;
4. (x1 + + xn ) y = x1 y + + xn y, x (y1 + + yn ) = x y1 + + x yn ;
5. (x1 + + xn ) (y1 + + yn ) = ni=1 nj=1 xi yj = nj=1 ni=1 xi yj .
. 1. x 0 = x (0 + 0) = x 0 + x 0 x 0 = x 0 + x 0, x 0 + (x 0) =
(x 0 + x 0) + (x 0) = x 0 + (x 0 + (x 0)), 0 = x 0. , 0 = 0 x.
2. 0 = x0 = x(y +y) = x(y)+xy 0 = x(y)+xy, 0+(xy) =
(x (y) + x y) + (x y) = x (y) + (x y + (x y)), x y = x (y). ,
xy = (x)y. j (x)(y) = (x)y = (xy) = xy.
3. (x y) z = (x + (y)) z = x z + (y) z = x z + (y z) = x z y z.
4. j, .
5. 4.

j Z,
Q, R, j C j j
.
j 4.1.5. j (X, +)
jj j ( )(x X) x X.
x, y X , j:
1. (x + y) = x + y,
2. ( + )x = x + y,
3. (x) = ()x,
4. 1 x = x.
X , .
.
3
Arthur Cayley (1821-1895), .

177


R j j,
j j . C j
j, j . j
() j, .
4.1.6. j:
1. x + y = y + z y = z;
2. x = y x y = 0, x y x + (y);
3. 0x = 0;
4. 0 = 0;
5. (1)x = x;
6. x = 0 0 x = 0;
7. x = y 0 x = y;
8. x = 0 x 0 = 0;
9. x = x x 0 = .
. 1. (, j j
), x + y = x + z :
y + x = z + x,
(y + x) + (x) = (z + x) + (x),
y + [x + (x)] = z + [x + (x)],
y + 0 = z + 0,
y = z.
2. j , x = y x + (y) = y + (y) = 0.
3. j 2. x + 0 = x = ( + 0)x = x + 0x,
1. .
4. j 1. x + 0 = x = (x + 0) = x + 0,
1. .
5. j , j 2. j x + (1)x = [1 + (1)]x =
0x = 0, j (1)x j x.
6. j j 3. x = 1x = 1 (x) = 1 0 = 0,
4. .
7. 2. 6 1. , x = y x y = 0,
(x y) = 0, x y = 0, 2. .
8. j 0, x = 0 6. , x = 0,
x 0. = 0.
9. 1. , 2. 7. , x = x, x x = 0,
( )x = 0, = 0.

j j
, j .
j , j j
, j j . j
j j j. ,
j j
j 4 .
4
j j j .

178


j j j j j
.
j j j ,
j .
, , , j , ,
. j,
.
j ( r k
j r k ) j,
j. (xij ) (yij ) j (xij + yij ),
(xij ) j (xij ).
j n- (n = rk) j, j
( ).
Cn n- (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) n N, j
n , j j . x = (1 , 2 , . . . , n )
y = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) j x + y = (1 + 1 , 2 + 2 , . . . , n + n ),
x j x = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ). .
n- j j. j (1.1),
2 ( ) 6 (j
1,2,3,4,5 6) , j 2 6 = 12 :

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6

j j j j
j (j) 5 . j j
n- Cn j,
() j.
j y = f (x) j,
j j.
j f (x) = 0 ,
j.
, j j j
j. j j j j j . j j
j j. , j
j j . , j
, ,
.

j 4.1.7. z C ln z = ln z + i arg(z).

j z = x + iy, x, y R, 3.1 j
z = x + y 2 , j arg z = arctg xy j. z =
2

j j j j,
arg(z) = j j j. :

z = ei = (cos + i sin ). (4.1)

5
. 3.3.1 [1].

179


j j6 j 2. j
j. j j j
j j.
j (4.1)

z = eln z+i arg(z) = eln z [cos arg(z) + i sin arg(z)], (4.2)

j = exp(ln z) = arg(z), j
j j. j j
j j , j .
j, 2.
j j j j .
j j j
, j j j .
j j j7 ( ) j
j, .
J , j j
j . j j
. j j,
j j j - j.
, j L = ln z j, j j
z = exp(L), = z 1 = exp(L). j j
j , I = L + L, j zz = exp(I)
= exp(I). j
( ), , j
( . )
. j 8 .
Cn n- j
j (L1 , L2 , . . . , LN ), (1 , 2 , . . . , n ).
j j, , j
j . j, j
-, j
j . , j -
j j, j j
. j j :
j .
, .
, (7. ...) (6-5.
...), j j . j
jj , j j
j . j j
, , , j
j .
j: j ,
.
6
+ 2k
7
Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), .
8
Max Born (1882-1970), .

180


4.2

. , j j .

j 4.2.1. (X, +) j
j j x X j
x x, j:
1. 0 = 0 x > 0 x 0;
2. x = x ;
3. x + y x + y.
d(x, y) = x y.

9 . j
j ()
, j () j .
j j j
.
, Cn j n-
j z = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ),

zp = (1 p + 2 p + + n p )1/p , (4.3)

j p 1 j. 1. 2. j , 3.
j j. p = 2 j j
. O

z = max k (4.4)
1kn

k p .

4.2.2. j j
n 2 n n
( ak bk ) ( a2k ) ( b2k ) , (4.5)
k=1 k=1 k=1

ak , bk R.

. R j f R R
n
f () = (ak + bk )2 .
k=1

f () 0, j j . :
n
f () = (a2k + 2ak bk + 2 b2k ) 0,
k=1

n n n
f () = a2k + 2 ak bk + 2 b2k 0,
k=1 k=1 k=1
9
Stefan Banach (1892-1945), .

181


j j j j . :
n 2 n
4 ( ak bk ) 4 ( a2k ) ( b2k ) 0,
k=1 k=1 k=1

j.

j x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) n N j:

x y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + + xn yn ,


xy = xy cos , (4.6)



x = x1 + x2 + + xn ,
2 2 2

j = (x, y) . cos 1 (4.5). ,

x, y O j j
j . j j
.

4.2.3. j p = 2

n n 2 n 2
(ak + bk )2 a +
b , (4.7)
k k
k=1 k=1 k=1

ak , bk R, j j (4.5).

. j:
n n n n n
(ak + bk ) = (ak + 2ak bk + bk ) = ak + 2 ak bk + bk =
2 2 2 2 2
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

j j:
2
n n 2 n 2 n 2 n 2 n 2
a2k + 2
a b + b =
k
a +
b ,
k=1 k=1
k
k=1
k
k=1 k=1 k k=1
k

j ( j ).

j j,
. j .

4.2.4. j

a < b a2 < b2 (4.8)

j a, b R, a > 0, b > 0.

. . a < b a b j:

a2 < ab ab < b2 a2 < b2 ,

j .

182


. a2 < b2 b2 a2 > 0, :

(b a)(b + a) > 0,

(b a)(b + a)(b + a)1 > 0 (b + a)1 , (b + a > 0)

b a > 0,
a < b.

(4.3) p = 2,
j p 1. j
J10 j, j 11 , 12 .

Slika 4.1: j.

j j , j
. j y = f (x)
[a, b] j

(x1 , x2 [a, b])(t [0, 1]) f [tx1 + (1 t)x2 ] tf (x1 ) + (1 t)f (x2 ), (4.9)

j j. ,
4.1 A(x1 , f (x1 )), B(x2 , f (x2 )), C(tx1 + (1 t)x2 , tf (x1 ) + (1 t)f (x2 ))
D(x, f (x), j D C.

4.2.5 (J j). j a, b, p, q
1 1 ap bq
+ = 1 ab + , (4.10)
p q p q

j b = ap1 .
10
William Henry Young (1863-1942), .
11
Otto Ludwig Holder (1859-1937), .
12
Hermann Minkowski (1864-1909), --jj .

183


. :
1 1
ab = exp[ln(ab)] = exp(ln a + ln b) = exp ( p ln a + q ln b) =
p q

1 1 1 1 ap bq
= exp [ ln(ap ) + ln(bq )] exp[ln(ap )] + exp[ln(bq )] = + .
p q p q q q
j j y = exp(x) j .

4.2.6 ( j). xk , yk
j, p > 1 q R j 1/p + 1/q = 1

xk < , yk < ,
p q

j
xk yk ( xk ) ( yk ) ,
p 1/p q 1/q
(4.11)
() k.

. j xk p = yk q = 1 J j:

1 1
xk yk xk p + yk q ,
p q
1 1 1 1
xk yk xk + yk = + = 1.
p q
p q p q
, j j, j
:
ak = xk ( xk p )1/p , bk = yk ( yk q )1/q ,
j j j j. j j:

xk yk
ak bk = 1,
( xk )1/p (
p
yk q )1/q

(4.11).

j j Van Khea13 .
, j j (4.3)
.

4.2.7 (j ). xk , yk
j p > 1 j

xk < , yk < ,
p p

( xk + yk p )1/p ( xn p )1/p + ( yk p )1/p , (4.12)

k.
13
https://vankheakh.wordpress.com/2010/12/11/a-generalization-of-holders-inequality/

184


. j zk = xk + yk , :

zk p = xk + yk p = xk + yk zk p1 xk zk p1 + yk zk p1 ,

zk xk zk + yk zk ,
p p1 p1

zk ( zk ) [( xk p )1/p + ( yk p )1/p ], 1/p + 1/q = 1.

p qpq 1/q

j j, j qp q = p . O
j (4.12).

j, , j j j
j
1/p
x = ( x(t)p dt) (4.13)
D

j j j t D.
j , j (4.3), -
p = 2.
j x
j, (4.3) (4.13) x2 = x x,
j j j ,
j :

x = xk xk , x =
2 2
x (t)x(t) dt. (4.14)
D

j j,
(4.1), j . j,
j j j j j
. .
(4.14) j , j ()
j, j. , (1.54)
j (), j
j j (x) = A exp(ikx) j j
j j ikx x.
j j (j) -
j j, j 4.1.5.
. , j
j j. ,
j j, j ,
j j j j
j.
(jj j) j -
j ( ) j , j j
j - j. j -
j, j, j
j. ,
j j, j j
.

185


4.3 j
j j x1 , x2 , . . . , xn X j
n
x = 1 x1 + 2 x2 + + n xn = k xk X, (4.15)
k=1

1 , 2 , . . . , n . (xk )
, j

(x = 0) (k) k = 0, (4.16)

.
, j j (k ) ,
1 . (4.16) 1 0 j

2 n
x1 = ( ) x2 + + ( ) xn , (4.17)
1 1
j x1 j x2 , . . . , xn . j.

j 4.3.1. j S j j,
j j j , j
, j S
.

, a1 < a2 < < an j,

j j xk = exp(ak t)
. , nk=1 k xk = 0 nk=1 k exp(ak t) = 0,
exp(an t) t j n = 0. j n1 = 0, n2 = 0
1 = 0.
j zk = xk exp(ibk t),
xk , bk j, i = 1
j. , k zk = 0 k = 0 k. ,
zk = exp(ck t) ck = ak + ibk j c1 < c2 < < cn ,
t
.
14 k (x) = Ak eikx . ,
, -
, ,
j j.

j 4.3.2. X0 X j X,
j X0 j j X.

- X j . j
j 3- .
n N j j .
j j.
14
.

186


X0 = X1 X2 X1 , X2 X j . ,
x1 , x2 X0 1 , 2 x0 = 1 x1 + 2 x2 x0 X1 x0 X2 , x0 X0 .
, S X j j L(S) j
j :
1. L(S) j j S;
2. L(S) j S .
L(S) X j S X.
j 4.3.3. j j
X j X X.
j j X dim(X).
j j,
.
. j
, X,
.
4.3.4. X j . j
X j j j .
. j X , j j S j
X. j ,
e1 , e2 , . . . , en . ek j , X j .
j S = {e } X. j e1 S e1 , e1 , e2 , . . . , en
X.
j j . j e1 , ek1 , . . . , ekn1 n
j X. j e2 S /{e1 } e2 , e1 , ek1 , ek2 , . . . , ekn1 X
.
j n 2 , j
X. j .
S n , m n j em , em1 ,
..., e2 , e1 j X. j e S j j j
e1 , e2 , . . . , em , j j S . , S
n , j. X . j
n j S j n n, ( j n )
n n . , n = n = dim(X).

X1 , X2 X j S = X1 X2 .
L(X1 , X2 ) = L(S) S. x L(X1 , X2 ) x = x1 +x2
x1 X1 x2 X2 , , j j
S.

L(X1 , X2 ) = {x1 + x2 x1 X1 , x2 X2 } (4.18)

X1 X2 , X1 + X2 . , j X1 , X2 ,
..., Xn , ... , j j X, k Xk
S = k Xk . j x k Xk j
xk Xk , j x = k xk .
, X1 X2 Y = X1 + X2 j Y
X1 X2 . j y = x1 + y2 Y

187


j, x1 X1 x2 X2 j y,
X1 X2 .
n N X n j.
j j - j j .
X n = X p X q n = p + q . , (e1 , . . . , ep )
(e1 , . . . , eq ) X p X q , j (e1 , . . . , ep , e1 , . . . , eq ) X n . X q
X p X n .
X np j j X p . ,
3- E 3 E 2 j j
e1 e2 . j e3 j j j E 2 . ,

.
j .
.

Slika 4.2: .

4.2. , - j
j j j j
j ( j) . j
j ,
j j .
j j j ,
j . ,
j j j
j . , j j
j j - .

188


j j j .
j -j
, L1 L2 , 15 .
j , 1 = exp(L1 ) 2 = exp(L2 ), j
. 16 ,
j j , j
j j .

Slika 4.3: j .

j ,
. 1 2 1-
, = 1 + 2 j 2- ,
. j j
, j x -
. j
j x ,
j j, 4.3.
j = (x) j :
Pr(x) = (x)(x) = [1 (x) + 2 (x)] [1 (x) + 2 (x)],

Pr(x) = 1 1 + 1 2 + 2 1 + 2 2 . (4.19)
j j , ,
, 1 = 0 2 = 0, j:
Pr 1 (x) = 2 2 , Pr 2 (x) = 1 1 , (4.20)
j .
j j, j
j , .
, ,
Pr 3 (x) = 2 2 + 2 2 , (4.21)
15
j j .
16
j j .

189


j j, j Pr(x) (4.19).
j j , -
, (4.19) j
. j j j . j j
j , ,
(4.19).

--.
j j j j
-j L. Pr = = 2
j j L,
j . j
, j j
j j. j j
j , j j.
j j ,
. ,
j j (j A), j
(j B). j
j ( j),
. j A
j j B. j
j . j . ,
j (j C),
(j) ,
(),
j jj j A B.
, j , j .
j j
j 17 . j j (1.9).
,
j. j ,
, . j
j, j j j.
j ( j) ,
j j. , j j
j. j , j
, . j
j : j, .
j , ,
j . j
.
j , j.
j j ,
. , j, j j 18 .
17
j j .
18
.

190


4.4
A j j f , g
:
+ g) = A(f
A(f ) + A(g),

A(f ) = A(f
). (4.22)
j j j j .

j 4.4.1. X Y .
A X Y j A X

A( 2 ),
1 ) + 2 A(x
1 x1 + 2 x2 ) = 1 A(x (4.23)

x1 , x2 X 1 , 2 .

(
j) j A(x) Ax Ax,
. j j j ( 5) ,
5(1 x1 + 2 x2 ) = 1 5x1 + 2 5x2 . j
( t), j j t (x + y) = t x + t y x, y X , .
j (2.45) .
4.4.2. j R

. (2.45) :

(au + bv) = (cos sin ) [a (ux ) + b (vx )] =

R
sin cos uy vy

cos sin aux + bvx

=( )( )
sin cos auy + bvy

(aux + bvx ) cos (auy + bvy ) sin

=( )
(aux + bvx ) sin + (auy + bvy ) cos

au cos aux sin av cos avx sin

=( x )+( x )
auy sin + auy cos avy sin + avy cos

cos sin ux cos sin vx

= a( )( ) + a( )( ),
sin cos uy sin cos vy

(au + bv) = aR
R u + bR
v, (4.24)
a, b u, v .

4.4.3. j e1 , . . . , en X. A B
X Y Aek = Bek k = 1, . . . , n, j A = B.

v1 , . . . , vn Y j j j
A X Y j vk = Ae
k k = 1, . . . , n.

. j , j j:
n n n n
= A k ek = k Ae
Ax k = k Be
k=B
k ek = Bx.

k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

191


, j A j x = nk=1 k ek
= n k vk .
Ax k=1

n
x + y = k ek + k ek = (k + k )ek
k=1 k=1 k=1

n n n

A(x + y) = (k + k )vk = k vk + k vk = Ax
+ Ay.

k=1 k=1 k=1

j Ae k = vk , j j
, j .

j j X Y . -
j e1 , . . . , en X ,
j . ek
j:

e1 = a11 e1 + a12 e2 + + a1n en ,



e2 = a21 e1 + a22 e2 + + a2n en ,
(4.25)



...,


en = an1 e1 + an2 e2 + + ann en ,

j aij . j j
RRR a R
RRR 11 a12 . . . a1n RRRRR
Ra a22 . . . a2n RRR
D = RRRRR 21 RRR (4.26)
RRR . . . RRR
RRRa R
R n1 an2 . . . ann RRR
j j. j D 0, j
j . ek ek
j . j () X.
j (ek ) (ek )
:

e1 a11 a12 . . . a1n e1
e2 a21 a22 . . . a2n e2
= , (4.27)
. . . . . . . . .
e an1 an2 . . . ann en
n

e = A
e, (4.28)
, (ek ) (4.25)
(ek ), :
n n n n n
ek = bkj ej = bkj ( aji ei ) = bkj aji ei ,
j=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1

:
n n
ek = cki ei , cki = bkj aji , (4.29)
ki j=1

192


C = B A,
j .
4.4.2 j
j j . j j
( j ) , j
j .
(. ). j j j .
j j (4.26) , D = 0 j ek j ,
(4.25) ,
j . (ek )
(ek ), j j j.
j j , D = 0 ek ,
(4.25) j e1 = = en = 0. , j
j19 , j A,

= {
ker(A) e e X, A
e = 0}, (4.30)

j j .
4.4.3 jj .
j jj j, j
j . J j
j x . ,
p = i~, j j j . (2.80),
j (2.213) j j j j j,
j j j jj . ,
,
j = (x, y, z), j , j

p = i~ = i~(x + y + z ), (4.31)

j j jj (, j) .
p j : 1.
2. .
1. () jj .
j j (4.31) .
. j,
. -. j
j j j, j
.
, j jj . j
, j .
2. () X
j Y . , X Y
j jj20 B X Y ,
, j j

B(1 x1 + 2 y) = 1 B(x1 ) + 2 B(x2 ), (4.32)

19
. kernel - j
20
jj - j

193


x1 , x2 X 1 , 2 .
j , (4.31)
,
j. j ()
j. , j
. j , j
.
B(0) = B(0 + 0) = B(0) + B(0) B ,
j jj B(x) = 0 x = 0. , e1 , . . . , en
X B(e1 ), . . . , B(en ) Y , j k B(ek ) = 0
B( k ek ) = 0, k ek = 0, k = 0 k. ,
j X , j Y , dim X = dim Y . j
j j, j j , , :
R. X j X;
S. j X Y j Y X;
T. j X Y Y Z, j X Z.
, j, .
j , j j X X . j
jj . j :
B1 (B2 (x + y)) = B1 (B2 (x) + B2 (y)) = B1 (B2 (x)) + B1 (B2 (y)). (4.33)
.
4.4.4. n- X n Y n .
, j n j ()
. j j, .
( j),
j. j . , j
, j j j
j .
, , j j
.

. (4.31)
21 .
j j 1923. jj
jj. j X- , j
jj
jj, 4.4. j j
j X- j .
() j , j E = h
p = h/c. (e ) j j (
pe = 0). , p = h /c,
j ( ) pe .
j , :
E + Ee = E + Ee , p + pe = p + pe ,
21
Arthur Compton (1892-1962), .

194


hc hc
+ me c2 = + (pe c)2 + (me c2 )2 , e = p + p 2p p cos ,
p2 2 2

2h2 c2
) + ( ) + ( 2 2 )2hcme c
(pe c)2 = ( hc 2 hc 2 1 1 2
,
{
(pe c)2 = ( hc
) + ( )
2 hc 2 2h c cos
.
j

h
= = (1 cos ), (4.34)
me c

j .
.

Slika 4.4: .

j = 0, j = 0,
j , j j .
j = 180 , j ,
j j j j
.
?
, (4.31), j . j
j ,
.
() j
j , j j j
j - .
j, jj j j
j (4.1). j jj
. j, j j
() j. jj j,
j W0 jj , j
j , j.

195


4.5
j X = C
(j )
v1 , v2 X, v1 , v2 C, 22 :
1. v1 , v2 = v2 , v1 - ;
2. v1 , v2 = v1 , v2 , C;
3. v, v1 + v2 = v, v1 + v, v2 , v X;
4. v 0 v, v > 0.
j. ,
v1 v2 v1 , v2 = 0,
. j
j .

u = u, u, (4.35)

j j u u, u j 4.2.1.
, j
. j z = x + iy j x
y, j z = xiy. j A = (zjk ) j
j A = (zkj
), j (3.129).
A .

4.5.1. X C :
i. u, v = u, v;
ii. u + v, w = u, w + v, w;
iii. u, v2 u, uv, v;
u, v, w X C.

. 1. 2. j. 3. j j j (4.5).

j = R,
. ,
j j j . j
- j j,
j j.
Oxyz j
, :

a = OA = ax ex + ay ey + az ez , b = OB = bx ex + by ey + bz ez ,

ex , ey ez j () , . :

a, b = a b = ax bx + ay by + az bz = ab cos , (4.36)

j = (a, b) , a b . j

a = a, a = a2x + a2y + a2z , (4.37)
22
j .

196


a. j ,
j j . ,
, .
j j, . [1],
j j

` = i h. (4.38)

` j j j i
j jj h . j ` j
j j, j j j
23 . , j j
( ) j:

I = P1 I1 + P2 I2 + + Pn In , (4.39)

j Pk ( Pk j j), Ik j j
(1.1) j j. j (4.38)
j j L.
Pk j j j, k- j
j. , j j. j j j ,
j j, j .
, j j, Ik = ln Pk , j j
, j j j Pk . , j
j, j24 . ,
j j .
, j j .
j j j, j , j j
j j . j (4.39)
j j . j
jj j, (4.38), j j
j j, j j j.
.
j j j
j j L j j j
. j jj. j (2.31)
j j L = m0 c 1 v 2 /c2 j j ,
2

j, j , j j.
, j j j, j j j j.
, j j j j
j
j .
j L Ek j
Ep j . ,
j L = Ek Ep , j j, j
. j j j j
23
Claude Shannon (1916-2001), -.
24
j j.

197


j j , j. .
j
j (1.12)
( j ).
j, j L,
j j j,
j . j 4- j
- . j j

L = ln , (4.40)
j () , j
j 2 = .
, j ,
(4.38) .
, j `. j
, j j j ` 0,
: 1. j i 2. jj h, .
1. j ( ) j j , j
. , j j
j j , jj
j j. ,
i 0, j
, j j.
2. jj25 1930, jj j . j j
26 , j j
j j j j . j,
. , j
,
j . ,
j j . h 0.
j = C,
. j, -
j j, j
j j (j ),
27 . .
, Oxyz j,
j a b (4.36) j
a, b = a b = ax bx + ay by + az bz . (4.41)
j j, j

a = a, a = ax ax + ay ay + az az , (4.42)
a2 = ax 2 +ay 2 +az 2 . j
. j j
j, .
25
Frank P. Ramsey (1903-1930), , .
26
Peter Gustav Dirichlet (1805-1859), .
27
David Hilbert (1862-1943), .

198


3.1.4, j z1 = x1 + iy1 z2 = x2 + iy2

z = z1 z2 j :

1. z = (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 x2 y1 ),



2. z = R(z) + iI(z),
(4.43)

3. z = z1 z2 cos + iz1 z2 sin ,



4. z = ei ,

j R(z) j z, I(z) , = (z1 Oz2 ) j

j, j = z = z1 z2 . j z1 z2 j z2 z1
O, z1 z2 , ( R) z2 = z1 . j j
j (z1 z2 = z2 z1 ),
j (z1 z2 z2 z1 ). j j
.
j . j
3 1, j 1 3, (4.41) :

bx
a, b = a b = (ax ay az ) by = ax bx + ay by + az bz , (4.44)
bz

j
ax ax bx ax by ax bz

a b = ay (bx by bz ) = ay bx ay by ay bz . (4.45)
az az bx az by az bz

(4.44) j , (4.45) j 3 3.
j a, b = b, a.
4.5.2. j (4.41) :

Ra, b = a b cos , Ia, b = a b sin , (4.46)

j .
. A(ax , ay , az ) B(bx , by , bz )
, j O(0, 0, 0). j
OAB
2 2 2
AB = OA + OB 2 OA OB cos ,

b a2 = a2 + b2 2 a b cos ,
(ax bx + ax bx ) + (ay by + ay by ) + (az bz + az bz ) = 2 a b cos ,
R(ax bx ) + R(ay by ) + R(az bz ) = a b cos ,
R(ax bx + ay by + az bz ) = a b cos ,
j.
{x, y, z} v {a, b} j v = v1 + iv2 . :
2
Ra, b a2 b2 (Ra, b)2
sin = 1 cos = 1 (
2 2
) = ,
a b a2 b2

199


a2 b2 sin2 = a2 b2 (Ra, b)2

= (a21 + a22 ) (b21 + b22 ) (a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2

= [(a1 b1
2 2
+ a21 b22 + a22 b21 + a22 b22 ) (a21 b21 + 2a1 b1 a2 b2 + a22 b22 )]

= (a21 b22 + a22 b21 2a1 b1 a2 b2 ) = (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 ,

a b sin = (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 ,

j.

j j
28 . j
j (4.43), j:

1. a, b = (a1 b2 + b1 b2 ) + i (a1 b2 a2 b1 ),



2. a, b = Ra, b + iIa, b,
(4.47)

3. a, b = a b cos + ia b sin ,



4. a, b = ei ,

j Ra, b , Ia, b , = (a, b) j

, j = a, b = a b.
X n C x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) y = (y1 , . . . , yn )
xk = xk1 + ixk2 yk = yk1 + iyk2 , k = 1, 2, . . . , n j = 1, 2
xkj , ykj k R+ , :

x, y = 1 x1 y1 + 2 x2 y2 + + n xn yn (4.48)

= k (xk1 ixk2 )(yk1 + iyk2 )

k

= [k (xk1 yk1 + xk2 yk2 ) + ik (xk1 yk2 xk2 yk1 )]

k

= k (xk1 yk1 + xk2 yk2 ) + i k (xk1 yk2 xk2 yk1 )

k k
= Rx, y + iIx, y.

j x = x, x, j:

x2 = x, x = Rx, x + iIx, x = Rx, x (4.49)

= k (x2k1 + x2k2 ) = 1 x1 2 + 2 x2 2 + + n xn 2 .
O, x y,
. jj j
(4.47). j k = 1 n = 3, j j (4.41).
n , j.
j j, j
. (4.43) j ,
j. j , j.
28
j j .

200


4.6
j ( 4.3.4) j
j j .
.
j .
j .
j e = {e1 , . . . , en } X ,
x X x = nk=1 k ek k .
x, j , j j

1
(e) = .
x (4.50)
n

j k j = x (e) -
j . , . x
j X .
e = {e1 , . . . , en }

1 , . . . , n , j
n n
x = k ek = k ek . (4.51)
k=1 k=1

x = e = e , j:

1 1

x = (e1 . . . en ) = (e1 . . . en ) ,

(4.52)
n n

j, .
= x
(e) = x
(e ) j ,
. j ,
, .
A X Y A1 Y X
j A1 j
A1 (Ax) = x, (4.53)
x X. A A1 jj Y = A(X).
j j Y = X,
.
4.6.1. j .
. A A1 , (4.52) A(A1 y) = AA1 y = y, y Y .
y1 , y2 Y 1 , 2 :
A1 (1 y1 + 2 y2 ) = A1 (1 AA1 y1 + 2 AA1 y2 )
= A1 A(1 A1 y1 + 2 A1 y2 )
= 1 A1 (y1 ) + 2 A1 (y2 ),
j .

201


j (4.25), j
e e X. j,
j j , j
. j A j . :
n
ek = Aek = kj ej , k = 1, . . . , n. (4.54)
j=1

, x X :
n n n n n n
x = j ej = k ek = k kj ej = k kj ej ,
j=1 k=1 k=1 j=1 j=1 k=1

n n
(j k kj )ej = 0,

j=1 k=1

n
j = kj k , j = 1, . . . , n. (4.55)
k=1

(4.50) :

(e) = A(e)
x x(e ), (e ) = [A(e)]
x 1
(e),
x x X, (4.56)

= A , j e = eA.
,
. - j (),
j ().

4.6.2. t ,
e1 = 1, e2 = t e3 = t2 , e1 = 1 t, e2 = t + t2 e3 = 1 t2 .
x(e) = 4 5t + 3t2 j , e .

. j (e = Ae):

e = Ae1 = e1 e2

1 1 0 1
e2 = Ae2 = e2 + e3 (e1 e2 e3 ) = (e1 e2 e3 ) 1 1 0


0 1 1
e3 = Ae3 = e1 e3 ,

j (AA1 = A1 A = I):

1 0 1 1 1 1
1
A = 1 1 0 A1 = 1 1 1 .
0 1 1 2
1 1 1

( = A1 ):

4 6
(e) = 5 ,
= x (e ) = 1 ,
= A1 = x
3 2

x(e ) = 6 (1 t) + 1 (t + t2 ) 2 (1 t2 ).

202


A e e , B e e ,
() e = eA e = e B
= eAB,
j
. , C = AB
e e . (4.52) j e = e , e = e B = eAB
,

= AB
, = B
1 A1 . (4.57)

j j 29 . , (
j) j
(AB)
1 = B
1 A1 , (4.58)
.
, j .
j j j, j
j ( j j ). ,
,
j .
J Aek = nj=1 kj ej k = 1, . . . , n A j

A(e) = (kj ). Aek e.
e j A(e ).
j j A.
A j ek = T ek k = 1, . . . , n.
y = Dx e j k = j kj j , y(e) = D(e)
x(e).
j y = Dx e j y(e ) = D(e)
x(e ), j z(e) = A(e)
z (e )
z X, j A(e)
y (e ) = D(e)
A(e) x(e ).

A(e)D(e ) = D(e)A(e),

) = [A(e)]
D(e 1
D(e)A(e), (4.59)

D D j e ,
j e A j .
j j .
4.6.3. (4.59), 4.6.2.
. D . j

D(1, t, t2 ) = (0, 1, 2t),

De1 = 0, De2 = e1 , De3 = 2e2 ,

0 1 0
D(e) = 0 0 2 ,
0 0 0
k- k- . :

D(e ) = [A(e)]
1
D(e)A(e) =
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1
= 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 0 ,
2
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
29
j

203


1 1 2
1
D(e ) = 1 3 2 .
2
1 3 2
x(e) = 4 5t + 3t2 y = Dx = 5 + 6t, :

5 1
1 1 2 6
1
11
y(e) = 6 , y(e ) = D(e
)
x(e ) = 1 3 2 1 = 1 ,
0 2
1 3 2 2
2
1

11 1 1
y(e ) =
(1 t) + (t + t2 ) + (1 t2 ),
2 2 2
j y = 5 + 6t.

j , j -, j
, j , j
= . (4.45),
j .
( ) j
j j . j
+ - .
,
j .

4.6.4. + j . j
A :
1 1
A+ = i~, A = i~+. (4.60)
2 2
.

. :

~ ~
(1 0) A = (0 i) , (0 1) A = (i 0) ,
2 2

1 0 ~ 0 i
( )A = ( ),
0 1 2 i 0
~
A = 2 ,
2
j
2 j (3.3).

j j 30 31 1922.
, 4.5. (Ag) j j 47
, j 46 j j 47.
5. . j ,
( ) (l = 0). ,
j jj z . j
j j, l,

204


Slika 4.5: .

, . j j
(l = 0), j j.
, 32 1925.
, , j
. j
, j j
j , j
. j , j
, j
. ,
.
j (4.38) , j
, . j j
, ( )
j j . j , j
, , : .
j j ? j
j .
j, .
, j j s = n2 , j n j.
s 0, 12 , 1, 23 , 2, . . . ,
- j 12 , 23 , 25 , . . . , 0, 1, 2, . . . .
jj ,
(j) . -
33 j 34 , -jj
35 j
j j j. j
j .

30
Otto Stern (1888-1969), .
31
Walter Gerlach (1889-1979), .
32
Uhlenbeck, G.E.; Goudsmith, S. (1925). "Ersetzung der Hypothese vom unmechanischen Zwang durch
eine, Cambridge University Press. pp. 78. ISBN 0-521-83911-4.
33
FermiDirac statistics: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics
34
Pauli exclusion principle:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle
35
BoseEinstein statistics: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_statistics

205


4.7 j
j j X
. j j j
, , .
,
j j . j
X j X.
je e1 , . . . , en X, x X x = k ek k . ,
y X , k = y (ek ):
n n n
y (x) = y ( ek k ) = y (ek )k = k k ,
k=1 k=1 k=1

n
y (x) = k k . (4.61)
k=1

, y x j
, j . j . ,
k j j (4.61) ek j
y X. j y (x)
y X x X.
k j k
j . j , j
( , y y ):

1
y (x) = = (1 . . . n ) = 1 1 + + n n . (4.62)
n

ek k . j (4.61)
, .
,

y (x) = yx. (4.63)

j
- . , , ,
. , A = (ajk )
A = (ajk ) = (akj ), j j A = (
akj ).
, j j .
T X , j - j 36 ,
. j
. j T j T j
j
T yx = yT x, (4.64)
x, y X. , T j T .
36
, .

206


T , T j j. ,
j:
T yx = yT x, (T ) = T,
(4.65)
(T ) = T , (T + S) = T + S ,
j j. j,
T yx = xT y = T xy = yT x. (T ) yx = yT x = T yx,
j j. (T + S) yx = y(T + S)x =
yT x + yT x = T yx + S yx = (T + S )yx (T + S) = T + S .
j j (4.64) .
,
. ,
j.
J (4.64) j j,

A xy = xAy. (4.66)

A j j A , A . A x
Ay x y .
, j :

0
A ( 1 ) = ( ) , A ( 1 ) = ( 2 ) . (4.67)
2 1 2 0

j A j A,
j j:

A xy = (0, x1 )(yy12 ) = x1 y2
{
xAy = (x1 , x2 )(y02 ) = x1 y2 .

j.
j j .
, j A , (A+B) = A +B , (A) = A
, (A ) = A, (AB) = B A .
:

x(AB)y = xA(By) = A xBy = B (A x)y,

j (AB) = B A , j j j, j .
( ).
j37 .
, y y , j
j y

y1 x1 x1
yx = = (
y1 . . . yn ) = y1 x1 + + yn xn ,
yn xn xn

j (4.62). j j:

yAx = y (Ax) = (A y) x = A yx.

37
j .

207


J . yAx

a11 . . . a1n x1
(
y1 . . . yn ) . . . ,
an1 . . . ann xn

y (A y A)
x) = ( x = (A y) x
= A yx. j:

yAx = A yx = yAx, (4.68)

j . , j:

0 0 0 1
A = ( ), A = ( ),
1 0 0 0

(4.67).
j , .
j j j
j j, j .
j j (2 + 3i) = 2 3i,

1 + i 2 3i 1 i 4 5i

( ) =( ).
4 + 5i 2 + i 2 + 3i 2 i

j A j, .
(X Y )
() .
j j
,
j. j j j
( ) j .

j 4.7.1. A X Y j:
j A(x1 + x2 ) = Ax1 + Ax2 x1 , x2 X;
j A(x) = Ax x X ;
j A(1 x1 + 2 y2 ) = 1 Ax1 + 2 Ax2 x1 , x2 X, 1 , 2 .

j j . j .
j ( ).

4.7.2. A(0) = 0 A(x) = A(x).

. A(x) = A(x + 0) = A(x) + A(0) A(0) = 0.

0 = A(0) = A(x x) = A(x) + A(x) A(x) = A(x).

()
j j .

4.7.3. j jj , j
.

208


. j x0 X jj j A . j
x X j (xn ) X j x.
x0 :

lim A(xn x + x0 ) = Ax0 ,

n

lim (Axn Ax + Ax0 ) = Ax0 ,

n
lim Axn = Ax,
n
j A x.

j j , j
. , x, y, z R j :
R. x x;
A. (x y y x) x = y;
T. (x y y z) x z.
j j . j m j j
j x m m x x
. j j
. j j j
j , j,
.
S, ,
: max S - , min S - , sup S - , inf S - .
j : inf S min S x max S sup S (x S).

j 4.7.4. A X Y j j -
j M R+ j Ax M x x X. j M
j j A A.

, A j A, x X
Ax Ax.

4.7.5. j A , :
Ax
A = sup = sup Ax = sup Ax.
xX/{0} x x1 x=1

. j
Ax
M, x 0.
x
j M j j j , ,
:
Ax 1 x
A = sup = sup Ax = sup A ( ) .
xX/{0} x xX/{0} x xX/{0} x
x X/{0} j x/x = 1, j

A = sup Ax,
x=1

209


j . x X j j x 1 :

sup Ax A = sup Ax,

x1 x=1

. .

4.7.6. A X Y j j .

. j A , :

Axn Ax0 = A(xn x0 ) Axn x0 ,

xn x0 j x0 .
A j X,
j jj x = 1. j (xn )
x = 1 Axn n ,
xn
yn = 0, j (n) Ayn 1.
n

, A j x0 , 4.7.3
jj j .

j j , j ,
j j, .
j () .

4.7.7. A X Y
j X Y .

. j . j S :

A < +, (x S) x M,

(x S) Ax Ax M A.

j . j K j X, j AK
Y . , j j M > 0 j Ax M x K.
j x 0 X. j x/x K, j:

x
A M Ax M x.
x

x = 0. A.

j A X Y (Y = ).
, j j (j j j )
j j j , j.
j j .

210


4.8 j
X C A X X. -
X0 X j A, x0 X0
Ax0 X0 , j. j AX0 X0 . j j j -.
j A X X j

Ax = x, x X, , (4.69)

j j j x 0. j C j
j j j (ei-
genvalue) A, x (eigenfunction)
A j j . R C,
A j.
j

(I A)x = 0, (4.70)

j I j . j , x 0, A = I A j
, j j R = A1
, j ,
. j (4.70)
j j j . j .
C j A, j I A
(j ). A
(A). (A) A
(A). (A)
A. R = (I A)1 j.
j X j n, A X X
n I, A, A2 , . . . , j
j m

I, A, . . . , Am1 (4.71)

, I, A, . . . , Am1 , An .
j j 1 , . . . , m1 C j

Am = 1 Am1 + + m1 A + m I. (4.72)

(4.71) j 1 , . . . , m j
A. j

() = m 1 m1 m1 m (4.73)

j A. ,
, j j (4.69),
(4.73).
A k N (C),
n = k 2 j, j j n.
, j m k, j n-
, j, j . , j
j A , (4.72) j j , j j
, .

211


4.8.1. () j j A .
. j P () j P (A) = 0. P ()
() j P () = P1 ()() + Q(), j P1 () Q()
, j. Q j m. j P (A) = P1 (A)(A) + Q(A)
P (A) = (A) = 0 Q(A) = 0. j Q(A) m
j Q() = 0, j. () j P ().

(4.73) A, j (A) = 0
j A.
4.8.2. A
j j.
. A ,
Am j
(4.71), j .

j A1 A j

A1 A = AA1 = I. (4.74)

A j j .
A j j . j I,
j 0.
4.8.3. j A , j (4.73)

1
A1 = (Am1 1 Am2 m1 ). (4.75)
m
. m 0 (4.72) :
1
[ (Am1 1 Am2 m1 I] A = I,
m
.

[14] ( 4.2)
, .
4.8.4. j :

6 12 1 1 1 1 3 3 2
A = 1 3 1 , = 1 1 1 ,
B C = 1 1 2 .
4 12 3 1 1 1 1 3 4

. J (4.70) j (I = 0.
A)v
j j j v = (0, 0, 0)
. det(I A)
= 0 :
RRR 6 12 1 RRRR
RRR R
RRR 1 + 3 1 RRRR = 0,
RRR R
RR 4 12 3RRRR

212


+3 1 1 1 1 + 3
( 6) 12 + = 0,
12 3 4 3 4 12
( 6)(2 + 3) 12( 1) 4 = 0,
3 6 + 11 6 = 0,
( 1)( 2)( 3) = 0,
1 = 1, 2 = 2 3 = 3. v1
j j 1 = 1 j:

6 12 1 x1 x1
1 3 1 y1 = 1 y1 ,
4 12 3 z1 z1

1 6 12 1 x1
1 1 + 3 1 y1 = 0,
4 12 1 3 z1
j ( j) j . x1 y1
z1 , j x1 = z1 , y1 = 12 z1 , z1 C. J u1 = (2/3, 1/3, 2/3)
j A j j j 1 = 1. -
j v1 = z1 u1 j z1
, j
1 = 1 v1 .
(4.69), Av
j :

v2 = (7z2 /8, 3z2 /8, z2 ), v3 = (z3 , z3 /3, z3 ), z2 , z3 C,

j j 2 = 2 3 = 3 A.
J det(I B) = 0 + 3 4 = 0,
3 2

1 = 2 = 2 3 = 1. B. j
{2, 1}. 2 j 2I B = 0 j
j x1 + y1 + z1 = 0. x1 = y1 z1 , y1 , z1 C.
j j j 1 = 2 = 2 (1, 1, 0) (1, 0, 1) ,

1 1
v = 1 + 0 , , C.
0 1

3 = 1 B j (1, 1, 1) .
C 1 = 2 = 3 = 2 jj j
(3, 1, 0) (2, 0, 1) .

j j
. ,
.
. ,
, , j j
j , j .

213


j .
j j j ,
,
( j ).
,
j , j,
.
.
j j
j .
j . j
() j L = ln , ,
j j. 38
j j .
, .
j X C
j A X X . j C
j R = (I A)1 , . ,
j.
j (A) A j A X = (I A)X
39 X A (R = A1 ). j
c (A) A, j A X X A
, j j . j
r (A) A, j A X j X A
( ). j d (A)
A, A ( j A X).
jj, -
j (A), c (A), r (A) d (A) j40 . ,

(A) = c (A) r (A) d (A) (4.76)

j A.
j (4.69), j. Ax = x, x j
() A j j (-
) . j j I A
j

(x A)x = 0 x = 0,

A j .
j R = (I A)1 ,
j A = I A jj ( j ) X X,
A X X.
j , . A
, . j
A (
38
.
39
- j .
40
j - j .

214


A ). , j
(, , )
.
4.8.5. j A X X , -
j 0 -
. .
. j j:

(1 a11 )1 a12 2 a1k n = 1



a21 )1 + (1 a12 )2 a2n k = 2
(4.77)



...

an1 1 an2 2 + (1 ann )k = n ,

j j
n
(jk ajk )j = j , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, (4.78)
j=1

(I A)x = y, x = (k ) y = (k ), j kk = 1 jk = 0
j k, A X X j .
( 41 ): j x Ax = y y X,
j x Ax = 0 j j .

j A X X B X X ,
j AB BA .
j .
4.8.6. j A X X > 0. A
j j
j j .
. , A
xk (k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ) j Axk = k xk k > > 0.
X1 X j xn . X1 A
. , x = a1 x1 +a2 x2 + +an xn j
X1 . j Ax = a1 1 x1 + a2 2 x2 + + an n xn , ,
A1 (Ax) = x,
a1 a2 an
A1 x = x1 + x2 + + xn ,
1 2 n

1
A1 x x.

j A1 X1 , j j x j
X1 .
j A X, j X1 . ,

. j, j .
41
Fredholm alternative: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredholm_alternative

215


4.9
X , j
j C. j x, y X
x, y , j - xy,
j (4.63) . j,
A j AxAy xy. ,
Ax = ax a C j a 1.
j 4.9.1. U X X j U xU y = xy x, y X,
.
j j j . J -
j, j j ,
. j j ei C, j
. j j j f R C j

f () =
f (x)e2ix dx, R, (4.79)

.
4.9.2. j .
. j

U (x + y) = U x + U y, (4.80)

, C x, y X.
K(U ) , j U , L(U )
j K(U ) . j

v = U (x + y) U (x) U (y) L(U ).

z X vz j:

U (x + y U (x) U (y)U (z) =

= U (x + y)U (z) U (x)U (z) U (y)U (z)

= x + yz xz yz = 0.
, v j L(U ), j , j.
. (4.80).

.
, X K(U ) = X. ,
e1 , . . . , en X, U e1 , . . . , U en , j
n
k U e k = 0
k=1

x X
n n
k U ek U x = k ek x = 0.
k=1 k=1

216


nk=1 k ek = 0, 1 = = n = 0
U e1 , . . . , U en . X X, j
U 1 .
, X X (jj),
j X X
. , ( = R)
.
j , j:

+, x = 0
(x) = { (x) dx = 1, (4.81)
0, x0

j . j j,
(x) j () .

yx = (y x), (4.82)
j x = y j, j. Pr(x = y) = 1.
, j j

() =
e2ix (x) dx = 1. (4.83)

. j, j j.
j j j ,

= ,
, (4.84)

j = 1.
J j
j Ta . j j j
() a
(eigenstate) j x :

Ta
x .
x+a (4.85)

Ta j , j j

a. , j:

y Ta
x = =
y Ta x y =
x+a

= (( ) x
y+a ) = (
y ( ))
xa
=
ya x = Ta y
x,
Ta = Ta , Ta = Ta .
j a j , j
j Ta Ta x, j Ta = Ta1 , j j .
x =
j j j ,
, j j j .
j U xU x = U xx = U 2 x2 , j 4.9.1 U 2 = 1,

U = ei , R, (4.86)

217


j j ( ). j
j j j j j, j
. j
j j. j j j, j
j.
(4.86), j

Ta = eiKa ,
=K
K , (4.87)
. :
j K
K)
1 = Ta Ta = eiK = ei(K
a
a iK a
e ,
=K
K ,

j K .
.
j e1 , . . . , en X U , j

1, j = k
U ej U ek = ej ek = jk = { . (4.88)
0, j k

.
, j e1 , . . . , en e1 , . . . , en X j
U j ek = U ek k = 1, . . . , n. ,
:
n n
x = k ek U x = k ek .
k=1 k=1

j j :
n n n n n
U xU y = j ej k ek = j k ej ek = j k jk = k k = xy,
j=1 k=1 j,k=1 j,k=1 k=1

x, y X. J j , , j
() .
4.9.3. x1 , . . . , xn x1 , . . . , xn n-
X j n. j

xj xk = xj xk , j, k = 1, . . . , n, (4.89)

j j U j xk = U xk , k = 1, . . . , n.
(4.89) j . xk
xkj j k. j xk = (xk )
S = {x1 , . . . , xn }, j

xy = (x)(y), x, y S. (4.90)

j X, j
S.

218


4.9.4. X Y , S X
G Y j j (jj)
S G j (4.90). j U K(S)
K(G), sa svojstvom
xy = U xU y, x, y K(S),
U x = (x), x S.
n X n j ,
n , j j
. j j
j X n . , jj j .
- j42 .
j E = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . . } j
X j L(E) ( j
) .

RRRRx1 x1 x1 x2 x1 RRRR
x1 x1 x1 R R
y1 = x 1 , y 2 = , y3 = RRRRx2 x1 x2 x2 x2 RRRR , . . . (4.91)
x2 x1 x2 RRR RRR
RRx3 x1 x3 x2 x3 RR
j yk j j j k- j .
, n- , . j n-
(yk ) j L(E) j .
4.9.5. X 3
xy = 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 ,

x1 = e1 + e2 + e3 , x2 = e1 + e2 e3 , x1 = e1 e2 + e3 ,
- .
. (4.91): y1 = x1 ,
x x x1 3 x1
y2 = 1 1 = = x1 + 3x2 ,
x2 x1 x2 1 x2
RRRx x x x x RRR RRR3 1 x RRR
RR 1 1 1 2 1R R
R R 1R
R
y3 = RRRRx2 x1 x2 x2 x2 RRRR = RRRR1 3 x2 RRRR = 4x1 + 4x2 + 8x3 .
RRR RRR RRR R
RRx3 x1 x3 x2 x3 RR RR1 1 x3 RRRR
:
y1 = e1 + e2 + e3 , y2 = 2e1 + 2e2 4e3 , y3 = 8e1 8e2 .

y1 = 3, y2 = 2 6 y3 = 4 2, j
j ek = yk /yk , k = 1, 2, 3:
e1 + e2 + e3 e1 + e2 2e3 e1 e2

e1 = , e2 = , e3 = .
3 6 2
j .
42
GramSchmidt process: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%E2%80%93Schmidt_process

219


4.9.6. x1 , x2 , x3 X 3 j
, j xy = 1 1 + 22 2 + 33 3 .
. (4.91) j:

y 1 = x1 , y2 = 6x2 , y3 = 12(x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 ),

y1 = e1 + e2 + e3 , y2 = 6(e1 + e2 e3 ), y3 = 24(2e1 e2 ),
e1 + e2 + e3 e1 + e2 e3 2e1 e2

e1 = , e2 = , e3 = .
3 6 6
j .

- j
j , .
4.9.7. a = 2e1 e2 +3e3 j x1 , x2 , x3
4.9.5.
. j
RRRx x x x x x x RRR RRR3 1 1 x1 RRRR
RRR 1 1 1R R
Rx x x2 x2 x2 x3 x2 RRRR RRRR1 3 1 x2 RRRRR
R R
1 2 1 3

x = RRRRR 2 1 R=R R
RRRx3 x1 x3 x2 x3 x3 x3 RRRRR RRRRR1 1 3 x3 RRRRR
RRR ax ax ax a RRR RRR4 2 6 a RRR
R 1 2 3 R R R
x1 , x2 , x3 , j. , j x = 0. , j
j , j a = x1 21 x2 + 32 x3 .

-
, j , j
, j j jj . j Y -
X x X j

x = y + z, (4.92)
j y Y z Y . j jj j jj, j
j j .
j j j 43
. j (X X):
N j , j j (N N = N N );
U j , j U U = I;
H j , j H = H; ;
K j , j K = K.
j , j .
-
, j j j
44 . j X ,
, ,
.
43
- .
44
j [13].

220


4.10
j j j, , j
j j. , j j
, . j j j j
(j j) j j
j j j j. j j j j
j j, j
j j j .
, j j j j
.
j j , j
j . j j j ,
j j j j.
j .
j, j .
j, j , . , j
j j , j j j.
j j j j, j j
j.
j j j
j j ,
, . ,
j j j, j . j
j.
, , j j j
. j
j = (r, t), - (j r
t) j.
. , j
j j, j j j ,
.
j j , -
45 1 2 , = . j -
j j j L. , j
() . j -
j j.
j , (j ,
). , j .
, j L + L j j,
j j 2 =
. , j
j j. j .
4.6 ( c).
j (1 > 180 ), j (2 = 90 ), (3 < 90 ).
j (c < a + b): j
45
. j 4.5

221


. , :
c21 > a21 + b21 , c22 = a22 + b22 , c23 < a23 + b23 . (4.93)
jj 2 j
, .

Slika 4.6: , .

j ,
, j . j
j , , , j
j . , j j, j j
j.
j j j
j j j j . (j
) j. (L)
, j j,
46 .
, () j ,
.
j j .
j ,
. ,
j j S1 j j S2 ( ) j
j j S2 S1 .
. A B
AB BA, AB BA -.
A B :
[A, B] = AB BA. (4.94)
() .
, j
j :
1. [A,A] = 0, 2. [A,B] + [B,A] = 0,
3. [A,B+C] = [A,B] + [A,C], 4. [A+B,C] = [A,C]+[B,C],
(4.95)
5. [A,BC]= [A,B]C + B[A,C], 6. [AB,C]=[A,C]B+A[B,C],
7. [A,[B,C]]+[C,[A,B]]+[B,[C,A]]]=0,
, j 6. [AB, C] = (AB)C C(AB) =
= ABC CAB + ACB ACB
46
. 4.7.7,

222


= (AC CA)B + A(BC CB)

= [A, C]B + A[B, C].
j . j

[ Aj , Bk ] = [Aj , Bk ], (4.96)
j k j,k

j j .
j j. ,
j j j . 2
47 , 48 j
x , j 1 j x .
x

j, , , (),
j . ,
( ), j .
. j j
1 , 2 , . . . , n 49 pk = Pr(k ) j nk=1 pk = 1.
x x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , pk = Pr(x = xk ) j
j j x xk .
n
x1 x2 . . . x n
( ), pk = 1. (4.97)
p1 p2 . . . pn k=1

j
n
(x) = x1 p1 + x2 p2 + + xn pn = xk pk . (4.98)
k=1

j = (x) j j.
j j
n
var(x) = (xk )2 pk , (4.99)
k=1

j j j, (x). n , j
j, j j:

(x) = x(x) d, var(x) = (x )2 (x) d, (4.100)

j (x) , () j
j. .
j j, .
j j

j. j , 1 2
47
Gaussian function: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_function
48
, (. hat) .
49
. Probability -

223


j , j 1 2 ,
j 1 = 2 = j j 2 j
j j .
, 1 2 = 2 1 , j
j, j. , 1 2 = 1 2 ,
j
j j, , 1 +2 = 1 +2 ,
j . , 0 > 0,
.
j j 4.5.1. j,
1 2 = 1 2 , j 1 2 ,
( ) j j.
. Ta j, 1 + 2 = 1 + 2 , j
, ().
j j, 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 , j:

ln 1 2 2 ln1 1 2 2 ,

1
ln 1 2 ( ln1 1 ln2 2 ),
2

1
L12 (L1 + L2 ). (4.101)
2
j j L12 j -
j L1 L2 j j j j. ,
j .
j j , j .
, (4.101) j ( ) j
( j ). j
j ,
j ( j ) j.
, j,
j j .
.
j 21 , j 61 ,
21 61 = 12 1
,
j. , 1 2
j, j j
1 2 .
j, j j j
. , = 2 .
j j
, . j, -
j j j . x (a, b) R
C j,
b
1 2 = 1 2 dx. (4.102)
a

224


j j 1 = 1 (x, t) 2 = 2 (x, t).

, j j j
1 = 1 (x, t) 2 = 2 (x, t).
(4.63) .
(4.64), A 50 j j A
j 1 2 :
A 1 2 = 1 A2 ,

b b
(A 1 ) 2 dx =

1 (A2 ) dx, (4.103)
a a
j j (A 1 ) 2 = 1 A2 .
j (4.100), A :
b b
A = A dx, =
2
dx = 1. (4.104)
a a
A = A = A. j .
(j ), A = A,
b
A dx = (A) dx, (4.105)
a
A j .

b b
1 A2 dx =

(A1 ) 2 dx, (4.106)
a a
j , j. j 1 2 , .
j = (x, t) j x t,
j

x = x = x dx. (4.107)

j , j j
j x j j .
j, j j j j
j . ,
j j j
j 51 .
(4.31), px = i~x

px = px = px dx. (4.108)

p2
j j E = j x- j
2m ,

~2 2
Ex = Ex = dx, (4.109)
2m x2
.
50
j A A .
51
[15].

225


4.11
j j j . j
j j j (j, , j) j
j j j ( )
, A,
a 52 a j,
j
a = aa .
A (4.110)
, ( ) :

A
= a A a dx = a aa dx = a a a = aa 2 , (4.111)

j. A
= a j j. j
, a , j j j a 2 = 1.
, a j ( ),
j , . ,
j , j a R j A .
, A = A,
j .

4.11.1. j
j.

. dx X.

A2 dx
A = X
2
X dx

j j. j j X dx = 2 = 1.
j A :

AA dx =

(A) (A) dx = A
2 dx > 0,
X X

j. A2 > 0, j .

j j j ,

= 1 1 + 2 2 , (4.112)

j:
1 = a1 1 ,
A 2 = a2 2 ,
A (4.113)
j () :

A
= A
dx =

= (1 1 + 2 2 ) A(
1 1 + 2 2 )

52
J .

226


= (1 1 + 2 2 )(1 a1 1 + 2 a2 2 )

= a1 1 2
1 1 dx + a2 1 2 1 2 dx + a1 2 1 2 1 dx + a2 2
2
2 2 dx.

, 1 , 2 (j j
),
A = a1 1 2 + a2 2 2 , (4.114)
, .
() 1 2
A j . (4.113). (
):

2 A
1 = a1 2 1 , 2 A1 = A2 1 = a2 2 1 ,

j j

(a2 a1 )2 1 = 0. (4.115)

J j j

2 1 = 0, a1 a2 . (4.116)

, j A ,
. j (4.115), . j
j j, j 2 1
j ( ). j
j 1 2 , j j j .
, j j , :
1 1
+ = (1 + 2 ), = (1 2 ). (4.117)
2 2
:
1
+ = (1 1 2 + 2 1 1) = 0,
2
j j j ( j ). , j -
j j j (j).
j j
. /. ,
(4.114).
j. A j

A = A
dx, (4.118)

j (4.107). (j,
j, , . . . ) j , A
.
j A
= A , j j j , (4.106), j

.
4.11.2. .

227


. (4.111):

a dx = a (A
a A a ) dx,

a a a dx = a a a dx,

(a a )

a 2 = 0,

j a 2 > 0, a = a a = 0. j j
, a j j.

4.11.3. .

. (4.115):

b dx = b (A
a A a ) dx,

b a b dx = a b a dx,

(b a) a b = 0,

j j a = a . j b a, a b dx = 0. j
j ( j j ),
j .
, j A a = aa A
b = ab , c = b + a :

a c dx = 0,

a (b + a ) dx = 0,

a b dx + a a dx = 0,

= a b dx/ a a dx.

a c j . j
- j (4.91), j
j j j.

(4.112), j j
j 1 , 2 , . . . j

= 1 1 + 2 2 + . . . , (4.119)

j, (4.114), j

A
= ak k 2 . (4.120)
k

228


j j j j
. j j ()
j j j
.

4.11.4. j = exp(ikx), i = 1, k = const. j
p = ~k, ~ = 2
h
, px = i~x .

. p = p, :

ikx
i~ e = ~keikx ,
x
.

p = ~k j ,
j = exp(ikx) j k. j
k exp(ikx), exp(ikx), exp(kx), exp(kx) px .
j j .
~k {x, y, z} ,
p , k = (kx , ky , kz ) r = (x, y, z), j
j (x, y, z) = exp(ik r) j . j
sin(kx x), sin(ky y) sin(kz z) p2 = p2x + p2y + p2z
~2 (kx2 + ky2 + kz2 ). j = exp(ik r) j j
p2 = p2x + p2y + p2z . 53 .
4.5.
z Sz = 12 ~.
Sz = 12 ~, j jj +.
j z 21 ~.
j j. , j
j j j j, .
. j , -
j . j -,
,
j . , j j
, j j .
j S,
S :

S S = S ++S + S S, (4.121)

j
S = ++S + S, (4.122)

j .
j .
53
j 80, j 3-
. . .

229


j Sz , Sz ,
j Sz = 21 ~, (+, ) j:

+S + +Sz ~ 1 0
Sz = ( z )= ( ), (4.123)
Sz + Sz
2 0 1

Sz = ~2
3 , j
3 j (3.3). j
j .
, j j k ,
k , k = 1, . . . , n, j

= a1 1 + + an n , (4.124)

j j ak C. j
k ( j j j j) ak 2 .
, () k . j k j
k- , j

n
A = k k k . (4.125)
k=1

k , j j j k j.
, j54 +, ,
+1 1 . j j :
= (+1)++ + (1) =
M

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

=( )( ),
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

= (0 1) .
M (4.126)
1 0

j M +,
1 1. j j (4.123), j
, , j .
, j .
, 0 - 1 - .
j , j j (j j).
j () C2 , j j:

= 0 + 1, 2 + 2 = 1, , C. (4.127)

j , j
j j j j, 0 1. jj
j j , 0 2 , 1 2 .
j .
j j, j j
.
54
. qubit - j j

230


4.12
(. entanglement) j
j j
j ,
,
.

4.12.1
j [16] jj,
1935. : -
? j j j -
, j () .
. a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
A j j
j u1 (x1 ), u2 (x1 ), u3 (x1 ), . . . , x1 j j j j
. j j x1 ,
(x1 , x2 ) = k (x2 )uk (x1 ), (4.128)
k
x2 j j . k (x2 )
j j j j uk (x1 ). j A
j j j j ak .
j j j
uk (x1 ), j j k (x2 ). j
j : (4.128) j
j k (x2 )uk (x1 ).
, j uk (x) j A. ,
, B, b1 , b2 , b3 , . . .
j v1 (x1 ), v2 (x1 ), v3 (x1 ), . . . , j
(x1 , x2 ) = j (x2 )vj (x1 ), (4.129)
j

j j. B bj ,
j vj (x1 )
j (x2 ).
, ,
j. ,
j j, j
j , . j -
j .
j j (k j ) j
( j ).
, , j, k j ,
j P Q,
j. 55 j
Q
P Q P = h/2i, (4.130)
55
. III - , 17. j 2016, www.academia.edu/26872543/

231


j j j j j ,
. k j j
j j , .
j j -
, j, j j
j . j
, j j
j j : j j
j j.
jj j j , j
j -
j j, j . j
, j j
j (. spooky action at a distance). jj j
j: j j j , j
jj j .
j j j
. J j .
j j j , , j .
, j, j j j j
j j, .
j , j
jj.
, jj ,
j. , j
j
, j .
j j . j j jj
j.
1
j j ( ) j j j 10 .
j ln 10,
j j . j j
j 91 , j j
ln 9. j j j ( j
), j j
ln 10 + ln 9 + + ln 2 = ln(10 9 . . . 2) = ln(10!).
j j, j. 10! = 1 2 . . . 10 j j j j
. j ln 10! j
j j j j.
j j -,
j j. , -
. j -
, j, , j j-
. j
j .
j j .
j j ,

232


j. , jj
j .
, j j .
j A B, ,
j A B. j
j, j
j () j . j
j A B, j
() j j 56 .
,
. , j
j 4.2. , ,
j j .

4.12.2 j
j57 j j j 1927. ,
j . j
j . jj j
. , j j ,
.
j j (x)
(p), j , (x-):

x
p = mv, v= , (4.131)
t
j m , v j j x
t. j , j
j . j , j
jj , ,
j , .
, , j.
, j j j j
, . j j 58 j
1923. :
p = h/, (4.132)
j h = 6, 626 1034 J s . - (
) j j
.
1927.
j .
- j , .
, 50 g 662 m/s
= 2 1025 m.
56
. j 1.6 j
57
Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976), j .
58
Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), .

233


j 1900. j j
, j

E =h (4.133)

j E j, j , h = 6, 6261 1034 Js
. j

= v (4.134)

j v . j
j j c = 2, 9979 108 m/s.
jj j j j j m

E = m c2 (4.135)

j ( )

h
m= (4.136)
c2

h h
p = mc = = (4.137)
c
. j
j j .
j j , -
-, , , , x-
-. (-), j jj
j . j jj j
j j j ,
j . j -
. - j
-, j .
j . j
- > 1020 Hz < 1012 m.
j E > 1 MeV.
j , -,
j59 . j j j ,
j , j.
j () . j j
j j j, j j j.
j , j .
, (-
j), j j .
j . . j
, 4.7, j , j
j j . j j
j j. J , j

234


Slika 4.7: e .

j
.
j j j j -
j j z e . - ( )
60 () .
j j
. j (4.132) p = h,

z pz = h, (4.138)

gde je z j () pz
( z-).
j.
j , (4.138)
j , j
. , z pz ,
j (4.138) ~ = h/2 = 1, 055 Js. (. [18])
j j j j j.
(
Oxyz), j j j :

~ ~ ~
x px , y py , z pz , (4.139)
2 2 2
j j ,
. , j
x py 0.
j :

r = (x, y, z), p = (px , py , pz ), (4.140)

59
j , j .
60
.

235


j :
3~
r p
. (4.141)
2
j j j ,
4- - j j ,
. .
(x-). j (F ) (p)
(t), j :
~ ~
p = F t, F x t
, E t ,
2 2
j E = F x j (E j F x) t j
j. j j

~
t E . (4.142)
2

x px + y py + z pz + t E 2~. (4.143)
,
( ) j. , -
j .
4.12.1. . j j
1 m, ?
. m = 9, 1 1011 kg, j x =
1 m = 106 m j x p ~2 :
~ 1, 055 1034 J s
v = = 57, 967 m s1
2mx 2 9, 1 1031 kg 106 m
j j p = mv.

4.12.2. j
0,3 . j j ?
. x = 0, 3 mm = 0, 3 103 m, m = 9, 1 1011 kg x p ~2 , j
:
~
v
= 0, 19m/s
2mx
j j p = mv .

4.12.3. j j j j 80 GeV?
j
?
. E = 80 GeV = 1, 2 108 J j E t ~
2 :
~ 1, 055 1034 J s
t = = 4, 12 1027 s.
2E 2 1, 28 108 J
j x = ct = 3 108 m/s 4, 12 1027 s 1, 23 1018 m.

236


4.12.3
- A
,

A
= A.
(4.144)

j ,
B

[A, = AB
B] B A 0, (4.145)
j j [A,
B]
0.
j,

A A A.
(4.146)

j j A.
, A

A A, A

A j .
j

B
A = 1 [A, + 1 {A,
B] B},
(4.147)
2 2
:
[A, = AB
B] B
A,
{A, = AB
B} +B
A (4.148)
. j -,
j j ( T T ):

[A, = (AB
B] B =B
A) = B
A A B A AB
= [A,
B].

, j . ,
, - .

j (4.99), j A:

(A)
2 = (A A)
2 = A2 2A + A
A 2 = A2 2A
A + A
2,

(A)
2 = A2 A
2. (4.149)
A = a A
= a = a2 , j
(A)
2
= a , j A
2 = 0. A
j (j) j .
j j j
A B
1
(A)2 (B)2 [A, B]2 . (4.150)
4
j .

4.12.4. (4.150) j j.

237


. iii. 4.5.1 u = A
v = B.
j:

uuvv uv2 ,

(A)
2 (B)
2 A
B
2.

j, j
j jj , . A B
j j j ,
(4.147), j
A
B 2 = 1 [A, 2 + 1 {A,
B] B}
2.
4 4
j j , j
(4.150), j j .

j. ,

. , -
, j . j j
, j. ,
j j j
j .

4.12.5. j :

~
(
x)2 (
p )2 , (4.151)
2

= x p = i~x .
. j x

[
x, p] = i~xx + i~x (x) = +i~,

[
x, p] = i~. j (4.150) j (4.151), .

j
j (4.143). j j j E j-
, j x, j H(x, E; p, t) = H0 (x, p; t) E
t, p. j :

q = H/p, p = H/q,
{ (4.152)
E = H/t, t = H/E,

, , j E t j61
j q p.
61
j j : http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/16812/
energy-is-actually-the-momentum-in-the-direction-of-time

238


4.13
j , j 62 : jj-
- (. [17]). j jj
j : j j j
j .
j j j jj ( 1949.):
j . j j .

4.13.1
1. j. j (Alice & Bob) 1
2 j j 12 .

, 63 4.8. ( -
) j -
u
= 1, j
{ 2 } u
1 , j j . j
j +1 j 1 .

Slika 4.8: .

jjj ( j ),
j , jj j
jj . j
, . j
j j j , j
.
j .
j j j, j,
j . A 1 a

j j a , B 2 b j
b , j:

a, ) = 1,
A( B(b, ) = 1. (4.153)
62
John Stewart Bell (1928-1990), .
63
Wikipedia: Bells theorem

239


jj j j B 2,
1, A b.
a
j () j ( -
) 1 a 2 b


P (
a, b) = ()A( a, )B(b, ) d. (4.154)

j j ,
( j )

1 a 2 b =
a b. (4.155)

, j .
j j jj j jj
, A j B , j j
, j j j j j, A B j
. jj j,
j j .
j .

2. j. j j.
, j j.
, j j
j . (
) j p. j
j
j p > 0.
a

a
sign( ), (4.156)

j j a
j a , p ,
j sign() j +1 -1 .
a
j = 0, j
. j

2
= 1
a , (4.157)

p. a
j a j a
j p

2
1 = cos , (4.158)

p.
j a

= cos .
a (4.159)

j j
j j
j j j j .

240


, j (4.154) (4.155):

P (
a, a) = P (
a,
a) = 1,
{ (4.160)
a, b) = 0 a
P ( b = 0.

j
, ,
:
A( = sign(
a, )
a ),
{ (4.161)
a, b) = sign(b ).
B(

2
a, b) = 1 + ,
P ( (4.162)

b, (4.162) (4.160). ,
j a
j j64 jj j
, j j
1
a b. (4.163)
3
j (4.162) (4.155) (4.163) (4.155).
(4.155), j (4.162) j j
-1 ( j = 0). j j (4.154).
, j (4.155) j
A B b a b. ,
, a
a (4.161) a
, j j a

b
2
1 = cos , (4.164)

b. , j,
j a
j , j
.

3. j. . j

() d = 1, (4.165)

(4.153), P (4.154) -1. -1

= b j
a
A(a, ) = B(
a, ) (4.166)
. , (4.154)

P ( a, )A(b, ) d.
a, b) = ()A( (4.167)

j c

P (
a, b) P ( a, )A(b, ) A(
a, c) = ()[A( c, )] d =
a, )A(

64
D. Bohm, Y. Aharonov, Phys. Rev. 108, 1070(1957).

241


= a, )A(b, )[A(b, )A(
()A( c, ) 1] d,

(4.153)

a, b) P (
P ( a, c [1 A(b, )A(
c, )] d. (4.168)

j j P (b, c),

1 + P (b, c) P (
a, b) P (
a, c). (4.169)

P j , j b c b c. P (b, c)
(1 b = c) j
j (4.155).
j (4.155)
(4.154). .
, (4.154)
(4.155) j:
a, b),
P ( a b, (4.170)
j a
b .

a, b) + a
P ( b . (4.171)
 j.
b
j a

a b a
b . (4.172)

(4.171)
a, b) + a
P ( b  + . (4.173)
(4.154)
a, b) =
P ( b, ) d,
a, )B(
()A( (4.174)

j
A(
a, ) 1, b, ) 1.
B( (4.175)
= b
, a

b, )B(
()[A( b, ) + 1] d  + . (4.176)

a, b) P (
P ( a, c) = b, ) A(
a, )B(
()[A( a, )B(
c, )] d

= b, )[1 + A(
a, )B(
()A( b, )B(
c, )] d

b, )B(
c, )[1 + A(
a, )B(
()A( b, )] d.

242


(4.175) j

a, b) P (
P ( a, c) b, )B(
()[1 + A( c, )] d+

+ b, )B(
()[1 + A( b, )] d.

(4.174) (4.176) j

a, b) P (
P ( a, c) 1 + P (b, c) +  + .

, (4.173)

b 2( + ) 1 b c + 2( + ),
a c a

4( + ) b + b c 1.
a c a (4.177)

b = b c = 2/2, j
c = 0, a
a

4( + ) 2 1.

, j  .
, ,
, (4.154). j j , j
j j . j
() ,
j j .
j j j , () j
(j) , -
. , j
j j
j j,
j j . j
( ) j , j
j . j
j . ,
j , j j
j .
j j, j j
. , j j
j j j
j j
. , j
, j -
j j. ,
.

243


4.13.2 j
j j : A, B C.
, j : (A) ,
(B) 170 cm (C) j . j j
j65 :

No(A, B) + No(B, C) No(A, C). (4.178)

, j j j A j B j j j
B j C j j j j j A j C.

4.13.1. j .

Slika 4.9: j A, B C.

. 4.9 j, + j , S
. A B j , B C . j
(A B) + (B C) (A C), (4.178).

4.13.2. j (4.178) .

. j

No(A, B, C) + No(A, B, C) 0,

j j j j.
j j

No(A, B, C) + No(A, B, C) = No(A, C)

j j.

, j j ; j j
j (j!).
j j (4.178) ?
, j A, B C
. , j
j j j.
65
Department of Physics University of Toronto: Bells Theorem, by David M. Harrison, 1990.

244


j j j , -
: j j .
j66
j. j
, , 1969. .
, , j
. j j , j
, j j
j .
j j
. j
1, j j 12 . j j
j j , .
j :
A - j (0 );
B - j 45 ;
C - j (90 ).
j :
( -, -) + (-, -) (-, -),
j j , j .
j, (-, -),
j . -
, 50-50
.

Slika 4.10: .

, . -
j , 50 , 85
- ( 4.10), ( ) 15
-. , j j 15%
.
- j -,
j j. j j
j j j j-
.
j , 4.11, -
j j . j
, j
66
, j

245


Slika 4.11: .

j . , j
j j -
-. j j ,
.

4.13.3
j j,
.
, , j
j . j
, j j (j) j j
.

.
j:
1
Pr() = Pr() = . (4.179)
2
j :

Pr(, ) = 14 , Pr(, ) = 41 ,
{ (4.180)
Pr(, ) = 14 , Pr(, ) = 41 ,

j j 25 j.

. j j
(. ), j j.
,
, .
:

Pr(, ) = 0, Pr(, ) = 12 ,
{ (4.181)
Pr(, ) = 12 , Pr(, ) = 0.

j 50 j ,
j .
j j j
, ,
:

246


: + + + - ,
: + - .

( + )( + ), .
j j -
, . j , j
, j j67
j j .
4.12 j 68 j 26. 2015.
j j
, j: j . -
j , 1,3 ,
. j-
j
, j jj j.
, j .
245 18 , j
. j j j
j 70 j , .

Slika 4.12: .

j j j j 69 .
j j ( j),
j j, 70 .
j,
j .
j j j, .
. ,
, j (
) , , , -
j . , j
. , j -
67
j j , .
68
Unexplained: http://unexplained.co/
69
( j )
70
j j ln p, j p .

247


j j , j
. , j -
j, j .
, , A
j j an j A j

n 2
Pr(an ) = , (4.182)

j n A an . m
j

j=1 n
j
m 2
Pr(an ) = . (4.183)

j n
j A j j A j :

= n n = an n . (4.184)
n n

A j n
A j an . J j j
j j . , j
n , A j
an n . j an = n ,
j, j
:

d (a)2 (a)2
Pr(a) = = + , (4.185)
da (a )2 da

a
a + da. , j ,
n , . , j
j j . j
j.
, :

= ax1 y2 + bei y1 x2 . (4.186)

j . a2 b2
j x1 y2 = x1 y2 y1 x2 = y1 x2 , j
a2 + b2 = 1. ei . j
j .
, , j
j j j
, . j j .
, j, j ,
jj () j j.
j j .

248


4.14
.
, j , j j
j j , j j
j . j
, j
j j j .
.

4.14.1. j (2 2) [A, I.
B]

. , j . :
B
AB A = I,

a11 a12 b11 b12 b b a a 1 0

( )( ) ( 11 12 ) ( 11 12 ) = ( ),
a21 a22 b21 b22 b21 b22 a21 a22 0 1

a b + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22 b a +b a b a +b a 1 0

( 11 11 ) ( 11 11 12 21 11 12 12 22 ) = ( ),
a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22 b21 a11 + b22 a21 b21 a12 + b22 a22 0 1

a12 b21 b12 a21 (a11 a22 )b12 (b11 b22 )a12 1 0
( )=( ).
(b11 b22 )a21 (a11 a22 )b21 a21 b12 b21 a12 0 1
j j j:

a12 b21 b12 a21 = 1

{
a21 b12 b21 a12 = 1,

j j 0 = 2, j. j.

, j j j
j . :
j j j j
. j j j j j
j , j j -
j.
, = (x; a, b),
= a,
A = b,
B (4.187)
= B(a)
A
B = aB
= ab AB
= ba,

AB(x;
a, b) = B
A(x;
a, b). (4.188)

j j ,
, j j j (x) (
)
(x) = (a, b)(x; a, b), (4.189)
a,b

(x). .

249


4.14.2. j
, j. j, j
j.

. (4.187) j j = B
j A
j a. j j,
j j, j (x; a, ):

B(x; a, ) = B( , )(x; a, ), (4.190)

j j B( , ) , . j
j

= c()(x; a, ), (4.191)

= b. j, j
j j B
j j
B(, )c( ) = bc(),

(4.192)

s j a. , s j j
a. j :

c1 (), c2 (), . . . , cs (), (4.193)

j , b1 , b2 , . . . , bs , j

(x; a, bs ) = cs (k)(x; a, ) (4.194)

j A = a B = b, j
j .

j j s ,
j s . , , ,
.
j j
. ,
j 71 .
j -
(. ), . ,
- , j,
-. j 72 .
, :

x = ypz zpy ,
L


y = zpx x
L pz , (4.195)


z = x
L py ypx ,
71
[19], p. 54, j j 1932.
72
Ehrenfest theorem: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehrenfest_theorem

250


j , -
Oxyz. j ( )
:
RRR i j k RRRR
RRR R
= RRR x
= r p
L y z RRRR , (4.196)
RRRRp p p RRRR
R x y zR
=L
L2 x + L
2 y + L
2 z :
2

[L z ] = L
y, L x, [L x ] = L
z, L y, [L y ] = L
x, L z. (4.197)

[L
z , z] = (L
z z zL z ) = (
xpy ypx )
z z(
xpy ypx ) = 0 [L
z , z] = 0.
j j [Lz , pz ] = 0, :

[L = 0,
, ] [L
, p ] = 0, {x, y, z}. (4.198)

, = p = i~ .
j z- z-,
j j Oxy. L z j x

y, j j () px py .
, j (j) j j j ,
j j j:

[L ] = i~
z, x y, [L
z , px ] = i~
py . (4.199)

(4.197).
z j
J L

i~(xy yx ) = lz .

Oz :

x = cos , y = sin ,

i~ = lz ,

= 0 (z, )eilz /~ . (4.200)
j j 2, j j:

lz = mz ~, mz = 0, 1, 2, . . . (4.201)

. ,
x, L
j L y L z , :

= (x, y + z )(y + iz) ,
mx



x f1
2 2

y = f2 (y, z 2 + x2 )(z + ix)my , (4.202)

z = fz (z, x + y )(x + iy) ,
2 2 mz

, : lx = mx ~, ly = my ~ lz = mz ~.
4.14.2.
j , j

251


j , j j
, j
. j .
l, m = 1, 1 l, m = 1, 1. L 2 L z (
j). L z ~ ~ , 1, 1 + 1, 1

j Lz j L 2.
. j :

0 0 0 0 0 0
A = 0 1 0 , = 0 1 0 .
B (4.203)
0 0 1 0 0 1

(0, 1, 0) (0, 0, 1) . j
1 , 1 -1
. (0, 1, 1) (0, 1, 1),
A 1,
B.
, 3-
()

0 0 0
C = 0 0 1 . (4.204)
0 1 0

j C A,
B.

j j
~2 2 2 2
T = ( 2 + 2 + 2), (4.205)
2m x y z
Oxyz, j m .
j
1 2
T= (px + p2y + p2z ), (4.206)
2m
p ( {x, y, z}) . Or, a
j j
1 1 1
T= (p2r + 2 2 p2 + 2 p2 ) , (4.207)
2m r sin r
j j j:

pr = i~ , p = i~ , p = i~ . (4.208)
r
j
j j j H.
j j U = U (x, y, z), j

= 1 (
H p2 + p2y + p2z ) + U
(x, y, z), (4.209)
2m x
= T + U
H = U , j. j j j
, j U
j j.

252


, j
:

j r r,

p i~ (i x
+ j y

+ k z

),
j (4. )
E i~ t , t = ct ,

z
L i~ (
x y y x
), (4.210)
~2 2 2 2
j T 2m ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) ,

j j U (r) U (r),
~2 2 2 2
j H 2m ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + U (r),

j (j, j j)
(, ).
j j j j .
, j j j j
. j j, j
, j.
j j j , :
, ,
j j.
j , .

4.14.3. j j j, j

(A B) A1 + 2 A1 B
1 = A1 + A1 B A1 + . . .
A1 B (4.211)

j j.

.

(A B)
1 = k Ck ,
k=0

k j Ck j . j
( ) A B,
j

Ck = AC0 + k (ACk B
I = k (A B) Ck1 ).
k=0 k=1

j j j j , j j:

C0 = A1 , Ck = A1 B
L k1 ,

j j, (4.210) j
j j

1 1 B B2
= + 2 + 2 3 + . . . (4.212)
A B A A A
j j j .

253


4.15 j
j j ,
j j (H = T +U ) (T ) j (U ) j
j j j j (E):

= E.
H (4.213)

j j j, j
j j 1926. , j 73
.
j t,
j j , j
= (r, t), , = (r).
j , (4.210),
j.

4.15.1. j
.

. j j j
j, U = 0. p = ~k, = k/c j E = ~
(k j j, c j
), . j

~2 2
(x, t) = i~ (x, t), (4.214)
2m x2 t

(x, t) = Aei(kxt) + Bei(kx+t) , (4.215)
A, B C j .

(4.215) (4.214) ,
j j
. j j , j
j j ( j k),
j .
(x, t)2 dx . j
A B j j,
( < x < ), .
, j.
(a x b) j j (
), j j A B
b
a 2 dx = 1.
,
(. 1.6 j). j
, 74 . ()
73
. - I: www.academia.edu/26619936/
74
j , j.

254


j,
(). () j .
j j,
. , j ,
j . , j j
j ( -).
( ),
, ( j)
. j () j j
j j.
j j j.
-, j j, j j j.
- , -,
j j j .
.

4.15.2. j j- j.

. j j, 0 < x < x0 , j j
j, U (0) = U (x0 ) = , j
. j

~2 d2 (x)
= E(x), (4.216)
2m dx2

(x) = Aeikx +Beikx , A, B C. , j

j, j :

(x) = A(cos kx + i sin kx) + B(cos kx i sin kx),

(x) = (A + B) cos kx + i(A B) sin kx,

(x) = a cos kx + b sin kx,

a b
(x) = a2 + b2 ( cos kx + sin kx) ,
a +b
2 2 a + b2
2

(x) = a2 + b2 (sin cos kx + cos sin kx),

(x) = a2 + b2 sin(kx + ).
j j j j, x = 0
x = x0 , j , j = n1 kx0 + = n2 , j
n1 n2 . O k = (n2 n1 )/x0 (4.216)
nx
n (x) = bn sin , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
x0

j j j:
x0 x0
nx 1
1= (x) dx = bn
2 2
sin2 dx = b2n x0 ,
0 0 x0 2

255


j j

2 nx
n (x) = sin . (4.217)
x0 x0

. j x0 = 2, n (x) = 1/ sin(nx/2) j
j n = 1, 2, 3, 4 4.13.

Slika 4.13: j n .

j E = ~2 k 2 /2m, k = n/x0 j:

n2 h2
En = , (4.218)
8mx20

j h = 2~ . j, x [0, x0 ], j (x) = 0.
x
j n- x [x1 , x2 ] x12 n (x)2 dx.

(4.111) A j

Ajk = j A k dx, (4.219)

j j
j. j A = (Ajk ) j j Ann j
n.
j j j.

4.15.3. j j (0 x x0 ) a n N
.

. j x :
x0
xjk = j (x)xk (x) dx =

xj k dx, j, k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , (4.220)
0

(4.217) j:
x0
2 jx kx
xjk = x sin sin dx
x0 0 x0 x0

256


2 1 x0
(j k)x (j + k)x
= x [cos cos ] dx
x0 2 0 x0 x0
x0 1 cos (j + k) 1 cos (j k)
= [ ],
2 (j + k)2 (j k)2
j
4x0 [(1)jk 1]jk
xjk = , j k 0. (4.221)
2 (j 2 k 2 )2
j (j k 0) j (xjk = 0)
j j (Ej Ek ). j n
75 j x = x0 /2. n = 1, 3, 5, . . .
j , n = 2, 4, 6, . . . n .
j j k 0 j.
, j (j k = 0) .
(j k) 0, j 1 cos 21 2 . j
x0
xnn = , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (4.222)
2
j , j j xnn x n- ,
12 x0 .

, 4.15.2, j
j, . j ( )
. J
j, j j,
j j , .

4.15.4. j j j
0 < x < x0 .

. , j j:

0, x (0, x0 ),
U (x) = {
U, x (0, x0 ).

j :

~2 d2
+ (E U ) = 0, x 0,


2m dx2
~2 d2
+ E = 0, 0 < x < x0 ,



2m dx2


~2 d2
+ (E U ) = 0, x x0 ,
2m dx2

j E j , = (x) j. j
j j , j.
j E < U , j :

2mE 2m(U E)
k= , = .
~ ~
75
x f (x) = f (x) j j , f (x) = f (x) j

257


:

~2 d2
2 = 0, x 0,


2m dx 2

~2 d2
+ k 2 = 0, 0 < x < x0 ,



2m dx 2

~2 d2
2 = 0. x x0 .
2m dx2
j j (x) = Aex + Bex .
: , x , (x) 0, B = 0; , x ,
(x) 0, A = 0. j (x) = a cos kx + b sin kx.
j j :

Aex , x 0,


(x) = a cos kx + b sin kx, 0 < x < x0 ,



Be ,
x
x x0 ,
j x = 0, A = a.
x = x0 , B = ex0 (a cos kx0 + b sin kx0 ). , j
( ) j j

2k ~2 k 2
tg(kx0 ) = , E= . (4.223)
k 2 2 2m
j , j k j ,
j j j j.
j:

Aex , x 0,


(x) = A(cos kx + k sin kx), 0 < x < x0 , (4.224)



Ae
(xx0 )
, x x0 .

A j (x)2 dx = 1. j:

k 2 2mU
A= , k0 = .
k0 x0 + 2 ~

j j Pr(x [0, x0 ]) = A2 /.

jj j
, j . j j
. j
, j
76 , j .
j j-, j
j,
77 j . , j j
j (. 1.9.2), j j
(j j ) j -
, j j j. j ,
j j j
. j, j
. j j .
76
. : III - j , www.academia.edu/29095272/
77
R. Vukovic: Conservation law of information for particles, www.academia.edu/8004844/

258


j . j ,
. j j j , j
j j. j j j
, j j .
j j j , j
. j, j
j j j j .
j j
j j, -
j j . ,
() , .
j j ()
j, j, j.
j j j
, j j j j
.
j j,
j . j j
j,
, j, j . j
j j j
j ( j ) -
, .
jj, , -
- . j
j .
. j
, j
j . j , ,
j .
, j
.

,
,
15. j 2017.

259


260
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262
Indeks

jj, 25, 36, 38, 44, 77, 234 , 95, 97

, 34 , 25, 44, 55
, 181, 206 j, 53, 64, 69
, 239 j j, 180
, 31 j-, 53
, 22, 23, 34 , 22
, 43 , 10, 44, 183
, 10, 20, 180 , 35
, 233 j, 97
, 44 j, 166
, 217 , 153
j, 204 , 124, 230
j, 258 , 25, 233, 234
, 198 , 45
, 40 , 198
, 57 j , 40
j, 95 , 78, 119
j, 37, 53 , 112, 118, 119
, 121 , 74
, 22 , 18, 197
- , 220 , 44, 95, 185, 205, 254
, 77 , 36, 79
j, 48, 233 , 103
, 62, 95 , 103
j , 238 , 38, 68
, 17 , 76, 101
, 198 , 65
, 43, 179 j, 206
, 183 j, 207
J, 183 , 176
, 22 , 176, 187
, 23 , 237
j-, 258 , 220
j, 22 , 233
, 194 j, 116
j , 181 j, 176
, 78 , 40
, 90, 99 , 8

263


, 187 j, 57
, 17 , 206
, 205 , 187
j , 82, 179 , 206
, 180 , 34
, 233 , 83, 117
, 26, 27, 53, 74, 103 j j, 99
j, 129 j, 72, 76, 83, 91, 113
, 152 , 176
, 73 , 176
, 75 jj, 19
, 14, 76 , 107
, 27, 30, 38 j, 64, 105, 166
j, 255 , 7
j, 227, 250 j, 14, 102
j, 59, 62, 95, 197 , 32
, 91 , 62, 233
, 84 , 251
j, 68 j , 11, 61, 258
j, 90, 116 , 209
, 192 j, 43, 82, 221
j, 42 , 180
j, 49 , 197
j , 28, 56 j, 19
j, 10, 70 , 94
j, 25, 44, 54, 83, 89, 119
, 248 j , 211
j, 223 , 176
j, 72, 76, 91, 92 , 201
, 24 j , 16
, 84
, 206 j, 218
, 85 , 193
, 38 , 112
, 11, 40 j , 73
, 206
, 188 , 193
-, 205 , 37
, 49 , 233
, 49 , 154
, 107 , 40
j, 61 , 125, 179
j, 34 j, 66
j, 22, 82, 114, 259 , 128
, 43 j, 49
, 205 , 176
, 233 , 131, 237
, 49, 234 , 156

264


, 222 , 209
, 149 , 72
, 32, 34
, 248 , 176
j, 13 , 72
j , 29, 56 , 221
j, 67, 83, 84, 201 j
j, 183 , 184
, 43, 127, 134, 171 J, 183
, 172, 196 , 183
j, 113, 181, 196, 237
, 75 , 184
, 52 , 142, 182
, 68 , 176
, 73
, 145 , 186
, 78 , 181
, 220 , 72, 91
j, 67, 83, 84, 201 , 208
j j, 90 , 220
j, 77 , 218, 220, 225, 226
, 233 , 208
j, 48 , 193
, 9, 21, 45, 49 j, 252
, 185, 186 , 208
j, 21, 48, 59, 60, 95 , 209
, 191 , 220
j, 157 , 251
j, 125, 186, 227, 250 , 220
, 25 , 253
j, 179 , 210, 225, 226
, 232 , 106
, 27 , 140, 150
j, 209 , 220
, 58, 233 j, 219
, 234 , 71
, 18, 223
, 84, 179 , 13
, 78 , 14
j, 120, 124 , 66
j, 64 j, 123
, 192 , 90, 112
, 230, 247 , 54
, 78, 86 , 176
, 91 , 177
j, 116 j j, 255
j, 212 , 186
, 212 , 134, 149

265


, 49 , 174, 211
, 27
j, 16 , 211, 214
j , 53 , 124, 204, 229, 239
, 8, 46, 54, 82, 193, 195 , 231
j, 24 , 27, 197, 223, 226
j, 20 , 42, 45
j j, 21, 46 , 34
j, 229 , 106
, 12 j, 230, 250
, 31 , 209
jj, 156 , 13
j, 49 , 233
-, 10 , 42
, 177 , 43
, 23 , 42
j, 8 , 42
, 58, 89 , 42
, 18 j, 42
, 212 , 42
, 192, 202, 211 -, 42
, 203 j, 42
j j, 194 j, 20
j , 209 j, 54, 254
j , 20, 48 , 177
, 235 , 114
, 58 , 31, 83
, 211, 214 j, 81
j, 218 , 77
j , 64, 168, 191
, 92 , 9, 14
, 56, 57 , 52, 54
, 20 jj, 220
-, 41 j , 40
, 38, 67, 76, 114 , 22
, 220 , 25
, 240, 243 , 149
, 211 , 149
, 148 , 129
, 31, 177 , 25
, 117, 128, 173, 196 j, 26
, 19, 175, 197 , 172
, 254 , 27
j, 8 j, 218
j, 221 , 196, 207
, 224 , 73
, 174, 211 j, 127, 145, 166
, 226 , 64

266


, 216
, 196
, 196
, 209
j, 10, 75
j , 97
j, 223
, 13
, 128
, 177
j, 13
, 16, 222, 248
, 193
j, 15
, 49
, 190
j, 221, 224
, 255
, 136, 140, 150
, 258
, 38
, 233
j, 54
, 58
j, 14, 39, 82
, 49
, 246
, 187
, 19

267