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Expatriate Adaptation: A Fit between Skills and Demands among Japanese Expatriates in
USA
Author(s): Yoshitaka Yamazaki
Source: MIR: Management International Review, Vol. 50, No. 1 (2010), pp. 81-108
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40658352
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Manag Int Rev (2010) 50:81-108

DOI 10.1007/s 11 575-009-0022-7
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Expatriate Adaptation
mir
Management
International Review
A Fit between Skills and Demands among

Japanese Expatriates in USA
Yoshitaka Yamazaki
Abstract:
This study investigates expatriate adaptation using a sample of Japanese expatriates in the
US. For a comprehensive understanding, home managers in Japan and host managers in the
US were also used.
This study is unique in that it examines expatriate adaptation through an analysis of the
change of a fit between 12 learning skills and the skills demands.
The degree of expatriate adaptation increased in accordance with the length of the current
overseas assignment tenure in the host country, along with an increase in job satisfaction.
Keywords: Expatriate adaptation Experiential learning theory Learning skills

Skills demands Job satisfaction Japan-US business
Received: 25.08.2007 / Revised: 29.08.2008 / Accepted: 10.12.2008 / Published online: 16.01.2010

Gabler- Verlag 2010
Assoe. Prof. Y. Yamazaki (EI)

Graduate School of International Management, International University of Japan, Niigata, Japan
e-mail: yyama@iuj.ac.jp
82
Y.
Yamazaki
Introduction
In the past few decades, many researchers and theorists have focused on the study of
expatriate adaptation in the domain of international management. Their topics of study
comprise, among others, the adjustment process (Black et al. 1991; Aycan 1997), accul-
turation (Mendenhall and Oddou 1985), the paradox of adjustment (Brewster 1993),
expatriate well-being at work (Nicholson and Imaizumi 1993), expatriate adjustment
and satisfaction (Torbiorn 1982), expatriate experience and adjustment (Thomas 1998;
Selmer 2002; Takeuchi et al. 2005), and so forth.
Although a wide range of views have been presented in the studies on expatriate adaptation, the prime focus of most of these studies is on sociopsychological and welfare
concern or psychological well-being that reflects the concept of expatriate adjustment
(Kamoche 1997; Wong 2001). More specifically, Haslberger (2005a) pointed out that
much of the cross-cultural adaptation research in the management literature has been
associated with the three types of expatriate adjustments initially proposed by Black
(1988): General, work, and interaction adjustments. Since these types of adjustments
refer to expatriates' psychological comfort in situations (Black 1988, 1990; Black and
Gregersen 1991; Takeuchi et al. 2002), they appear to converge into an emotional aspect
of the expatriates. Kamoche (1997) argued that this trend may result in a misleading
impression because it appears as if all the functions of expatriate management control
only the welfare and social needs of the expatriates for their overseas adjustment.
Cross-cultural adaptation, however, is a multifaceted phenomenon (Berry 1997) and
will be discussed later; it includes affective, cognitive, and behavioral components in
its theoretical foundation (Kim 1988, 1995). In keeping with this perspective, Ashford
and Taylor (1990) discussed from the viewpoint of adaptation to work transition that
the adaptation processes are associated with these three constructs. Therefore, expatriate
adaptation may be thought to constitute the following three facets: Emotion, cognition,
and behavior (see Haslberger 2005a, b). In this regard, the scope of the study on expatri-
ate adaptation needs to be developed from the perspective of cognitive and behavioral
concern, rather than only stressing on the emotional aspects, as is the dominant trend in
the literature on expatriate management. For this reason, the present study particularly
focuses on a behavioral aspect of expatriate adaptation by examining expatriate skills in
relation to the demands for these skills. In addition, the study aims to investigate expatriate adaptation through an analysis of expatriate job satisfaction as its emotional aspect.
Literature Review
Cross-Cultural Adaptation
Cross-cultural adaptation has been studied and discussed as a multidimensional process
in the field of cross-cultural study. Klein (1979) defined adaptation as a process of attitude
or behavior changes in response to new stimuli. Grove and Torbiorn (1985) examined the
changes observed over time in an interactive activity between cognitions and behaviors
under highly unfamiliar environments. Similarly, Hannigan (1990) regarded adaptation
Expatriate
as
the
Adaptation
change
in
the
83
cognition,
a foreign culture. Kim (1988, 1

includes cognitive, affective, an
tion about adaptation, Berry (1
that occur in individuals and gr
explained that "these adaptatio
the long term" (1997, p. 13). B
reasonable to state that cross-c
cognition, and behavior that oc
viduals and environmental demands.
Among the three dimensions of adaptation, the behavioral aspect of cross-cultural
adaptation is related to sociocultural adaptation (Ward and Kennedy 1999). Sociocultural adaptation involves the ability to acquire sociocultural skills when interacting with
the host environment (Searle and Ward 1990; Ward and Kennedy 1999). Subsequently,
such an environmental interaction makes the individuals learn and acquire the ability to
cope with the daily struggles pertaining to family life, work, and school (Berry 1997).
Therefore, sociocultural adaptation strongly depends on culture learning and social skills
acquisition (Ward and Kennedy 1999). Along with the perspectives from the three aspects
of cross-cultural adaptation, this view will make it possible to explore expatriate adaptation in light of learning and skill acquisition.
A Learning and Skill Approach

Learning is a central process of human adaptation (Kolb 1984), and it leads to the acquisition and development of skills through an interaction with the immediate environment
(Boyatzis and Kolb 1991, 1995). In the expatriate context, overseas assignments generate an opportunity for the expatriate to learn and develop (Kamoche 1997). A series of
assignments require that the ability to learn from an experience that develops the necessary skills for coping with the challenging environmental situations be improved (Spreitzer et al. 1997). These skills ensure that the expatriates perform effectively, and thus,
they serve to positively contribute to expatriate adaptation. In this manner, expatriate
adaptation appears to be reiterated from the perspective of expatriate skill acquisition
and development, resulting from learning that takes place through interplay of overseas
assignments.
A large number of expatriate skills have been identified and presented in the literature
of expatriate management as being essential to successful expatriate adaptation and effective performance (Leibra-O' Sullivan 1999). Several comprehensive reviews in the past
were primarily conducted to organize and integrate the skills necessary for expatriate and
cross-cultural success (e.g., Benson 1978; David 1972; Dinges 1983; Dinges and Baldwin 1996; Yamazaki and Kayes 2004). While such previous studies facilitate an effective
understanding of the essential skills or an important skill set that is required to deal with
overseas assignments, they may be regarded as insufficient for an analysis that specially
focuses on expatriate adaptation. To be more specific, it would be difficult to accurately
determine the extent to which expatriates adapt in a host country, by merely examining the
necessary skills or a skill set without analyzing the environmental demands. Since indi-
84
Y.
Yamazaki
viduals
that
are
they
alwa
intera
siderably
influ
effective
perfo
manner
in
whic
by
expatriates
w
The
concept
of
duced
ris
in
several
1975;
Searl
1981),
and
socio
argued
that
the
determines
whe
Ward
and
Kenne
skills
and
the
in
ship
between
th
abilities
require
skill
demands.
corresponds
to
in
the
study
of
applied
an
analo
intercultural effectiveness.
The present study will focus on the analysis of a change of fit over time between
expatriate skills and skill demands as a behavioral aspect of expatriate adaptation. In
order to examine expatriate adaptation from the perspective of learning and skills as
discussed above, the experiential learning theory (Kolb 1984) appears to facilitate the
conceptualization as well as operationalization of expatriate adaptation in terms of an
analysis of the fit between them. The aforementioned views of sociocultural adaptation
can also be observed in the realm of Kolb 's learning theory as conceptual similarities (see
Kolb 1984). For this specialized analysis, therefore, the present study attempted to apply
Kolb's learning theory and the learning skill model (Boyatzis and Kolb 1991, 1995),
which was theoretically derived from it. Furthermore, this study employed two similar
measures to examine the degree of skills and that of demands, that is, the Learning Skills
Profile (Boyatzis and Kolb 1991, 1995, 1997) and the Learning Skills Profile of demands
(Boyatzis and Kolb 1997), which have been invented to be conceptually commensurate
with Kolb's learning theory (Mainemelis et al. 2002). Since this study is based upon the
experiential learning theory for the examination of expatriate adaptation, it begins by
describing Kolb's learning model.
Experiential Learning Theory and Learning Skills

The experiential learning theory has received much attention from scholars not only in
the domain of management learning and education (Kayes 2002) but also in the field of
cross-cultural studies (Yamazaki 2005). This theory reflects the entirety of human learning activities through feeling, reflecting, thinking, and acting that correspond with each of
the four fundamental learning modes (Kolb 1984). The uniqueness of this theory is that
Expatriate
Adaptation
85
it
emphasizes the main function

ing based on the four learning m
(Mainemelis et al. 2002). A combin
learning styles: Diverging, assim
Learning styles entail these four
ities to the environment, wherea
involve more situational and spe
on
variety
largely
of
jobs
supported
learning
skills
(Kolb
both
the
(Boyatzis
1984
diff
and
Ko
are acquired and developed throu

individual development that is pr
Kolb 1991, 1995). Moreover, lear
individuals and their environmen
between
individual
skills
and
notion is therefore congruent w

sidered together, these descriptio
be effectively applicable to vario
deal with their overseas assignm
Kayes (2004) attempted to organ
necessary for the success of exp
tency clusters that are theoretica
skills. These four dimensions rep
cal, and action skills that can be
The taxonomy of learning skills

the descriptions of the four lear
and Kolb 1991, 1995). Feeling rel
sonal skills, namely, leadership, r

three information skills, name
the
analysis.
Further,
building,
three
thinking
quantitative
action
skills:
is
relat
analysis,
Goal
an
setting,
Rainey et al. 1993). Figure 1 illus

the learning skills classificati
and
Hypotheses
Expatriate
Development
Adaptation
As
Based
on
described earlier, learning ref

the external environment (Kolb
to the acquisition of learning sk
In this respect, the degree of ad
the environmental pressures by
86
Y.
Yamazaki
More Feeling
Relationship (RL)
Leadership
(LD)
0 jf Interpersonal ^* jq
/X
Skills
Area
'
I / X ; X / ' s w
2 ^y i Action ^^ Information ^^ 50
g ^ I Skffls~re 7' SkfflsAr 3. S
bo ' / Analitical X / ^
1 '/ Skills Area y/ %

'S
^^^
'
^^
, , /rT,^,^ ^V*^**^>1^ _---- ""^ Theory

Technology , , (TC) /rT,^,^
Quantitative analysis (QA)
Mr
More Thinking
Fig. 1: The Learning Skill Model Based on the Experiential Learning Theory
the study of engineering and social work careers conducted by Kolb and Sims (1981)
revealed that engineers and social workers demonstrate different patterns of developmental competencies with regard to their career success. Consequently, their adaptation
effectively increased when their own social needs were fitted into their social contexts.
Based on the above, one type of adaptation and its degree can be understood as a match
between the level of learning skills and that of the environmental demand related to such
learning skills. When people match the level of learning skills with that of skills demands,
such a situation is interpreted as indicating that the person has properly adapted to the
environmental circumstances (Kolb 1984). Conversely, when the level of learning skills
is distant from that of the skills demand, a mismatch occurs, and this situation indicates
that the person has maladapted to the environment. Therefore, an examination of how
well people fit learning skills to the demands for those skills is an effective method for
investigating the degree of adaptation. This is most readily achieved through the analysis
of the degree to which matches are found between learning skills and their demands.
Expatriate
As
Adaptation
87
discussed previously, the b

of a fit over time betw
changes
these
fit.
or
skills. The length of time

Individuals who change env
organizations
(Ashford
and
will
Taylor
typically
1990).
Lear
experiential learning theory, l

the acquisition and developmen
to the environmental situation
to the acquisition of learning sk
experience. Further, effectivel
enced by how frequently such
Moreover, the quantity of this
time spent in a certain situation
to increase the opportunities to
have a longer tenure (Takeuchi
as allowing the expatriates to i
the necessary skills. This view
international management liter
overseas assignments as an expa
In addition, Spreitzer et al. (199
experiences results in the devel
effective executive performanc
The
experiential
namely,
learning
interpersonal,
theo
infor
1991), which are essential for t

ments (Yamazaki and Kayes 20
their
oping
adaptation
the
12
demands of
country the
to
the
learning
host
coun
skills
list
these skills. Theref

first hypothesis tha
Hypothesis 1: Expatriates will

length of their current ass
learning skills with the dem
Expatriate
Adaptation
Based
on
An emotional change in the ho

another aspect of cross-cultur
overseas assignments from an e
For this reason, job satisfactio
examine the emotional aspect o
Swedish expatriates, Torbiorn
indicator
of
expatriate
adjustme
88
Y.
Yamazaki
represents
ment
regarded
psyc
(Black
as
an
positive
rela
upon
th
expatriate
w
depend
in
the
environmen
learning
requir
that
cross-cultu
encounter
cons
assignment
ten
values,
standard
and
necessary
i
be
acquired
fro
and
Taylor
1990
ence
between
th
undermine
the
a
negative
emot
stage.
As
a
cons
and
these
behav
to
anxiety
and
tions,
it
can
be
initial
learning
Subsequently,
tenure.
The
gre
that
expatriates
tion.
The
increa
cognitive
struc
in
a
learning
cy
reflective
for
obser
creation
opportunities
w
and
developmen
expatriates
are
may
receive
pos
fidence
and
sat
of
time
may
be
also
to
develop
contribute
to
th
Considered
as
a
course
of
their
ments.
Accordin
Hypothesis
2:
T
an
increase
in
Expatriate
Adaptation
Exploratory
Besides
explore
the
two
89
Studies
testing
the
abovem
comparative
invest
ent perspective. The purpose of

to which the levels of learning
current assignment tenure are

country. The developmental le
home country prior to their o

of the expatriates who spend s
During a short tenure overseas,
would not be expected to dram
test this assumption, the presen
domestic managers working in
the time spent in the host coun
found to be significantly diffe
the samples used in this study
population of expatriates. This
tion as follows.
Exploratory Question 1: To what extent do expatriates differ from domestic managers in

the home country with regard to the levels of learning skills?
The second comparative investigation aims to understand the extent to which expatriates,
both the entire group and those in accordance with the time spent in the host country, differ from their counterpart managers in the host country in terms of a psychological as well
as a behavioral adaptation state. Since their counterpart managers work within familiar
cultural contexts in the host country, they are expected to demonstrate the capability of
adaptation more than the expatriates in general. In this respect, the adaptation levels of
the counterpart managers in comparison appear to become effective reference points that
should be considered as an adaptation level that should be reached by expatriates. The

second exploratory question is as follows.
Exploratory Question 2: To what extent do expatriates differ from their counterpart man-
agers in the host country with regard to job satisfaction and the
fit between skills and demands?
Methodology
Research Context
In order to test the abovementioned two hypotheses, the present study selected the following research context: Japanese expatriates working in the US. The reasons for this
selection are as follows. First, the functions of the expatriates become more crucial for
the execution of international business strategies (Stahl et al. 2002) and the success of
multinational corporations (Aycan 1997). Under these circumstances, it is important to
90
Y.
Yamazaki
select
MNCs
th
In
this
regard,
on
expatriation
(2006)
illustrate
seas
subsidiaries
the
subsidiaries
findings
sugges
ment
of
the
fo
Second,
the
cu
siderably
large
to
experience
d
often
find
them
ment
periods
in
develop
the
ski
appears
to
prov
nese
expatriates
Finally,
the
low
for
this
study.
failure
rates,
su
text
where
only
longer
period
Japanese
appears
this
that
th
limitation.
Sampling
Japanese
In
of
expatr
order
Proce
Expat
to
iden
study
utilized
(1999,
2002)
pu
operating
in
th
a
comparatively
for
12
consecut
person
in
charg
subsequently,
t
this
research.
I
the
author
offe
so.
The
Japanes
number
of
sur
a
covering
lette
and
a
return
en
for
aiding
in
th
this
telephone
Expatriate
Adaptation
91
date,
the author finally visited

the answered question
Of the 44 Japanese MNCs tha
were manufacturers in indust
technical chemistry, heavy ma
in the shipping-related busine
suburbs; the remaining operate
triates who had been transferr
as those who had never worked
from the 44 Japanese MNCs r
correctly filled out the questio
this phase was 65%. Of the res
the present study eliminated 52
national work experience. The
evidence that previous internat
(Takeuchi et al. 2005), and that
as an enabling anticipatory adju
Mendenhall 1991). Consequentl
included
215.
Table 1 illustrates the demographic characteristics and descriptive statistics of the study
participants. The demographic characteristics of the 215 Japanese expatriates are as fol-
lows. First, 98% of the participants worked in manufacturing companies, and 77% were
employed in corporations that employed between 100 and 999 employees. Second, the
average current overseas assignment tenure was 42.5 months (approximately 3.5 years).
Third, only 4% had the experience of studying at schools abroad. Finally, all participants
were male Japanese expatriates, most of whom were aged between 30 and 50 years.
To examine Japanese expatriate adaptation in relation to the current assignment tenure,
this study divided the sample of 215 Japanese expatriates into three groups based on the
length of time spent in the US. The first group consisted of expatriates whose assignment
tenure was less than two years; the second group's assignment tenure extended from two
to less than four years. Finally, the third group's assignment tenure extended from four to
more than four years. This kind of grouping based on two-year durations was employed
by Surdam and Collin (1984) in their study on international students' cultural adaptation
in the US.
Japanese Home Managers

For the first exploratory examination of domestic managers working in Japan, the author
received permission from a world-class Japanese manufacturing company to conduct

research at one of its plants located in a rural area of Japan. This company produces
electronic communication appliances as consumer products. The plant manager agreed
with the research plan to conduct extensive investigation of all the employees at that
plant. An HR manager was appointed as an administrator-in-charge for this study. Of the
330 employees that received the survey packets, 282 returned completed questionnaires,
resulting in a response rate of 85%. Eighty seven participants were placed at the manage-
92
Y.
Yamazaki
Table
1:
Demogr
Type of Industry Age

Manufacturing 211 98 20 to 29 11 5
Shipping
30
41
Location
Rural
103
51
to
to
and
40
107
50
above
50
67
31
30
14
48
Suburb 112 52 English Conversation Skills

Unable to speak 19 9
Employees Basic 132 61
Total
22
to
99
100
to
1000
to
12
999
1500
Intermediate
166
37
17
77
57
Advance
Almost
native
27
5
2
2
1
Overseas Study Job Functions
Experience 9 4 Managing an entire firm 21 10

No experience 206 96 Division/Plant management 15 7
Production/System control 40 19
Family Status Engineering/Design/Research 76 35
Married with family 158 74 Purchasing 9 4
Married without family 38 18 Accounting/HR/General admin. 16 7
Single 19 9 Sales/Marketing 38 18
Gender Current Overseas Assignment Tenure
Male 215 100 Mean (months) 42.5
Female
ment
the
of
of
posit
partici
301.1
m
func
job
American
The
second
agers
work
revisited
th
them
to
pa
The
partici
ets.
This
st
125
correct
through
th
The
respon
manufactu
Expatriate
Adaptation
with
present
their
93
Japanese
participants were male. In com

that of the Japanese home man
was more diverse in terms of g
Measures
Learning Skills
The Learning Skills Profile was designed to investigate the level of skill development in
the aforementioned 12 learning skills using 72 items, each of which relates to a specific
skill or activity (Boyatzis and Kolb 1991, 1995, 1997). This instrument originates in a
card sort method by which the participants are required to classify the 72 item-cards into
7 categories that are representative of their skill level. The 7 categories are as follows:
l=no skill or experience in this area; 2= now learning this skill or activity; 3= can do
this with some help or supervision; 4= competent performance in this area; 5 = above
average performer in this area; 6= outstanding performer in this area; and finally, 7 = a
leader or creator in this area. Each of the 12 learning skills includes 6 item-cards; thus,
the maximum developmental level of each learning skill is 42, while the minimum is 6. In
order to reduce the complexity of this process and to more easily administer the sampling
method of data collection, this study applied a conventional method rather than the more
complex card-sorting format. This revised method employs paper sheets showing the 72
items with a blank box next to each skill or activity description. Instead of sorting cards,
the participants are required to write an appropriate number ranging from 1 to 7 in the
corresponding blank box in the manner of a 7-point Likert scale.
The 72 items form 12 six-item scales that are in accordance with the 12 learning skills:
Leadership, relationship, helping, sense-making, information gathering, information
analysis, theory building, quantitative analysis, technology, goal setting, action, and initiative. Cronbach's alpha for the sample of this study (N=215) varied from 0.79 to 0.89,
with an average of 0.85. These statistics pertaining to learning skills exceeded the minimum standard of 0.70 suggested by Nunnally (1978).
Learning Skills Demands
In order to examine the levels of the learning skills demands, this study also employed the
Learning Skills Profile of demands (Boyatzis and Kolb 1997). This method of measuring
the demand levels consists of the same 72 items with the following 7 different statements
that can be assigned numbers from 1 to 7: 1 =not relevant to my job; 2=a rarely required
skill or activity; 3=a sometimes required skill or activity; 4=a regularly used skill or
activity; 5 = an important skill or activity; 6 = an essential skill or activity; and finally, 7 = a
top priority activity. The participants were required to write the most appropriate response
in the blank boxes that were provided next to each skill description. Similar to the dimension ascribed to the developmental level of learning skill, the maximum demand of each
learning skill was 42, and the minimum was 6. In this research sample (N=215), Cronbach's alpha remained in the range from 0.74 to 0.90, with an average of 0.82.
94
Y.
Yamazaki
Adaptation:
The
method
ures:
to
Learning
between
the
sco
skills
demands
The
calculation
learning
skills
f
person
obtained
adaptation
of
th
degree
of
adapt
the
subtraction
the
score
of
the
greater
of
the
large
demands.
In
the
the
dif
con
person;
is
after
cate
this
subtractio
over-adapta
The
Learning
Sk
and
Kolb
1995),
assessment
(Boy
learning
theory
al.
1993).
Rainey
the
skills
deman
the
The
skills
results
perceived
Job
and
th
of
skills,
Satisfaction
A
revised
short
(1951)
was
utili
study.
The
instr
ate
overall
job
s
designed
to
be
attitude.
The
sc
et
al.
1957;
Ewe
the
Japanese
ex
needed
be
adjust
attributes.
This
with
"overseas
a
had
to
be
remo
workload
of
ans
job
satisfaction
Expatriate
Adaptation
95
Translation Procedures
In order to avoid misunderstanding the information written in the survey packet and to
reduce the workload of the research participants, all the questionnaires along with the
covering letter and consent document were translated into Japanese according to the
translation techniques for cross-cultural study recommended by Brislin et al. (1973). The
techniques employed in this study involved the comparison of the meanings between
the original and translated versions as well the meanings between the original and backtranslated versions.
Results
Adaptation of Japanese Expatriates

Table 2a summarizes the descriptive statistics and correlations between the current assignment tenure and the adaptation related to job satisfaction. Tables 2b and 2c illustrate the
relationships between the current assignment tenure and the learning skills and between
the current assignment tenure and the learning skills demands, respectively. As shown in
Table 2a, the relation of the current assignment tenure to all the skills was significantly
negative (p<0.01), with the exception of helping skills (p>0.05); further, the association
of the current assignment tenure with job satisfaction was significantly positive (p<0.01).
The negative correlation of adaptation indicates that the values after subtracting the scores
of the learning skills from those of the learning skills demands decreased in proportion
to the assignment tenure length. In other words, it can be stated that the Japanese expatriates increased their adaptation over time by fitting the levels of the 1 1 learning skills
to those of 1 1 learning skills demands. Regarding the helping skills, however, Japanese
expatriates were unable to enhance their adaptation in relation to the assignment tenure
length. Additionally, Table 2b indicates that the correlation between the current assignment tenure and all the learning skills was significantly positive, with the exception of the
information analysis (p<0.10) and technology skills (p>0.10). The results of the learning skills presented in Table 2b suggest that most of the learning skills were developed
over time, with the exception of information analysis and technology skills. Interestingly,
Table 2c indicates that the levels of the learning skills demands were not significantly
associated with the length of current assignment tenure, with the exception of helping
skills. Such results suggest that the levels of most of the skills demands perceived by the
Japanese expatriates were consistent, regardless of their assignment tenures.
Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics of the adaptation of the three groups: The first
with a tenure of less than two years (N= 80), the second with a tenure of two to less than four
years (N=66), and the third with a tenure of four or more years (N=69). The table reports
the results of the ANO VA and the Bonferroni test. Significant differences in the adaptation between the three groups regarding the following nine learning skills were revealed:
Leadership (p<0.01), relationship (p<0.01), sense-making (p<0.05), theory building

(p<0.05), quantitative analysis (p<0.05), technology (p<0.05), goal setting (p<0.01),
action (p<0.05), and initiative (p<0.05). The adaptation of information gathering and
96
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Yamazaki
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98
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Table
3,
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ates
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2a,
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Fig. 2: Adaptability Comparisons between the Three Groups of the Japanese Expatriates
test indicate that there were no significant differences between Japanese home ma
and the first group of the expatriates in terms of all of the twelve learning skills,
ing a marginal difference in technology skills (p<0.10). With regard to the comp
son between Japanese home managers and the second group of expatriates, signi
negative differences were found in the levels of the three learning skills of infor
analysis, goal setting, and initiative between those two groups (p<0.05). These res
suggest that the three learning skills of the second group were more developed tha
of the home managers. Finally, results of the Bonferroni test show the significan
tive differences between the third group and the Japanese home managers in terms
following five learning skills of sense-making, information analysis, goal setting,
and initiative. In addition, there were marginally negative differences in the tw
of leadership and theory building between those two groups (p<0.10). Accordingl
suggested that the former five learning skills of the third group were more develo
the latter three learning skills were slightly more developed than those of the Ja
home managers.
Consequently, this first exploratory study confirmed that expatriates who have
less than two years in a host country are likely to possess developmental levels of
all learning skills that do not differ from those of the home managers. It also conf
100
Y.
Yamazaki
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Adaptation
longer
skills
Comparisons
The
second
their
skills
the
exploratory
spent
wit
Expat
question
counterpart
managers
and
time
comparison
between
American
terpart
their
in
101
skills
in
the
mang
host cou
demands?
Table
Japanese expatriates and their A

Japanese expatriates (N=215) wit
the
ates
independent
with
the
t-test. Table co
American counterp
tests.
As illustrated in Table 5, which is related to all the Japanese expatriates, there were
significant differences in the adaptation of the following five learning skills: Leadership
(p<0.01), helping (p<0.01), theory building (p<0.01), quantitative analysis (p<0.01),

and initiative (p<0.01). However, it should be noted that with regard to sense-making
(p<0.10) and information gathering (p<0.10), the differences were marginal. Results
of the independent t-test indicated that the American counterpart managers were more
fitted to the US subsidiaries of the Japanese MNCs than the Japanese expatriates in a
situation wherein the abovementioned five learning skills are required. In addition, the
Americans were more adaptable to their working environments, which would require the
use of sense-making and information gathering skills. Moreover, Table 5 indicates that
job satisfaction significantly differed between the Japanese and Americans, that is, the
American counterpart managers were more satisfied with their jobs than the Japanese
expatriates as a whole.
The subsequent examination entailed an analysis of all four groups: A group of American counterpart managers and the three groups of Japanese expatriates. Table 6 presents a
summary of the results of the ANO VA and the Bonferroni tests in part; the results suggest
that there were significant differences in the adaptation of most of the learning skills, with
the exception of the information analysis skills, and in job satisfaction. Results of the
Bonferroni test that compared the Americans with each of the three groups indicate that
the first group was less adaptable than the American counterpart managers with regard
to a working environment wherein the following seven learning skills were in demand
(p<0.05): Leadership, relationship, helping, sense-making, theory building, quantitative
analysis, and initiative. In addition, the first group was marginally less adaptable than
the Americans in a situation wherein information analysis skills were required (p<0.10).
The second group was relatively less adaptable in comparison with the Americans due to
a lack of adaptation with respect to the following three learning skills (p<0.05): Leadership, helping, and quantitative analysis. On the whole, the third group demonstrated
nearly the same level of adaptation as the American counterpart managers. However,
there was a marginal difference in the adaptation related to quantitative analysis skills
(p<0.10). With regard to job satisfaction, the results of the Bonferroni test indicate that
the first and second groups had significantly lower levels of job satisfaction than the
102
Y.
Yamazaki
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Expatriate
Adaptation
103
American counterpart managers

group was not different f
third
of
the
second
comparatively
spent
more
exploratory
less
than
study
adaptable
four
years
than
cont
strate levels of adaptation that a

host subsidiaries. Similarly, exp
country are likely to have the s
managers
in
the
host
country.
Discussion
This study concentrated on expatriate adaptation from behavioral and emotional aspects.
With regard to the behavioral aspect, it largely confirmed a significant positive relationship between the overseas assignment tenure of expatriates and the degree of their adapta-
tion, emphasizing on the analysis of fit between the levels of the learning skills and those
of the learning skills demands. Further, with regard to the emotional aspect, it substanti-
ated a significant association between the assignment tenure and job satisfaction. The
result pertaining to job satisfaction is congruent with that of a study about the relationship between expatriates' work adjustments and the length of their tenure conducted by
Takeuchi et al. (2005). Based on the results of the present study, it can be concluded that
according to the current overseas assignment tenure, expatriates will increase their degree
of adaptation in terms of a behavioral aspect to the host working environment demanding
the following nine learning skills: Leadership, relationship, sense-making, theory building, quantitative analysis, technology, goal setting, action, and initiative. Moreover, expa-
triates will become more satisfied with their jobs in the host country as the assignment
tenure increases.
This study appears to make an important contribution to the development of literature

pertaining to expatriate management in the following two areas: (1) a behavioral aspect
of expatriate adaptation and (2) the methodology used in this study. First, as discussed in
the introduction, much of the research relating to expatriate adjustment has focused on
the emotional aspects. Under this premise, it becomes crucial to investigate a behavioral
as well as a cognitive aspect. By doing so, we are able to understand expatriate adaptation in a more comprehensive manner. Accordingly, this study provided an insightful and
broad perspective toward a behavioral aspect of expatriate adaption and to some extent
paved the way for future research in this area. Second, study on expatriate management
has often suffered from theoretical and methodological limitations (Dlier 1997; Dinges
and Baldwin 1996). This study demonstrated a proper and effective method to assess
the degree of expatriate adaptation represented by a fit between the skills and the skills
demands by using the Learning Skills Profile and that of demands. A future study on
expatriate adaptation could focus on a cognitive aspect with sound conceptualization and
adequate operationalization.
The approach used for this study, particularly in terms of expatriate skill-development, could benefit the domain of international management concerning expatriate career
104
Y.
Yamazaki
development
wit
have
suggested
t
ments
and
skilloverseas
assignm
and
developmen
expatriates
need
assignments
for
the
sociopsychol
development
orie
ful
concept
to
d
adaptation
by
usi
ising
study
appea
tional
contexts,
(
the
host
environ
international
car
Guidelines
and
r
strategy
of
the
M
that
longer
assig
and
identifying
shorter
assignme
time
This
to
develop
study
provi
ate
adaptation.
T
of
Japanese
expa
similar
to
that
of
these
Japanese
e
a
manner
as
to
b
performance
dep
the
host
country
as
technological
e
expect
a
superior
expatriates
to
sta
able
to
improve
t
ers.
This
view
ap
years,
in
terms
tenure
(Tung
198
With
regard
to
adaptation
is
at
le
lowing
question
a
if
yes,
then
in
w
porations
that
em
ily
on
an
expatri
such
as
two
to
t
to
adapt
consider
training
will
ma
Expatriate
Adaptation
105
addition,
the above question rela

such as Japanese MNCs that are
foreign operations (see Chung e
developmental levels of most of
two years in the host country w
managers. In addition, the devel
and those of three learning skill
of the home managers. These fin
method for training their expat
particular learning skills prior to
to
send
adapted
many
to
expatriates
the
host
abroad
country
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Expatriate Adaptation: A Fit between Skills and Demands among Japanese Expatriates in

Manag Int Rev (2010) 50:81-108

A Fit between Skills and Demands among

Keywords: Expatriate adaptation Experiential learning theory Learning skills

Received: 25.08.2007 / Revised: 29.08.2008 / Accepted: 10.12.2008 / Published online: 16.01.2010

Assoe. Prof. Y. Yamazaki (EI)

a foreign culture. Kim (1988, 1

Among the three dimensions of adaptation, the behavioral aspect of cross-cultural

A Learning and Skill Approach

Experiential Learning Theory and Learning Skills

emphasizes the main function

are acquired and developed throu

notion is therefore congruent w

The taxonomy of learning skills

sonal skills, namely, leadership, r

Rainey et al. 1993). Figure 1 illus

described earlier, learning ref

1 '/ Skills Area y/ %

, , /rT,^,^ ^V*^**^>1^ _---- ""^ Theory

Quantitative analysis (QA)

discussed previously, the b

skills. The length of time

experiential learning theory, l

1991), which are essential for t

these skills. Theref

Hypothesis 1: Expatriates will

An emotional change in the ho

ent perspective. The purpose of

current assignment tenure are

home country prior to their o

Exploratory Question 1: To what extent do expatriates differ from domestic managers in

should be considered as an adaptation level that should be reached by expatriates. The

multinational corporations (Aycan 1997). Under these circumstances, it is important to

the author finally visited

Japanese Home Managers

received permission from a world-class Japanese manufacturing company to conduct

Type of Industry Age

Suburb 112 52 English Conversation Skills

Overseas Study Job Functions

Experience 9 4 Managing an entire firm 21 10

participants were male. In com

Adaptation of Japanese Expatriates

Leadership (p<0.01), relationship (p<0.01), sense-making (p<0.05), theory building

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