Astro 4 Newweek 2

Electromagnetic Radiation:
Plane Waves, the Motion Picture

Since E and B are
Periodic in both space
and time, there are 2
ways to watch this movie:
1) At a given time, E
And B vary sinusoidally
in space
2) At a given point in space,
the E and B strengths
vary sinusoidally over
time, but at a different
Phase from adjacent points
Gold/Red and Blue Vectors show the amplitude of the E and B fields, respectively
Matt Malkan, UCLA, Astronomy 4
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/light/07-EBlight/07-EB_Light_320.html
Unifying Insight: Many Kinds of Light

Waves!
f! = c
no known restrictions on f
Intensity of 3-D Waves

Brightness (of light) or Intensity (light, sound, etc) is
POWER PER UNIT AREA
If no energy absorbed after being emitted from central source at r=0, then
total power received on a sphere is CONSTANT:
I (4 r2) = Constant [energy conservation!]
At a given r, there is only one (isotropic) value of I since the power spreads
out uniformly in all directions of a sphere
This implies INVERSE SQUARE LAW FOR INTENSITY:
I1
r 22
------ = --------I2
r 12
Example: Brightness of Sunlight

[the calculation that got cut from Universe show on
Constellations, and obviously BATG]
Suns total (intrinsic) power is currently 4 x 1026 Watts (pretty stable!)
This corresponds to an apparent brightness (Intensity) at Earth of
4 x 1026 / 4 (1.5 x 1011)2 = 1400 Watt/m2, the solar constant
Dark adapted human eye can detect ~a hundred visual photons per 0.1 second from a point of
light, corresponding to a brightness of about 10-11 Watts/m2
So (neglecting backgrounds) your eye could detect the Suns light at a distance of:
D = {4 x 1026 / (4 x 10-11)}1/2 = 2 x 1018 meters = 200 light years
Thus, the unaided eye is an AWESOME detector, capable of detecting many hundreds of nearby
stars (and a comparable number of more powerful, more distant ones)
If stars had been too faint and distant for our eyes, MM predicts development of science and
exploration (and modern civilization) would have been delayed by a century or more (at least as
large as the delay that would have resulted from Newton getting bashed by a falling apple tree)
Same Inverse-square law applies to Intensity of sound waves, and the human ear is ALSO pretty
AWESOME
What forces act on matter?

1) Gravity is universal attractive force between all
masses
2) Electromagnetic force operates on charged particles,
holds atoms and molecules together
Both have infinite range, strength dropping as square
of the separation
Gravity is vastly weaker, but can never be cancelled
out, so dominates on large scales
Gravity and Electromagnetic arent the

only two universal forces--What holds
atomic nuclei together?
How can all those plus charges be held
together so tightly?
Must be a nuclear attractive force even
stronger than electromagnetic
Strong nuclear force only acts over
extremely short distances (the size of atoms)
Since this is also exerted by neutrons, they
are indispensable adhesive
The 4 Forces and where they

operate
Planets, stars and galaxies are held together by the
Gravitational Force. Gravity completely dominates all
motions on large scales.
Atoms are held together by the Electromagnetic Force, since
opposites attract. This force also drops as 1/distance2, but
unlike gravity, likes repel.
Each nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons and is
(fortunately) held together by the Strong Nuclear Force.
Nuclear forces only act over a very short range, comparable
in size to the nucleus of an atom
Electrons are can be converted to other particles - photons,
and neutrinos - through the operation of a force called the
Weak Nuclear Force.
Hydrogen, the simplest most

abundant element
attractive force holds us

e- What
Together?
atomic number = 1
p+
atomic mass number = 1
This diagram is not to scale, and is quite misleading

Helium
(second simplest, first

discovered by astronomers, in the
Sun)
ep+p+
nn
What holds us together!?

The short-range force stronger than
Electric repulsion.
Extra strong nuclear attraction of those
2 neutrons is required to keep it stable.
e-
atomic number = 2
Hydrogen (heavy)
Deuterium
(3rd most abundant

element)
e
isotope
p+
n
atomic number = 1
The particles in the nucleus determine

the element & isotope.
What if an electron is missing?
ion
ep+p+
nn
atomic number = 2
+1
He
What if two or more atoms combine to

form a particle (by sharing their outer
electrons)?
molecule
p+
p+
8p+
8n
H2O (individuals: steam; crystal lattice:

ice; sliding broken lattices: watter)
Which of the combinations below is a positive

ion?
A. A nucleus with 6 protons and 6 neutrons surrounded by 6
electrons.
B. A nucleus with 7 protons and 7 neutrons surrounded by 8
electrons.
C. A nucleus with 6 protons and 6 neutrons surrounded by 3
electrons.
D. A nucleus with 6 protons and 7 neutrons surrounded by 6
electrons.
Some exotic particles dont

feel the strong nuclear force
Their only interactions are from gravity and the weak
nuclear force
Typical example is one kind of radioactive decay where
neutron switches into a proton plus an electron (plus a
neutrino)
(Thats why weakly interacting particles are so hard to
detectit would take a lead shield a few light years
thick to stop most neutrinos). They may account for
most of the mass in the Universe (!!)
Similar weak nuclear reactions make supernovae
explode
These Weakly Interacting Massive Particles are
probably 90% of the entire Mass of the Universe
If a natural or man-made
catastrophe sends Humanity
back to a Dark Ages
Suppose all technology and understanding of science will
be wiped out
Humans would have to begin the re-discovery process
over again, almost from scratch. [We will never quit, so
long as there are any Humans left!]
But suppose you could leave your descendants a 1-page
summary of the most important scientific ideas they will
need, to save them hundreds of years of painful trial and
error in the cold darkness- What message would you save to pass on to them??
[Isnt that just a fancy way of asking What is General
Education about? Matt
Feynmann
said its what was in
Malkan, UCLA, Astronomy 4
todays lecture]
The Two Revolutionary Ideas

of Quantum Mechanics
1) Electromagnetic radiation has properties of waves,
but also of massless particles, called photons, with:
Energy of a photon = Constant x Frequency
2) ALL (Massive) particles also have wavelike
properties, so they must also obey the wave
Uncertainty Principle (ex: they do not have precise
locations, only probability distributions)
(3) (At a deeper subatomic level, quantum principles
apply to the structure of SPACE ITSELF)
The size of an Atom, according to

Quantum (Wave) Mechanics
Although it is the smallest part of the atom, most of the atoms mass is
contained in the nucleus.
But an ATOM IS NOT A MINATURE SOLAR SYSTEM:

1) The electrons do
not orbit the
nucleus; they are
smeared out. On
small scales they
behave like
waves! The
uncertainty
principle gives
the atom its size.
An ATOM IS NOT A MINATURE SOLAR SYSTEM:

2) Electron Orbits are Quantized
Electrons orbiting the nucleus can only gain or

lose specific, discrete amounts of energy.
When electrons have the lowest energy possible,
the atom is in the ground state. (fundamental)
When electrons have more energy than this, we
say the atom is in an excited state. (overtones,
like climbing ladder rungs)
When electrons gain enough energy to escape the
nucleus, we say the atom is ionized. (like jumping
up off the ladder)
Electron Orbital Clouds
As a consequence of the uncertainty principle

We dont know exact location of the electron, unless we disturb it
with a direct measurement to pin it down
If we try this many times, we infer a smeared out location in many
different, possibly separate, locations simultaneously
But we can calculate the probabilities of where it could be located
Uncertainty Principle
Is enforced by the
Impossibility of
Measuring properties
of particles
Without disturbing them
Actual electron probability patterns for several energy levels of Hydrogen
Electron Energy Levels in Atoms
But, electrons can not have just any energy while orbiting the
nucleus. When you confine a wave, only limited set of frequencies
possible (electron orbit probability distributions are like standing
waves in 3D)
Only certain energy values are allowed, like (unevenly spaced) stair
steps
Electrons may only gain or lose certain specific amounts of energy.
Each element (atom and

ion) has its own distinctive
set or pattern of energy
levels.
This diagram depicts the
energy levels of Hydrogen,
(which follow a very simple
arithmetical pattern )
When you confine a wave, only certain

wavelengths/frequencies are allowed
Familiar example: single guitar string can ONLY resonate
with fundamental frequency, and its fixed series of overtones
Another example: sound waves trapped in a tube can only
vibrate with fundamental wavelength, or its overtones (organ
pipes)
What have we learned?

What is surprising about energy in atoms?
Electrons can have only particular amounts of electrical potential
energy, not amounts in between. Electrons can jump between the
allowed energy levels only by gaining or losing the precise amounts
of energy separating levels.
How do energy levels differ from one chemical element to

another?
Every chemical element has its own unique set of energy levels,
due to its unique combination of orbiting electrons.
TODAY: DECODING STARLIGHT:

ASTRONOMERS MOST POWERFUL WEAPON
Kirchhoffs 3 Laws of Thermodynamics-How do atoms interact with photons?

I. A hot, low density gas emits light of only certain
wavelengths atomic collisions excite the electrons to
higher energy orbits. After less than a millionth of a
second, they tend to drop back down to lower energies,
emitting a distinctive:
emission line spectrum.
Kirchhoffs Laws III.

When light having a continuous spectrum passes
through a cool gas, dark lines appear in the
continuous spectrum, because only photons having
exactly the right energies can be absorbed by electrons as
they jump up to higher energy orbits (excitation by photon
absorption), imprinting a distinctive:
absorption line spectrum.
In detail, Suns spectrum has thousands of

Matt Malkan,
UCLA, of
Astronomy
4
absorption lines:
90%
atoms
are Hydrogen
Kirchhoffs 3 Laws illustrated

simultaneously: which apply to STARS?
Opaque tungsten filament:it is HOTTER
From most viewing

Angles we see this:
Star Spectrum is Blackbody plus Absorption Lines

Measure Surface Temperature (and maybe density!)
50,000 C: H all
ionized
10,000 C:
strong
absorption
From onceexcited H
5000 C,
includes Sun
4000 C only
neutral atoms,
H is not
excited
3000 C
molecules
stable
Kirchhoffs Laws II.

A hot, opaque glowing object (solid or gas)
emits a continuous (rainbox) spectrum,
because these emission lines have all gotten
smeared into one continuous blend.
Total Power per unit surface area is proportional

to T4
Ex: double the radius of a sphere while keeping its surface
temperature fixed: how much more power does it emit?
Kerch : Opaque Surfaces Emit Universal

Blackbody Radiation Spectrum
Wiens Law:
Wavelength of peak ofMattthermal
radiation = 0.2 inches/TAbsolute
Hotter blackbodies emit higher frequency photons (Wiens Law)
A stars spectrum tells us its surface

temperature. To know its intrinsic power,
we need to know its distance. Use:
STELLAR PARALLAX
Earthbound observers are viewing stars from a moving
platform (our annual orbit around the Sun)
Our motion should make the apparent locations of nearby
stars wobble annually against the background of more
distant objects
Stars are so distant that even today, this parallax effect
can only be measured for the nearer stars in the Milky
Way
Measuring Distances to Stars, with

geometry of a simple triangle
This is a right triangle
distance = 1 AU/ p
Nearest star has a parallax angle
of only one second of arc
= 1/3600 of degree,
so it is about one Par-Sec away,
Which is about 200,000 A.U.s,
or 3 Light-years:
D(parsecs) = 1 / Parallex (arcseconds)
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Our goals for learning:
What is the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR)
diagram?
What are the major features of the HR
diagram?
How do stars differ along the main
sequence?
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Plot two major properties of stars:
Temperature (x) vs. Luminosity (y)
Most Stars obey a tight correlation Main
Sequence: one intrinsic property determines a
stars location
bright
Power
faint
Observed correlation of
Surface Temp and Power
Makes sense, since all MS
Stars have roughly similar
Sizes (surface areas)
Surface Temp
hot <<-
cool
Pleiades: star cluster: its HR diagram

differs from that of nearest stars
Its Main Sequence extends up

To high luminosities and
temperatures
Compare Power in Local Stars with Our Sun

Two (easy) observables are --Luminosity (if we know
accurate distance) and --Surface Temperature (Weins Law)
For most (90%) stars, they are VERY WELL CORRELATED
L/Ts diagram shows this positive correlation as the Main
Sequence
Wed expect L to go up as Ts does, since every square meter
of a hotter blackbody radiates a lot more power, and main
sequence stars do not differ hugely in their sizes
(Our Sun is in the middle of this Main Sequence)
What CAUSES the Main Sequence?
Answer: Stellar Masses

What is the most important property of a
star, and why?
How do we measure it?
Masses of Stars
Mass is the single most important property of any
star.
at each stage of a stars life, mass determines
what its luminosity will be
what its size, and therefore its surface temperature will be
The mass of a star can only be measured directly

by
observing the effect which gravity from another object
has on the star
This is most easily done for two stars which orbit

one anothera binary star!
Binary Stars
(two stars which orbit one another,
around their common center-of-mass)
Visual binaries: (near enough to Earth)
a binary which is spatially resolved,
i.e. two stars are seen (e.g. Sirius)
Weighing Binary Stars

The stars orbit each other via gravity.
So the laws of Kepler & Newton apply!
Remember Newtons version of Keplers Third Law:
P2 = 42 a3 / G (m1 + m2)
If you can measure the orbital period of the binary (P)

and the distance between the stars (a), then you can
calculate the sum of the masses of both stars (m1 +
m2).
In practical terms, measure the orbital velocities of
both stars to get their masses. ALL known stellar
masses come from this method. Thank goodness
there are so many binary stars!
Newtons 3rd Law applied to orbits
Objects actually orbit around their common center of mass,

because the gravitational force accelerating each one is the same,
so that small object must accelerate more (swing around on a
wider orbital path). If one object is more massive
than the other, the center
of mass is closer to the
more massive object
For objects equal in
mass, the center of mass
is halfway between the
two.
Ex: binary stars masses
are inversely proportional
to their max velocities
Closer Binary Stars

Appear as a Single Point of Light
Spectroscopic binaries
a binary which is spatially; the existence of the second star
is inferred from the 2 Doppler shifts of lines:
the absorption lines are DOUBLED, and continually shifting
You can make
Some fair
Estimates in
Spectroscopic
Binaries where
You only see
ONE set of
Absorption lines,
Shifting back
And forth due to
Gravity of unseen
Companion
(like Exoplanets)
[Detail] Main Uncertainty in Measuring

Stellar Masses in Binary Stars with
Doppler Shifts
We generally do not see their orbits EDGE-ON
So our Doppler shift measurements only see a
portion of the total orbital velocities: only the
part of the motion towards or away from Earth
If you ignore the possible tilt of the orbit, you get
a LOWER LIMIT to the stars masses
In some cases we can infer the inclination of the
orbits
Binary Stars with special (highly

inclined) orientation
Eclipsing binaries
a binary whose orbital plane lies along our line of

sight, thus causing dips in the light curve:
Bonus: gives us accurate sizes of stars .
Basic Properties of the Sun:

a completely ordinary star
Surface Temp = 6000 C
Distance: 1.5 x 108 km
= 1 A.U.
Mass: 2 x 1030 kg
Radius: 7 x 105 km
Average Density: 1.4 g/cm3
True color is WHITE, not yellow
Luminosity: 4 x 1026 watts
What Keeps the Sun Stable?
The Sun began as a cloud of gas undergoing gravitational collapse.

the same heating process, once proposed to power the Sun, did cause the
core of the Sun to get hot & dense enough to start nuclear fusion reactions
Once begun, the fusion reactions generated energy which provided an

outward pressure.
This pressure perfectly balances

the inward force of gravity: deeper
regions, with more mass weighing
down, must be hotter
This balance is called
gravitational (hydrostatic)
equilibrium.
Central temperature must be 15
Million C (worked out by Eddington)
Problem: The Suns Energy Source

The first theories invoked chemical reactions or gravitational
collapse.
chemical burning (eg huge ball of coal?) would run out in 100 million
years
conversion of gravitational potential energy into heat as the Sun
contracts would only keep the Sun shining for 25 million years
19th-century radioactive dating indicated the Earth was older than
that
Development of nuclear physics led to the correct answer

the Sun generates energy via nuclear fusion reactions
Hydrogen is converted into Helium in the Suns core
the mass lost in this conversion is transformed into (an enormous
quantity of) energy
The total mass plus energy is conserved in all reactions

Why does fusion occur in the Suns core ?

Nuclear fusion
a reaction where heavier nuclei are
created by combining (fusing)
lighter nuclei.
all nuclei are positively charged
Electromagnetic force causes

nuclei to repel each other.
for fusion to occur, nuclei must be
moving fast enough to overcome
E-M repulsion
this requires high temperatures &
pressures (>10 Million C)
When nuclei get close the

nuclear force takes over, binding
them together: Eddington
realized uncertainty principle
was needed to let thisMatthappen
Difference between nuclear fusion and fission

a reaction where lighter nuclei are created by splitting of heavier nuclei.
This occurs spontaneously in heaviest (radioactive) nuclei
In this process neutrons and He nuclei fly out, triggering more fissions
possible chain reaction (if you have high enough purity of n-producing fuel)
Fission (either U-235 or plutonium) made atomic bombs. One of

those can make T high enough to trigger a fusion (hydrogren) bomb.
Only controlled fission has been achieved by mankind: It is easier to
destroy than to create. Matt Malkan, UCLA, Astronomy 4
Thermo-nuclear fusion powers the Sun and most stars
Two protons get close enough together to stick--they manage to

overcome the electric forces repulsion via Uncertainty Principle
Later a third proton sticks on, making tritium
Finally a fourth proton hits, to make Helium-4
Along the way, two protons are converted into
positron + neutron + neutrino (thanks to weak nuclear force)
4 Hydrogen nuclei fuse into Helium to generate nuclear fusion

which powers the Sun and most stars
Hydrogen fusion: several steps transform 4 protons

Into a single Helium-4 nucleus
MASS IN: 4 protons = 4 x 1.008 = 4.032 atomic mass units

MASS OUT: 1 He-4 = 4.002 atomic mass units
Whats the difference? 0.03 out of 4 amus
of a percent of the total mass has been CONVERTED into
Pure Energy
Potential Energy of Matter Itself

energy is stored in matter itself
this mass-energy is what would be
released if an amount of mass, m, is
converted into energy
E = mc2
[ c = 3 x 108 m/s is the speed of light; m is in kg, then E is in Watt-seconds]

Even a little mass (1 kilogram of Hydrogen) goes a long way,

according to Einsteins famous formula:
E = 0.007 x M c2
= 0.007 x 1 kg x (3 x 108 meters/sec)2
= 1015 Joules
(almost 1 Megaton of TNT; powers LA county for a day)
swamps the energy released from chemical burning (e.g. of
one liter of refined jet fuel)!
Solar Energy Generation is Fairly Stable for most of its life
Suns Power output is 4 x 10 26 Joules / second (Watts),

which requires 4 x 10 11 kilograms of Hydrogen fuel per second
Balance of (outward) gas pressure from nuclear heating and
(inward) gravity maintains the Suns diameter at a nearly constant
1 million kilometers
(Only subtle change: core gets denser as it gradually turns into Helium
Temperature adjusts upward. Nuclear fusion runs faster at this higher
temperature. Sun is now 30% brighter.)
EVOLUTION OF OUR SUN

How long will the Hydrogen fuel in its core last?
[See Suns Lifetime Handout, posted on course web page]
Lifetime = Fuel Supply / Burn Rate
= Core Mass / Mass consumption rate
= 1/10 x 2 x 10 30 kilos / 4 x 10 11 kilos / second
= 1/3 x 10 18 seconds = 10 10 years (10 Gigayears)
DONT PANIC!! --> ITS ONLY HALF USED UP!!
(If the Sun were a gasoline ball, it would burn itself out in
only one percent of this time)
Matt Malkan,
UCLA,only
Astronomy
4 a percent of this lifetime
Star is born during a collapse
which
takes
More things to know for Midterm

What process creates energy in the Sun?
Fusion of hydrogen into helium in the Suns core generates
the Suns energy.
Why does the Suns size remain stable?

The Suns size remains stable because it is in gravitational
equilibriumthe outward pressure of hot gas balances the
inward force of gravity at every point within the Sun.
How long will fuel supply last, in various kinds of stars?
What happens next?
Seismology Observes the Solar Interior

The Suns interior is opaque
we can not see directly into it with light
We can construct mathematical computer models of it.

the models are a grid of temperature, pressure, & density vs. depth
these values are calculated using known laws of physics
Test One: We can directly measure

sound waves moving through the
interior
we observe sunquakes in the
photosphere by using Doppler shifts
speed of sound waves can be checked
against interior conditions predicted by
models: which turn out pretty accurate!
There is another way to see directly

into the coreneutrinos!
Energy Transport from the Sun
Outside the suns core, energy transport is very

efficient:
the bottom of the convection zone is hugely heated fromj
below hot gas (buoyant) rises to the top
cooler gas at the much cooler surface sinks to the
bottomchurning just like when you boil a pot of water!
energy is brought to the surface via bulk motions of matter:
(2) convection
Solar/Terrestrial Connection
Sunspots:
somewhat cooler regions which look dark relat ive t o surroundings--their
absorption lines get split by very intense magnetic field (loop like bar magnet)
Malkan,
Astronomy
Sunspots comeMattand
goUCLA,
over
an4 11-year cycle.
How is Nuclear Energy Transported

Out of Suns Center?
Radiation Zone
energy travels as photons of light, which continually collide with particles

always changing direction (random walk), photons can change wavelengths,
gradually shifting from gamma rays down to visual photons
this is called radiative diffusion (1)
This is a slow process!

It takes about 1 million
years for energy to travel
from the core to the surface.
So fusion reactions COULD
have shut down in Suns
center for last hundreds of
thousands of years!-->
We need a test of fusion
happening NOW
Observational Tests:
Do we understand nuclear power
in the Suns Center?
Test Two: Neutrinos
(Fairly) high-energy Neutrinos from H fusion reactions CAN
BE DETECTED AT EARTH
Oops! Only about a third of predicted neutrinos are
detected!
Explanation: because neutrinos have a (very tiny) little
mass, they oscillate back and forth between 3 types, only
1 of which is detected at Earth
Proton-Proton Chain
IN: 6 H, (2 e-)
OUT: He, 2 H, 2 e, 4
Effectively 4 H nuclei are converted into
1 He nucleus and energy is released.
First Solar Neutrino

Observatory: Ray Davis
with cleaning fluid in
Homestake mine:
Some chlorine nuclei absorb
Solar Neutrinos, converting
them into a radioactive
Argon isotope, which he
measured
Putting neutrino detectors in
deep underground mines
shields them from other high
energy particles coming from
space. Only neutrinos can
penetrate the Earth EASILY
Sudbury Heavy
Water Neutrino
Detector:
Neutrino is not
absorbed, but
gives up some
of its energy to
create a brief
flash of light
Super-Kamiokande, before it broke, found evidence neutrinos have mass
What causes a sunspot?

Strong magnetic
field substitutes
for gas pressure,
less heat needed
Solar Flares
when a magnetic loop breaks, it blasts high-energy particles
into space
Movie. Click to play.
Solar Wind escapes from hot corona

When magnetic field lines break, they release the charged
particles into space.
This so-called solar wind escapes and fills our Solar System
Solar Wind Hits Earth:

High-energy electrons, protons, He nuclei launched by flares,
are (fortunately) trapped by Earths magnetic field lines,
making Radiation Belts
Spiralling on Earths
magnetic field to cause
The Aurorae
the Northern & Southern Lights
A strong Solar wind

can affect humans
by:
interfering with
communications
knocking out power
grids
damage in space
vechicles, including
space travellers
We are not yet sure

of the effect which
Solar activity has on
Earths climate.
Solar Activity
The photosphere of the Sun is covered with
sunspots.
Sunspots are not constant; they appear &
disappear.
They do so in a cycle.
It repeats every 11 yrs.
Suns magnetic field switches polarity every 11 yrs
so the entire cycle repeats every 22 yrs
Sunspot Cycle
Differential Rotation
The Sun does not rotate as a solid body (like the
Earth.) The equator rotates faster than the poles.
Period of Rotation:
25 days (equator)
30 days (poles)
Sunspot Number
Reconstruction
The solar sunspot cycle
appeared to turn off
during the period known
as the Maunder
Minimum.
This minimum occurred
at the time known as
the Little Ice Age.
(Small) Measured Changes in

Total Solar Luminosity
Since 1978 spacecraft

have measured the
total rate at which
energy from the sun
falls on the Earth.
These show clear
evidence that
sunspots block
radiation flow and
plages increase
radiation flow.
It is not clear from
these measurements
whether there are
long-term trends.
Solar Influences on Climate
The measured changes in

Total Solar Irradiance (TSI)
are generally too small to
alter global climate
properties.
There are nonetheless
indications that this
conclusion is incomplete.
There is a strong correlation
between solar cycle length
and sea surface
temperature.
Stellar Evolution
The life of any star can be described as a battle
between two forces:
Gravity vs. Pressure
Gravity always wants to collapse the star.

Pressure holds up the star.
the type of star is defined by what provides the pressure
Remember Newtons Law of Gravity

the amount of gravitational force depends on the mass
gravitational potential energy is turned into heat as a
star collapses
A stars life and death will be determined by its mass
MASS DETERMINES STELLAR EVOLUTION
A stars location on the main sequence is determined by its

mass:
higher mass stars burn hotter in their cores, generating
more power, but for a much shorter lifetime
The Main Sequence is a Mass Sequence
If our nuclear power theories are correct, this should also
correspond to a lifetime sequence
Observational Tests:
Do we understand nuclear power
in stars?
Test Three: Main Sequence in Star Clusters
Gravitational equilibrium says more massive stars must have
hotter centers
Hotter centers produce much faster fusion reactions
Changing Suns mass by 2x should changes its (fusion) power by
10x
Ironically, stars with the most fuel (mass) will therefore run
through it in the shortest amount of time
You observe a star in the disk of the Milky Way,

and you want to plot the star on an H-R
diagram. You will need to determine all of the
following, except:
A.
B.
C.
D.
distance to the star

mass of the star
spectral type of the star
apparent brightness of the star in our sky
Star Clusters
Why are star clusters useful for studying stellar
evolution?
How do we measure the age of a star cluster?
Clusters are useful for studying

stellar evolution!
all cluster stars are the same distance
use apparent magnitudes to infer their relative intrinsic
power
all cluster stars formed at about the same time

they are the same age
They are all composed of the same mixture of
elements
Plot an H-R Diagram!

Open Star Clusters

100s of stars
106 - 109 years
old
irregular shapes
gas or nebulosity
is sometimes
seen
7 yrs)
Pleaides
(8
x
10
Globular Star Clusters

105--6 stars
10 to 13 billion
years old: oldest
known objects
spherical shape
NO gas or
nebulosity
Pleiades H-R
Diagram
Globular Cluster
H-R Diagram
Palomar 3
Massive stars are luminous, hot, short-lived-->
HR diagram
LIFE can only be sustained by stars shining.
LIFE is only possible by stars dying.
Cluster H-R Diagrams Indicate Age

All stars arrived on the MS
at about the same time.
The cluster is as old as the
most luminous (massive)
star left on the MS.
All MS stars to the left have
already used up their H fuel
and are gone.
The position of the hottest,
brightest star on a clusters
main sequence is called
the main sequence turnoff
point.
How do stars evolve when their cores exhaust

all their Hydrogen?
To maintain pressure balance,
Gravity condenses and heats their core
(By energy conservation), their surface expands
Interior heats up, while surface cools down
H fusion can now occur powerfully in a shell around the
(hot, dead) He core
This shell-burning star has become a red giant
Red Giants
Suns luminosity increases
By a thousand times
BUT its radius increases
By a hundred times
Surface temperature drops
In half, since less power is
Emitted per square
Orbits of Mercury and
Venus completed engulfed
By the tenuous outer
Atmosphere of the red giant,
Vaporizing them
Earth: oceans evaporate,
Surface melts
Red Giants in the L/T (HR) Diagram

As a star cluster ages, more and more of its upper main
sequence stars peel off the main sequence and move up
the red giant branch
Red giant phase lasts only a few percent of the stars lifetime
--> we only see a few percent of stars in this unusual phase
at the end of their lives
Red giant phase ends (temporarily) when the core
temperature reaches 100 Million oC
Suddenly, at that temperature, a NEW NUCLEAR FUSION
REACTION can power the core
The Amazing Triple Alpha Reaction

Helium, the ashes of H fusion, can burn at 10
8 oK
Also Need:
Very High Density, to promote collisions
Enough Time for 3 Helium nuclei to hit simultaneously
A special excited state of Carbon-12 nucleus to
make the reaction much more likely to proceed
Rapidly, Suns entire core is burned into Carbon, while it is
a bright blue star
After that no more nuclear reactions will take place in the
Suns center, only in shells of fresh Hydrogen and Helium
What ends the first Red Giant

phase?
The He core contracts until it heats to 108 K

He fusion begins ( He C)
called the triple- process
*excited nuclear state

*but LESS than 0.7% of inputs
*
All He in core rapidly converted into 12-C
With that 2nd (and final) fuel supply exhausted, core shrinks again
Sun has its second and final red giant phase (double shell-burning
star)
Extreme luminosity and instability EJECTS OUTER LAYERS OF
STARS ATMOSPHERE, leaving behind hot core
Planetary Nebulae
When the Red Giant exhausts its He fuel
the C core shrinks
Low & intermediate-mass stars dont have enough
gravitational energy to heat to 6 x 108 K (temperature where
Carbon fuses)
The He & H burning shells overcome gravity

the outer envelope of the star is gently blown away
this forms a planetary nebula

Internal red giant structure, leading to

ejection of outer layers
Left in the middle is a

Very hot dense core,
Emitting loads of UV
Matt Malkan, UCLA, Astronomyphotons
4
Planetary Nebulae:
why their theyre so beautiful
Hot central core emits UltraViolet
photons, which have enough energy
to ionize gas
The (beautiful) glow of this thin gas
(remember Kerchoffs law!) has
strongest emission lines in red
(Hydrogen) and green (Oxygen),
Appearing (to Herschel) like a planet
These lovely puffs are very ephemeral:

entirely dispersed into interstellar space in
100,000 years
Ring Nebula
Hourglass Nebula
The collapsing Carbon

core becomes a White Dwarf
This Planetary Nebula came from a

rotating star, so it is extended along
polar axes
Degeneracy Pressure
in the center of a dying star
Like a game of musical chairs

chairs are quantum states
students are electrons, which
obey the Pauli Exclusion
Principle
As we decrease the number of

available states
electrons must move faster,
trying to find an empty state
they provide the degeneracy
pressure
This electron degeneracy pressure supports brown dwarfs &

white dwarfs against gravity.

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