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Article history:
Received 30 March 2015
Received in revised form 13 May 2015
Accepted 19 May 2015
Available online 26 July 2015
Keywords:
Non-edible oil
Bio-based surfactant
Zwitterionic surfactant
Enhanced oil recovery
Oil spill disposal processing
a b s t r a c t
Bio-based surfactants have attracted increasing attention due to their renewable resources and excellent
surface properties. Novel zwitterionic surfactant derived from castor oil was prepared using a facile
and high-yield route and its performance for oil recovery was also evaluated. The surface tension of the
surfactant solution reached 30.7 mN/m at its critical micelle concentration value of 7.08 106 mol/L. The
interfacial tension between crude oil and water could be reduced to ultra-low value as 5.4 103 mN/m
at a low dosage of 0.010 g/L in aqueous solution with the absence of any extra alkali. When used as
dispersant, the dispersion effectiveness of crude oil was 64.69%. Meanwhile, the bio-based surfactant
demonstrated strong electrolyte tolerance, temperature resistance and thermostability, better wetting
and foaming performance, which implied bio-based surfactants had great potential to replace traditional
petroleum-based surfactants in petroleum industries, in particular, in enhanced oil recovery and oil spill
disposal processing.
2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bzmu@ecust.edu.cn (B.-Z. Mu).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2015.05.060
0927-7757/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
88
Q.-Q. Zhang et al. / Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 483 (2015) 8795
1
2.303RT
SFT
lgC
(1)
T
1016
(2)
Q.-Q. Zhang et al. / Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 483 (2015) 8795
89
The castor oil was hydrolyzed and its acid values before and
after the hydrolysis process were 1.39 mg KOH/g and 183.32 mg
KOH/g, respectively, which yielded a hydrolysis efciency of
98.4%. Consequently, ve major constitutes of fatty acids including
palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid and ricinoleic
acid from castor oil were determined using GCMS chromatography as listed in Table 1. The fatty acids were used as starting
materials to produce the castor-based N-phenylfattyamidopropylN,N-dimethylcarboxyl betaine (CPDB), as shown in Fig. 1, and a
yield of 78.5% was obtained. The synthesis method was modied
from our previous reported method [15], avoiding the traditional
harsh condition as high temperature or high pressure [22,23].
The chromatograms of ESI HRMS and 1 H NMR were shown in
Supplementary Materials. The molecular weight of the CPDB was
determined by ESI-MS and the ionization way of ESI-MS was positive ion mode with Na+ . The mass-to-charge ratios (m/z) of main
peaks were 421.3421, 449.3716, 523.3867 and 525.4054, respectively, which indicated the surfactants derived from palmitic acid,
stearic acid, linoleic/ricinoleic acid and oleic acid. The molecular
weight of CPDB was 497.01 g/mol. The exact mass of them with Na+
were calculated as 421.3406, 449.3719, 523.3875 and 525.4134,
respectively. From the results of ESI-MS, the ultimate product of
ricinoleic acid predominated in the nal mixture (as shown in
Fig. 1). Ricinoleic acid ((9Z,12R)-12-hydroxy-9-octadecenoic acid)
contains a double bond and a hydroxyl group. In the alkylation
reaction, the hydroxyl group reacted with AlCl3 prior to the double
bond, generating a structure with a double bond and a phenyl. Due
to the nearness of double bond and phenyl, the steric hindrance
of the phenyl prevented the addition reaction of the double bond.
The product of ricinoleic acid had a long carbon chain with a
double bond and a phenyl (see Supplementary Materials). The
product of linoleic acid had similar structure as that of ricinoleic
acid. In the alkylation reaction, one double bond reacted with
AlCl3 , generating an active carbenium ion, then the carbenium ion
reacted with benzene. The activity of carbenium ion would cause
the rearrangement of carbon chain, a conjugated structure of the
other double bond and the phenyl have got according to several
repeated experiment results (see Supplementary Materials).
Due to the activity and instability of hydroxyl group and double
bond in fatty acids, adding or substituting a phenyl group could
increase the stability of the nal surfactants in high temperature
environment, like oil reservoir. On the other hand, the interaction
of surfactants with a phenyl group could be enhanced and the
arrangement of surfactants could be more compact, due to the
stacking interaction between phenyl groups [24,25].
=
(C0 C)V
m
(3)
90
Q.-Q. Zhang et al. / Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 483 (2015) 8795
Table 1
The main fatty acid compositions (wt%) of castor oil.
Plant oil
Palmitic acid
C16:0
Stearic acid
C18:0
Oleic acid
C18:1
Linoleic acid
C18:2
Ricinoleic acid
C18:1( OH)
Castor Oil
1.50
1.71
4.81
5.81
86.08
Fig. 1. The synthetic route of novel zwitterionic surfactants derived from castor oil.
Q.-Q. Zhang et al. / Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 483 (2015) 8795
91
Table 2
Surface properties, contact angle and foaming property of CPDB.
Oil resource
CMC (mol/L)
SFTCMC (mN/m)
SFTmin (mN/m)
CMC (mol/m2 )
average
After 10 min
Castor oil
7.08 106
30.7
27.6
3.80
0.44
38.79
62
58
Fig. 2. The surface tensions vs. the concentration of CPDB at 25.0 C. The error bars
represent standard deviations of the mean for triplicate measurements.
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Q.-Q. Zhang et al. / Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 483 (2015) 8795
Fig. 3. The interfacial properties of CPDB. (a) Dynamic interfacial tensions between Daqing crude oil and different concentrations CPDB solutions in simulated formation
water at 50.0 C. (b) Dynamic interfacial tensions between Daqing crude oil and 0.010 g/L CPDB solutions in four simulated formation water and sea water at 50.0 C. (c)
Dynamic interfacial tensions between Daqing crude oil and 0.010 g/L CPDB solutions with adding different concentration of extra Ca2+ at 50.0 C. (d) Dynamic interfacial
tensions between Daqing crude oil and 0.010 g/L CPDB solutions with adding different concentration of extra NaCl at 50.0 C. (e) The effect of pH on dynamic interfacial
tensions between Daqing crude oil and 0.010 g/L CPDB solutions at 50.0 C.
Table 3
The concentrations of main ions in formation water of different oil elds.
Oil eld
Shengli
Xinjiang
Huabei
Daqing
pH
7.78
8.13
8.20
8.29
Cl
SO4 2
HCO3
CH3 COO
Na+
K+
Ca2+
Mg2+
10,039
12,223
3663
5318
3850
5336
819
1068
2244
125
32
12
264
2039
1597
2307
32
344
58
216
3313
4196
1064
1665
94
35
22
0
196
103
53
41
46
45
18
0.45
Q.-Q. Zhang et al. / Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 483 (2015) 8795
93
Table 4
The interfacial stability of CPDB at different temperatures.
Temperature
50 C
50 C
50 C
50 C
50 C
50 C
20 C
20 C
20 C
20 C
4 C
4 C
4 C
4 C
Storage days
IFTmin (mN/m)
0 day
20 days
40 days
60 days
80 days
100 days
0 day
1 days
7 days
14 days
0 day
1 days
7 days
14 days
0.0023
0.0024
0.0028
0.0028
0.0029
0.0031
0.0023
0.0025
0.0024
0.0026
0.0023
0.0024
0.0024
0.0025
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4. Conclusion
Large amount oil had been released into the sea in oil spills in
reported accidents, which occurred frequently in the process of
petroleum exploitation, transportation and consumption around
the world, and leaded to devastating damage to the marine environment. Using chemical dispersants is an efcient mean to reduce
the adverse environmental impact of spilled oil. Dispersants are
added to reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water and
cause the oil slick to form small size water-soluble micelles, which
can be rapidly diluted and spread in a large volume of water [47,48].
Dispersants could accelerate the degradation of the spilled oil by
natural processes and eliminate or signicantly reduce the impact
on sensitive shorelines and habitats [49].
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