Weld Discontinuities PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Identifying Weld Discontinuities
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Welding
File Reference: COE11404
For additional information on this subject, contact

A.A. Omar on 874-6127
Welding
Contents
Pages
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
DETERMINE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND
DEFECTS ............................................................................................................................ 2
Weld Quality ............................................................................................................. 2
Acceptance Criteria ................................................................................................... 2
Type of Weld Discontinuities..................................................................................... 3
Dimensional................................................................................................... 3
Structural....................................................................................................... 3
Property Related............................................................................................ 3
Causes of Weld Discontinuities.................................................................................. 8
Fabrication Induced Discontinuities................................................................ 8
Construction Induced Discontinuities ............................................................. 9
Nonrelevant Indications ................................................................................10
MODES OF IN-SERVICE FAILURE OF DEFECTIVE WELD JOINTS ...........................11
Overload Failures .....................................................................................................11
Fatigue Failures ........................................................................................................12
Delayed Hydrogen Cracking.....................................................................................12
Corrosion Failure .....................................................................................................13
Incorrect Repairs......................................................................................................13
IDENTIFY NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT WELD
DISCONTINUITIES...........................................................................................................15
Visual Inspection......................................................................................................15
Visual Acuity ................................................................................................16
Distance........................................................................................................16
Access ..........................................................................................................16
Lighting ........................................................................................................16
Common Applications...................................................................................16
Liquid Penetrant.......................................................................................................17
Magnetic Particle......................................................................................................18
Welding
Indirect Method ............................................................................................19

Direct Method ..............................................................................................19
Ultrasonic.................................................................................................................20
Transducer....................................................................................................22
Couplant.......................................................................................................22
Pulse Generator ............................................................................................22
CRT Display.................................................................................................22
"A" Scan.......................................................................................................22
"B" Scan.......................................................................................................23
"C" Scan.......................................................................................................23
Radiographic ............................................................................................................24
Time .............................................................................................................25
Distance........................................................................................................25
Shielding.......................................................................................................25
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................29
WORK AIDS ......................................................................................................................31
WORK AID 1. HOW TO DETERMINE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD
DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS ................................................................................31
Work Aid 1A. Weld Acceptance Criteria ..................................................................31
Work Aid 1B. Type of Weld Discontinuities.............................................................33
Work Aid 1C. Causes of Weld Discontinuities..........................................................35
WORK AID 2. HOW TO DETERMINE MODES OF IN-SERVICE FAILURE OF
DEFECTIVE WELD JOINTS .............................................................................................37
WORK AID 3. HOW TO DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE NONDESTRUCTIVE
TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT WELD DISCONTINUITIES .........................38
Work Aid 3A. How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Visual Weld
Examinations (VT) ...................................................................................................38
Work Aid 3B. How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Liquid
Penetrant Tests.........................................................................................................39
Work Aid 3C. How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Magnetic
Particle Testing ........................................................................................................39
Welding
Work Aid 3D. How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Ultrasonic

Testing .....................................................................................................................40
Work Aid 3E. How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Radiographic
Testing .....................................................................................................................41
Table of Figures
Pages
Figure 1.Examples of Dimensional Discontinuities ..................................................... 4

Figure 2. Cracks in Welds......................................................................................... 5
Figure 3. Slag Inclusions........................................................................................... 5
Figure 4. Lack of Fusion........................................................................................... 6
Figure 5. Incomplete Root Penetration ..................................................................... 6
Figure 6. Weld Undercut .......................................................................................... 6
Figure 7. Cold Lap ................................................................................................... 7
Figure 8. Root Concavity ......................................................................................... 7
Figure 9. Arc Strike.................................................................................................. 7
Figure 10. Weld Porosity.......................................................................................... 8
Figure 11. Principles of PT ......................................................................................17
Figure 12. Principles of MT.....................................................................................19
Figure 13. Principles of UT......................................................................................21
Figure 14. Principles of RT......................................................................................24
Figure 15. Radiographic Techniques........................................................................27
Table 1. Allowable Weld Reinforcement ...................................................................31
Table 2. Types of Weld Discontinuities and Their Indications ..................................33
Table 3. Causes of Weld Discontinuities and Their Indications..................................35
Table 4. Modes of In-service Failure and their Common Occurrences/Indications .....37
Welding
INTRODUCTION
This Module contains information on the discontinuities and defects that are commonly found in
welds. It also covers the primary causes of weld discontinuities and their affect upon weld joint inservice reliability. It also covers the modes of failure in addition to the nondestructive testing
methods that can be used to detect weld discontinuities. The emphasis of the content is placed on
the location of discontinuities that are within a weld and the nondestructive testing method is best
suited to detect a given discontinuity.
The material is presented in the following sections:
Determining the Difference Between Weld Discontinuities and Defects
Determining the Cause of Discontinuities and Their Mode of In-Service Failure
Identifying Nondestructive Testing Methods Used to Detect Weld Discontinuities
In order to communicate clearly, the following definitions used in welding inspection are given for
this module:
A weld defect is an unacceptable discontinuity in weld joint properties, such as,
physical, mechanical, or metallurgical properties.
A discontinuity is an interruption in the continuity of any of the weld properties.
A weld discontinuity is considered a defect when its size and/or quantity exceed
acceptance limits imposed by the applicable standard, code, or project specification.
A weld discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.
Welding
DETERMINE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND

DEFECTS
This section of the Module provides background information on weld discontinuities and defects.
This section includes the following topics that are pertinent to the discussion:
Weld Quality
Acceptance Criteria
Type of Weld Discontinuities
Causes of Weld Discontinuities
Weld Quality
Weld quality is defined as the level of perfection that a weld exhibits. Weld quality pertains to the
entire volume of weld metal that is in a weldment as well as to the surface appearance of a
weldment. Because most welding operations are manually performed by welders, weldment
imperfections are not uncommon; however, because engineers can evaluate the service of a
weldment and relate the intended service to a specific level of weld quality, weldment
imperfections are not necessarily a problem.
Certain products, components, systems, and facilities require a higher level of weld quality than
do others. The reason for this increased level of weld quality is the inherent danger of the
products, components, systems, or facilities that are manufactured or constructed by welding.
Historical data and experience have taught design engineers that certain facilities and components,
such as nuclear power plants and high pressure storage vessels, can be extremely dangerous if not
properly constructed. The level of weld quality that is required for nuclear power plants and
high pressure storage vessels is higher than the level of weld quality that is required for
atmospheric storage tanks that present fewer safety risks. Construction standards that identify the
minimum level of weld quality for the components and systems that are fabricated at Saudi
Aramco were discussed in COE 114.02.
Acceptance Criteria
In order to be acceptable, weld imperfections/discontinuities must meet the criteria that are listed
in the applicable construction standards, such as API 1104 and AWS D1. The term "acceptance
criteria" is used by construction standards to define the required level of weld quality. Typically,
the weld acceptance criteria that are presented in construction standards are a list of the maximum
allowable weld imperfections. These imperfections can refer to the size (length, width, diameter)
of the weld imperfection or to the quantity of the weld imperfections. When the quantity of the
weld imperfections is the acceptance criteria, the allowable quantity is usually specified per unit
length of weld.
Welding

The types of welding discontinuities are as follows:
Dimensional
Structural
Property related (chemical, mechanical, or metallurgical)
Dimensional
Dimensional discontinuities refer to interruptions in continuity of the weld size, shape, and
finished dimensions. Incorrect weld size and profile, along with weld distortion are the most
pronounced dimensional discontinuities that if left uncorrected can lead to in-service failure by
fatigue or overload (see Figure 1).
Structural
Structural discontinuities are discontinuities that develop within the weld during welding. They
include slag inclusion, porosity, cracks, incomplete fusion, inadequate joint preparation and
undercuts (see Figure 2 through 10).
Depending upon their type and extent, a single or combination of these discontinuities can lead to
an in-service pipeline leak or rupture, causing an environmental and personal disaster.
Property Related
The most pronounced of these discontinuities are those related to welding consumables and base
metal properties. Use of incorrect chemistry and/or mechanical properties of filler metals and
fluxes often leads to premature in-service failure of pipeline welds. Such failures are due to weld
metal cracking, high hardness, and using metals susceptible to corrosion.
Not all weld discontinuities are caused by improper welding conditions or welding consumables.
Base metal properties that do not meet the prescribed requirements of chemical composition,
metallurgical structure, mechanical properties and surface conditions, can also result in
unacceptable weld discontinuities that lead failure either during fabrication or in-service. Color
Plates 1 and 2 are examples of the following, respectively:
a.
A defective 904L stainless steel weld neck flange forging that resulted in hot tears
9cracks) in the heat-affected -zone (HAZ) during welding
b. A severely laminated carbon steel plate material that resulted in in-service failure of a
longitudinal filled weld of a pipeline repair sleeve and lamellar tearing of the sleeve shell.
Note:
For color plate pictures refer to the separate Color Plate Booklet.
Welding
Figure 1.Examples of Dimensional Discontinuities

Figure 2 shows cracks in welds. Cracks in welds are unacceptable discontinuities. They are
either longitudinal (aligned with the weld bead) or transverse (perpendicular to the weld bead).
Cracks can be either surface cracks or subsurface cracks, and they generally occur in a weld due
to stresses that are developed during the welding process.
Welding
Figure 2. Cracks in Welds

Figure 3 shows slag inclusions. Slag inclusions are located within a weld and occur when
impurities or flux contaminate a weld. Slag inclusions are the result of improper interpass
cleaning.
Figure 3. Slag Inclusions

Figure 4 shows lack of fusion. Lack of fusion is generally located at the weld metal and base
metal interface, and it occurs when the molten weld metal does not fuse completely with an
adjacent weld bead or with the base material. Lack of fusion is generally the result of inadequate
heat or excessive travel speed.
Welding
Figure 4. Lack of Fusion

Figure 5 shows incomplete root penetration. Incomplete root penetration occurs when the weld
metal does not completely penetrate into the root area and consume both of the base materials.
Incomplete root penetration is generally the result of inadequate heat or excessive travel speed.
Figure 5. Incomplete Root Penetration

Figure 6 shows weld undercut. A weld undercut is a groove that is melted into the toe or root of
a weld and that is left unfilled by the weld metal. Undercut results in a depression on the surface
of the base metal at the point at which the weld metal contacts the base metal. Undercut is
generally the result of excessive heat and travel speed.
Figure 6. Weld Undercut

Figure 7 shows cold lap. Cold lap occurs when the weld metal freezes too quickly and does not
fuse with the surface of the base metal. Cold lap typically is found on the cover pass at the toe of
the weld. Cold lap is generally the result of inadequate heat and excessive travel speed.
Welding
Figure 7. Cold Lap

Figure 8 shows root concavity. Root concavity occurs in weld joints that are welded from one
side only, an example of which would be pipe. Root concavity results from excessive heat, too
wide of a root opening, or insufficient deposited weld metal.
Figure 8. Root Concavity

Figure 9 shows an arc strike. Arc strikes are caused by dragging the electrode over the surface of
the base metal in an effort to initiate an arc for welding.
Figure 9. Arc Strike

Figure 10 shows weld porosity. Weld porosity is caused by inadequate flux or shielding gas
coverage, which allows oxygen to contaminate the molten weld metal prior to solidification.
Porosity can be located on the weld surface, but it is typically located within the weld. Moisture
or other contaminants (e.g., oil, penetrant, temperature-indicating crayon residue) on the base
metal can also vaporize during welding and result in gas bubbles that are trapped in the weld
metal.
Welding
Figure 10. Weld Porosity

There are two causes of weld discontinuities as follows:
Fabrication induced
Construction induced
Fabrication Induced Discontinuities
Fabrication as used in this module refers to steel mill fabricated welds such as pipe seam welds. It
also refers to shop and field fabricated welds such as girth and seam welds of pipe, pipeline,
pressure vessels, tanks, etc.
The primary factors that result in weld discontinuities during fabrication are poor workmanship
and the use of incorrect welding parameters and procedures
Poor Workmanship. A high percentage of weld defects can be attributed to poor workmanship
during both shop fabrication and field construction. This includes poor joint fit-up, inadequate
joint support, misalignment, arc strikes, and lack of joint cleaning.
Color Plate 3 is an example of misaligned internal seam weld of a steel mill fabricated SAW
API5L grade X52 pipe of a forty year old crude oil pipeline. This discontinuity resulted in
repeated failures both in-service and during revalidation pressure testing.
Color Plate 4 is an example of incorrectly fitted and welded branch connection of API 5L grade
X60 pipeline that failed in -service. The branch pipe sticker was fitted and welded after the
reinforcing pad was installed and welded to the header pipe. This practice is incorrect. The
sticker must be welded to the header pipe and pressure tested prior to installing and welding the
reinforcing pad.
Welding
Use of Incorrect Welding Parameters or Procedures. All fabrication and construction codes
and standards require welding to be performed by qualified welders utilizing qualified welding
procedures. As was discussed in COE 114.02, a welding procedure is a document that specifies
the parameters that will be used for the fabrication of weld joints of a specified material or
different material grades. These include material type and grade, joint design, welding processes,
welding consumables, preheat and method of application, interpass temperature, welding current
and arc voltage ranges, welding position, direction of the weld progression, welding speed and
post weld heat treatment (PWHT). Incorrect changes or non-compliance of any one of these
parameters can result in defective welds that may fail in-service prematurely.
In addition to poor workmanship, weld defects that often lead to in-service failure can be
attributed to the following parameters:
High chemistry base metal such as pipe fittings
Inadequate or no preheat
Color Plate 5 through 7 are typical examples of in-service failures of pipeline weld joints caused
by use of the above described parameters.
Construction Induced Discontinuities
The term construction in this module refers to field work involving linings, fit-up, clamping and
support of the weld joints. It also includes lifting the line while the pipeline is being built. The
most pronounced types of construction induced discontinuities are as follows:
Root bead crack
Lack of fusion
Incomplete penetration
Displacement of the internally deposited root bead

These types of discontinuities are frequently found in pipeline girth welds that are welded by
automatic welding systems because of the following reasons:
Quick retrieval of the internal line up clamp and welding head while the hot and fill
passes are being deposited by the outside welding head.
Lifting the free end of the pipe for lining and fitting-up the next joint while the
previous joint is being welded.
Misalignment of the welding wire with the joint
Poor joint design
Poor end preparation

For manual welding, the most critical type of construction induced pipeline weld defect is
cracking of the root bead. This is often caused by one of the following:
Welding
Inadequate joint support
High restraint causing stress
Removing the joint support immediately after completion of the root pass. This is
especially true with the fitting-to pipe weld joints that are supported by slings held by
either fork lifts or side booms.
Color Plate 8 shows typical examples of these defects; a combination of weld discontinuities of
(a) displaced internal root bead, (b) lack of side wall fusion (LSF), and incomplete penetration
indicate by the arrows
Nonrelevant Indications
Nonrelevant indications are indications that are revealed by nondestructive testing but that are
not caused by actual weld discontinuities. The majority of nonrelevant indications are directly
related either to the improper use of a nondestructive testing method or to the examiner's ability
to properly perform the nondestructive testing method. Examples of typical nonrelevant
indications include the following:
Scratches or water spots on radiographic film.
Sharp lines on radiographic film due to severe changes in the section thickness of the
material that was radiographed.
Liquid penetrant indications that result from the inability to adequately remove all of
the surface penetrant.
Flow lines and magnetic writing indications that are revealed by magnetic particle
examination.
UT reflections that are due to the interface of mating parts rather than due to a
discontinuity.
Based on the method of NDT, the configuration of the component that is being examined, and the
appearance of the indication, such indications can be determined by the NDT technician to be
nonrelevant.
10
Welding
MODES OF IN-SERVICE FAILURE OF DEFECTIVE WELD JOINTS

In-service failures of defective welds can occur in one or more of the following modes:
Overload failure
Fatigue failure
Delayed Hydrogen cracking
Corrosion failure
Incorrect repair
These modes are briefly discussed and illustrated in the following case histories.
Overload Failures
Failures of defective pipeline welds can occur in joints containing cracks, incomplete penetration,
and poor fit-up, if these joints are exposed to high pressure.
Case History #1
An overload failure occurred in a 10 by w.t. API 5L grade X60 crude oil flowline. There
was a catastrophic failure when the pressure increased to well shut-in pressure following a sudden
shut-down of the gas and oil separation plant (GOSP). The failure occurred in one of the pipe
joints that contained several Hook type cracks in the ERW seam weld (see Color Plate 9). As
a result, the four kilometer long flowline fractured into seven pieces that were scattered over a
one square kilometer area (see Color Plate 10).
Case History #2
This incident concerns an overload failure of SCECOs 115KV transmission line monopoles in
1982. A severe wind storm, reportedly in excess of 70 mph, struck the Eastern Province of Saudi
Arabia during the night of October 28, 1982. As a result, several of SCECOs 115 KV
transmission line monopoles collapsed and broke into many pieces. Many others were badly
damaged as the top portions snapped off of the main pole. This incident happened west of
Juaymah and Ras Tanura.
Metallographic examination revealed that the monopoles failed by overload. The failure was
initiated along defective seam welds. Incomplete weld penetration and high-low conditions of the
abutting edges of the formed monopole resulted in reduced wall thickness and severe notch along
the seam welds. The resulting wall thickness could not sustain the force and bending moments
that occurred during the wind storm. Wall thickness along the seam welds was 30% less than the
nominal plate thickness. Color Plate 11 (a & b) show a typical failure of the monopoles and the
improper fit-up resulting in sharp notches.
11
Welding
Fatigue Failures
Fatigue failures of pipeline welds are common in joints containing stress risers and that are
exposed to cyclic loading and reverse bending. Such conditions often lead to the initiation of
growth of fatigue cracks that result in a leak or a rupture of the weld joint.
Case History #3
In this case, a 36by w.t. API 5L grade X60 offshore crude oil pipeline lost some of its weight
coating due to mechanical damage. The line was located in relatively shallow waters on soft
sandy bed with strong tidal waves where vortex shedding is a problem. Loss of the concrete
weight coating allowed the affected section of the line to float. This section was exposed to
repeated flexing (reverse bending) and failed by fatigue at two of its girth weld joints. The girth
welds were seven pipe joints apart. Both welds contained severe stress risers caused by a
combination of poor joint fit-up (high-low), incomplete weld penetration, and lack of side wall
fusion of the root bead. Color Plate 12 shows (a) fractured girth weld, (b) fractured surface, and
( c ) metallographic weld cross-section.
Case History #4
Another example of in-service fatigue failure that is encountered quite frequently is that of socket
welds and branch connections that are exposed to vibration such as compressor or pump piping.
Failures often occur at the toe of the socket weld on the pipe side. The welds did not blend
smoothly with the surface of the pipe which resulted in a sharp notch as shown in Color
Plate 13 a & b. the joint experienced cyclic bending. These failures can be prevented by
fabricating weld that blends smoothly with the surface of the pipe with concave and a longer leg
size on the pipe-side. In addition, the joint should be stiffened by two plane gusseting which is
shown in Figure c
Delayed Hydrogen Cracking
Delayed hydrogen cracking is one of the primary modes of pipeline weld joint failures. For this
failure to occur, the following three conditions must be present:
Susceptible hard microstructure
Hydrogen
Stress
12
Welding
Hard microstructure occurs in high chemistry (high carbon equivalent (CE)) carbon steel materials
that are welded with or without inadequate preheat. The resulting hard microstructure is
susceptible to cracking y atomic hydrogen. Atomic hydrogen is generated from different sources
during welding. These sources include welding coonsumables such as electrode coatings, welding
fluxes and gases, and moisture and hydrocarbon contaminants on the steel surface. Both weld
metal and the HAZ of the weld joint can be embrittled by atomic hydrogen which diffuses into the
molten metal and the HAZ during welding. (Refer to Color Plate 5 and 7 which showed
examples of delayed hydrogen cracking
Corrosion Failure
Although not very common, defective pipeline seam and girth welds can fail in the environment by
internal or external corrosion. Crevice pitting and galvanic corrosion are frequently encountered
in welds due to incomplete penetration, porosity, slag inclusion, incorrect chemical composition
of the weld metal and susceptible weld metal and HAZ microstructure. Such failures are often
experienced by welds in corrosive raw or sea water service or environments.
Case History #5
Several case histories of internal and external corrosion of pipelines seam and girth welds were
experienced by many oil and gas companies, including Saudi Aramco. The most susceptible seam
welds are those of the non-normalized ERW pipe. Color Plate 14 (a) is an example of in-service
failure of girt weld metal corrosion of high alloy austenitic stainless steel piping (Avesta 254SMO
piping) in sea water service. A combination of incorrect weld metal composition and crevice
corrosion was determined to be the cause of this failure.
Case History #6
Color Plate 14 (b) is another example of girth weld and HAZ corrosion failure of an API 5L
grade X60 pipeline in water injection service. The failure was caused by poor FBE internal
coating of the girth weld which contained significant amounts of porosity and slag inclusions.
Incorrect Repairs
In-situ weld repairs are generally more difficult to perform and control than those performed in
the shop. This is especially true when the repairs are made on pipelines where joint access is
limited and where dissimilar metals are involved.
13
Welding
Case History #7
A case history involving such a failure is shown in Color Plate 15. A 904L austenitic stainless
steel weld-o-let of a 1 drain line on a 16 API 5L grade X60 trunkline was ground out and
rewelded using nickel-based (Inco 182) electrode. The weld-o-let to pipe weld joint was ground
out on the assumption that it was originally welded with carbon steel electrode. The line is in high
pressure wet sour gas service. The rewelded joint failed after two months in-service by hydrogen
sulfide stress cracking. Metallographic examination of the failed joint revealed a very hard
structure (30_40HRC at the weld interface with the trunkline O.D. surface. The examination also
revealed that the joint was initially welded with E-309 austenitic stainless steel electrode at the
ground area was rebuilt with E-7018 electrode prior to rewelding it with the Inco 182 electrode.
The mixing of the carbon steel with the stainless steel weld metal resulted in formation of hard
weld metal structure that is very susceptible to sulfide stress cracking. The correct repair should
have been made by either of the following two methods:
1. Cutting the pipe section containing the subject joint and installing a new insert pipe
pup piece with a shop fabricated drain joint, or
2. Grinding at least 1/8 deep zone in the header pipe to remove all traces of the
austenitic stainless steel prior to rebuilding the affected area with E-7018 weld metal.
14
Welding
IDENTIFY NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT WELD

DISCONTINUITIES
This section contains a description of the nondestructive testing (NDT) methods that are used to
detect weld discontinuities at Saudi Aramco. The information provides an overview of the
nondestructive testing methods, and it includes a description of the basic principles and common
applications of each of the following methods:
Visual inspection
Liquid penetrant
Magnetic particle
Ultrasonic
Radiographic
Visual Inspection
The purpose of visual inspection is to detect surface discontinuities on weldments that are visible
to the human eye. A visual inspection is the quickest and most cost-effective method of NDT that
can be used to identify a surface discontinuity on a weld. Due to the complexity of the
information that is involved, mastery of visual inspection methods and the ability to accurately
interpret results requires extensive training.
The visual inspection is the most frequently used method of examination, and welders and welding
inspectors continuously use visual inspections during welding operations to improve the quality of
welds. Visual inspections often will identify problems during welding that can be repaired "in
process" to prevent the discovery of a discontinuity by a subsequent nondestructive test.
Inspection aids sometimes are used to facilitate visual inspections. The following are examples of
commonly used visual inspection aids:
Mirrors
Portable lighting
Flashlights
Light meters
Straight edges and rulers
Magnifying lenses
Borescopes
Microscopes
Video cameras
15
Welding
Weld gages
The tool that is used to perform visual inspections is the human eye. The following are the
requirements to perform a visual inspection:
Visual acuity
Distance
Access
Lighting
Visual Acuity
Personnel who perform visual inspections must pass an annual eye examination in accordance
with industry standards. The eye examination checks for conditions such as visual acuity, color
blindness, and depth perception.
Distance
To conduct a visual inspection, the examiner's eye should be located within 24 inches and at an
angle of not less than 30 degrees to the surface of the weld that is being examined. Mirrors can
be used to improve the angle of vision.
Access
If the area to be examined is not directly accessible, an examination aid can be used.
Lighting
A flashlight or other additional lighting should be used to sufficiently illuminate the area that is to
be inspected. A minimum of 35 foot candles of light should be available for normal visual
inspections. When visual inspections for small indications are being performed, a minimum of 50
foot candles of light should be available. If required by a procedure, a light meter can be used to
determine the exact amount of illumination that is available.
Common Applications
Common applications for visual inspection include the following:
To determine the size and length of fillet welds on structural members.
To inspect the weld joint fit-up, including the bevel angle, the root opening, the land,
and the cleanliness of piping welds.
To inspect the proper fit-up of socket weld fittings on small diameter pipe.
To inspect in-process welds and completed welds prior to additional NDT.
16
Welding
Liquid Penetrant
The purpose of liquid penetrant testing (PT) is to detect discontinuities that are open to the
surface of non-porous materials. Figure 11 shows that PT can be broken down into the following
basic steps:
Cleaning the surface
Application of the penetrant to the surface that is to be inspected
Removal of the excess penetrant
Application of a developer
Visual inspection for indications

PT uses the principle of capillary action to detect discontinuities. When a liquid penetrant is
applied to the surface of a material, capillary action will cause the penetrant to enter any small
openings that exist on the surface of the material. After the excess penetrant is removed, a
developer is applied to the surface of the material to draw the absorbed penetrant back out of the
openings. If the application of the developer causes the penetrant to be drawn back out of an
opening, discontinuities are present on the surface of the material. Because dirt or contamination
could mask surface discontinuities, proper preparation of the surface to be inspected is important.
Figure 11. Principles of PT

Saudi Aramco only uses color contrast, visible dye, solvent removable penetrants and the dry air
spray developers. The type of developer that is used depends on the type of penetrant that is
used. Typically, the same family of penetrant material is used throughout the inspection process.
The use of penetrant materials from different families requires special permission from the Saudi
Aramco Inspection Department.
The following are the major advantages of PT:
Good sensitivity
17
Welding
Inexpensive
Simple
Wide range of uses

The following are the major limitations of PT:
Inability to detect subsurface discontinuities
Not conducive to high temperature applications. Special penetrants and developers

are required for even moderate temperature use. SAIP-04-P only applies to PTs that
are performed on materials that have a maximum temperature of 125oF.
Extensive surface preparation required
Surfaces that are covered with paint or other coatings cannot be examined with the
liquid penetrant method. The coating prevents the occurrence of capillary action
The lengthy dwell time (sometimes up to 45 minutes) of liquid penetrant examinations

The following are common applications for liquid penetrant examinations:
To check for surface discontinuities on non-magnetic welds such as aluminum and
stainless steel.
To check for surface discontinuities on magnetic welds when magnetic particle testing
cannot be performed.
To check socket welds and root passes on pressure vessels, storage tanks, and piping
welds.
Magnetic Particle
The purpose of magnetic particle testing (MT) is to detect discontinuities that are either on the
surface of or near the surface of ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron,
steel, and associated alloys) are those materials that can be strongly magnetized.
Magnetic particle testing is based on the principle of magnetism. Magnetism is the ability of one
ferromagnetic material to attract other ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic fields exist within and
around a permanent magnet or around a conductor that carries an electric current. These
magnetic fields are made up of magnetic lines of force that are perpendicular to the direction of
the electric current flow. When a discontinuity exists in a ferromagnetic material, the
discontinuity results in a distortion in the magnetic lines of force, and it creates a leakage field in
which the magnetic testing particles are gathered. The visual gathering of magnetic particles
indicates that a discontinuity may exist in the material that is being tested.
Figure 12 illustrates the following basic principles of MT:
An electric current is passed through a test object to create a magnetic field in the test
object (i.e., the test object is magnetized).
18
Welding
Magnetic particles are applied to the surface of the magnetized test object.
The test object is evaluated for gathered magnetic particles.
Figure 12. Principles of MT

The following methods are used at Saudi Aramco to establish the magnetic field:
Indirect Method
Direct Method
Indirect Method
This method uses an electromagnetic yoke to pass a magnetic field through the test object. The
test object completes a magnetic circuit with the yoke, which results in the establishment of a
magnetic field in the test object. Yokes can use ac, half wave (HW) dc, or dc current to establish
magnetic fields.
Direct Method
This method uses prods to pass electrical current through the test object. The current that passes
through the test object establishes the magnetic field. Prods also can use ac, HWdc, or dc current
to establish magnetic fields.
19
Welding
The use of ac current results in a magnetic field that is fairly shallow in the test material; the use of
dc current provides a deeper magnetic field; however, dc current also has more of a tendency to
magnetize the test objects. Depending on the circumstances of the part that is tested,
demagnetization may be necessary.
Magnetic particles can be suspended in liquid, or they can be in the form of a dry powder. The
wet method of magnetic particle testing generally provides a more sensitive inspection because the
wet method is able to detect minute discontinuities. The method of application depends on the
test situation. The following methods can be used:
The wet method uses magnetic particles that are suspended in a liquid such as oil or
water. The magnetic particles may be fluorescent or non-fluorescent. The mixture is
applied by allowing it to flow over the test object.
The dry method uses magnetic particles in the form of a dry powder. The magnetic
particles are non-fluorescent, but the particles are available in different colors. The
particles are applied by allowing them to lightly settle on the surface of the test object.
The particles must be applied lightly and evenly to the surface.
The following are the major advantages of MT, in comparison to PT:
MT is less labor-intensive.
After the initial investment, MT is less expensive to perform.
MT can detect some subsurface defects.
MT has less post-test cleanup.

The major limitation of MT is that it can only be used to find defects that are at or near the
surface of ferromagnetic materials.
The following are the common applications for magnetic particle examinations:
To check carbon steel weldments (wet or dry particle method)
To check socket welds on piping, weld bevel preps, structural fillet welds, valve
bodies, shafts of rotating equipment, vessels, and storage tanks (wet or dry particle
method)
To check vessels and tanks that are susceptible to sulfide stress and hydrogen induced
cracking (wet particle method)
Ultrasonic
The primary purposes of ultrasonic testing (UT) are to detect volumetric discontinuities in
materials and to measure the thickness of materials. UT, unlike the previously discussed methods
of NDT, can be used to inspect the entire volume of a weld.
20
Welding
Figure 13 illustrates the basic principles of UT. UT is a more complex method of NDT than is
either VT, PT, or MT. UT uses a pulse generator to generate an electrical signal that is supplied
to a transducer. The transducer uses this electrical signal to generate and emit ultrasonic energy.
The ultrasonic energy causes mechanical vibrations (wave propagation) in the form of a wave to
travel through a test object. After the wave travels through the test object, the transducer
receives the return signal and sends it through a process circuit. The output of the process circuit
is sent to a cathode ray tube. If the wave encounters a discontinuity in the test object, the return
signal will reflect the disruption of the wave. The ability of the ultrasonic system to detect small
defects (e.g., the sensitivity) is a function of the wavelength of the emitted ultrasonic energy.
When ultrasonic energy (wave) is transferred into a material, the distance that the wave travels
can be determined through use of CRT display. If the wave does not encounter a discontinuity,
only the initial and return signals appear on the CRT display screen; however, if the wave
encounters a discontinuity, part of this energy is reflected back, and three indications (initial
signal, return signal, and reflected signal) will appear on the CRT display screen. A qualified
inspector can determine the approximate size and the location of the discontinuity from these
indications.
Figure 13. Principles of UT
21
Welding
The following are the basic test equipment components that are used to perform UT:
Transducer
Couplant
Pulse Generator
CRT Display
Transducer
This device is used to convert energy from one form to another form. These piezoelectric devices
(transducers) are used to both transmit and receive ultrasonic signals.
Couplant
A couplant is a medium that is used to facilitate the transmission of ultrasonic energy between the
transducer and the test object.
Pulse Generator
The pulse generator is used to generate the input electrical signal to the transducer.
CRT Display
The CRT display is used to display the return signal.
Other important pieces of test equipment are calibration blocks and reference blocks. Calibration
and reference blocks are used to help ensure that the test equipment is properly operating.
Because the operation of the test equipment affects the examiner's interpretation of the test
results, proper operation of the test equipment is extremely important.
Contact testing is the test method that is widely used at Saudi Aramco. Contact testing can
provide different types of CRT display patterns that are known as scans. The type of CRT display
pattern that is used is dependent on the application. The following types of CRT display patterns
can be used.
"A" Scan
"B" Scan
"C" Scan
"A" Scan
An "A" scan is the usual type of CRT display that is used in ultrasonic material testing. "A" scans
indicate the depth of a discontinuity.
22
Welding
"B" Scan
"B" scans provide a view of an object in a plane that is perpendicular to the direction of
movement of the transducer signal and the surface of the test piece. The "B" scan also can
indicate the depth of a discontinuity. "B" scans are typically used in medical applications. A
photograph of the CRT display screen is often taken for record purposes.
"C" Scan
"C" scans provide a plan view of an object. A plan view is the view through the object from the
inspection surface. The CRT display of a "C" scan also can be photographed.
The following advantages of UT make it a widely used method of testing for defects in a variety
of situations:
UT is extremely sensitive.
UT displays the size and location of discontinuities.
UT can be used on a variety of materials including most metals.
UT can be used on all but the very complex weldments.
UT only requires access to one side of a weld structure or component.
UT can be performed through use of portable equipment.
UT is safe to perform.
Because of the many variations of testing methods, UT is the least limited method of NDT;
however, the following limitations do exist:
UT can only be performed by highly skilled technicians.
UT is difficult to use on course grain materials (castings).
UT cannot detect discontinuities that are parallel to the ultrasonic beam.
UT cannot be used to check all weld joint configurations (e.g., socket welds).
The following are the common applications for ultrasonic examinations:
Thickness gauging for corrosion detection.
Inspection of plate material for laminations.
Inspection of full penetration groove welds in structural members, piping, and pressure
vessels.
23
Welding
Radiographic
The purpose of radiographic testing (RT) is to detect internal weld discontinuities and not only
surface and subsurface discontinuities. Figure 14 illustrates the basic principles of RT. RT uses
radioactive sources (x-ray, gamma ray, or neutron beams) to emit radiographic rays that penetrate
the test object. The energy and wavelength characteristics of these rays allow them to be used to
penetrate any material. The physical characteristics of the test object determine the amount of the
energy beam that passes through the material. Any changes in material thickness or density will
affect the amount of energy that passes through the test object. The portion of the rays that pass
through the test object are used to expose a special type of film. The image that is produced on
the film will show any changes in the density of the areas that are exposed to the penetrating
radiation.
Figure 14. Principles of RT

Radiation is the energy that is given off due to a nuclear reaction at the atomic level. This energy
may be in the form of an electromagnetic wave or a particulate. Photons, which are small packets
of energy that are caused by radioactive decay, display both wave and particle characteristics.
The two types of electromagnetic radiation that are used to perform radiography at Saudi Aramco
are X-rays and gamma rays. X-rays are generated in electronic X-ray tubes of the linear
accelerator type. The tubes may be portable to allow performance of radiographic examinations
in the field. The sources of gamma rays are the disintegrating nuclei of radioactive isotopes. The
following are the radioactive isotopes that Saudi Aramco uses to produce gamma rays:
Cobalt-60 (Co-60)
Iridium-192 (Ir-192)
24
Welding
The penetrating nature of radiation presents a danger to people. These rays pass through the
body in the same way in which they pass through the test object, and, if the exposure is excessive,
the rays can cause permanent damage to the human body. A significant danger exists when
sources of radiation are not properly handled. This danger is magnified because there are no
immediate signs to tell people that they are being exposed to harmful amounts of radiation.
Overexposure to radiation may cause radiation sickness, permanent damage to vital body organs,
or, in severe cases, death.
Because of these dangers, special precautions and safety procedures must be strictly followed by
personnel who handle radiation sources. SAGI 9.100 (Ionizing Radiation Protection) sets the
general guidelines that all Saudi Aramco personnel must follow to protect themselves against
ionizing radiation. This instruction is used by personnel who are involved in all aspects of
storage, handling, and use of radioactive sources.
Because the senses of the human body cannot detect the presence of radiation, special monitoring
equipment must be used. Section 4.09 (Personnel Monitoring Equipment) of SAIP-08 identifies
the devices that are used to measure the actual exposure of personnel during the performance of
RT. These devices include film badges, dosimeters, and radiation survey meters. Section 5.0
(Radiation Monitoring Equipment) of SAIP-08 identifies the devices that are used to perform
radiation surveys. A radiation survey meter is used to check radiation levels in a given area. This
information is needed to determine personnel stay times and shielding requirements.
The following are the basic radiation safety techniques that are used to reduce personnel exposure
to ionizing radiation:
Time
Distance
Shielding
Time
As the amount of time that is spent near a radiation source decreases, the exposure to the
radiation decreases.
Distance
As the distance from a radiation source increases, the exposure to the radiation decreases.
Shielding
As the amount of shielding that is between the radiation source and personnel increases, the
amount of exposure decreases.
25
Welding
The term "exposure" refers to exposing the test object to the radiation source. Many variables
must be considered to ensure that the exposure produces a usable image. The radiograph is not
acceptable as proof that the test object is free of defects unless it is of good quality. Every effort
must be made to achieve the highest quality image so that all of the discontinuities can be
identified.
The following are the most important factors that must be considered in the achievement of the
highest quality image:
The type, position, and intensity of the radiation source
The thickness, density, and configuration of the test object
The type and positioning of the film
Film processing time and chemical temperatures

A penetrameter is used to check the quality of the image that is produced on the radiographic
film. A penetrameter is typically a wire or block that is made of the same material as the test
object. The dimensions of the penetrameter are critical because the dimensions represent the
thickness of the object that is being examined. The penetrameter is used to confirm the sensitivity
of the radiograph. The penetrameter is not used to determine the size of discontinuities. The
penetrameter image is a permanent record that proves that the technique that is used to perform
the RT produced a good quality radiograph. ASTM wire-type penetrameters and hole-type
penetrameters are commonly used at Saudi Aramco.
Figure 14 showed an example of the "double wall" radiographic technique that is used to examine
piping or small pressure vessel welds. Figure 15 shows examples of "panoramic" and "elliptical"
radiographic techniques that also are used on piping welds. Figure 15 points out the relative
location of the radiographic source for each technique. Note that the "panoramic" technique
requires that the radiation source be placed inside of the pipe or vessel.
26
Welding
Figure 15. Radiographic Techniques
27
Welding
The following are the advantages of RT, and these advantages are similar to the advantages of
UT:
RT is extremely sensitive.
RT can identify both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
RT can be used on a wide variety of materials.
RT provides a permanent record that shows the size and location of discontinuities.
RT can be performed through use of portable equipment.

The following are the major limitations to the use of RT:
RT can only be performed by highly skilled technicians.
RT cannot detect discontinuities that are located perpendicular to the rays.
The following conditions may limit the use of RT:
Weld joint geometry
RT exposes personnel who are in the area to radiation.
Accessibility and geometry of the radiographic technique

Common applications for radiographic examinations are similar to the application for ultrasonic
examinations, and they include the following:
Examination of critical full penetration welds in piping and pressure vessels
Evaluation of the effects of erosion and corrosion on component and piping wall
thickness
To check for linear and nonlinear weld indications such as cracks, slag inclusions, lack
of fusion, and porosity.
28
Welding
GLOSSARY
capillary action
Tendency of a liquid to enter small cracks in the test object because

of the difference in cohesive forces between the liquid (penetrant)
and the surfaces of the crack.
defect
An unacceptable discontinuity as defined by the code.
discontinuity
An interruption of the typical structure of a material; for example, a

lack of homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or physical
characteristics.
electromagnetIc wave
Accelerated electric charges called photons whose energy is related

to the frequency of the wavelength.
examination
The procedure or method that is used to conduct a destructive or a

nondestructive test.
foot candles
Unit of measure for the amount of light that is present in a given

area. One foot candle equals 1 lumen per square foot.
inspection
The interpretation of the results that were obtained from a

nondestructive examination.
non-porous
Materials that are free of pores or porosity and that are nonpermeable to liquids.
nonrelevant indication
An indication that is obtained during a nondestructive test and that is

a result of a normal or known condition in a material and that is not
the result of a discontinuity or defect.
penetrameter
Also called an image quality indicator (IQI), the penetrameter is a

device that is placed in the area that is being radiographed, and it is
used to determine the quality and sensitivity of the radiograph.
piezoelectric
Property of certain crystals to produce an electric current when a

mechanical stress is applied.
radioactive isotope
Unstable elements whose decay produces radiation.
shielding
Material (typically lead or concrete) that is used to stop or to reduce

the amount of radiation that is generated by a gamma or an x-ray
source.
29
Welding
stay time
The length of time that a person can stay in an area before he

receives too much radiation.
test object
A component or weldment that is being subjected to a destructive or

a nondestructive test.
30
Welding
WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1.
HOW TO DETERMINE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD

DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS
This Work Aid is designed to help the Participant perform Exercise 1.

Work Aid 1A.
Weld Acceptance Criteria
Selected weld acceptance criteria from ASME B31.1, Power Piping, are listed below and are to
be used as guides to perform Exercise 1.
Visual Inspection Acceptance Standards
The following discontinuities are unacceptable:
Cracks on external surfaces.
Undercut on surface that is greater than 1/32" deep.
Weld reinforcement greater than the weld reinforcement that is specified in
Table 1.
Incomplete penetration (applies only when the inside surface is readily accessible.
Table 1. Allowable Weld Reinforcement
Maximum Thickness of Reinforcement
Design Temperature
Thickness of Base Metal, in.

Up to 1/8, inclusive
Over 1/8 to 3/16, inclusive
Over 3/16 to , inclusive
Over to 1, inclusive
Over 1 to 2, inclusive
Over 2
>750F
1/16
1/16
1/16
3/32
1/8
5/32
350F to 750F
<350F
3/32
3/16
1/8
3/16
5/32
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
The greater of in. or; 1/8 times the
width of the weld (in Inches).
Magnetic Particle Examination Acceptance Standards

Any cracks or linear indications.
Rounded indications with dimensions that exceed 3/16".
31
Welding
Four or more rounded indications that are in a line and that are separated by 1/16" or less
from edge to edge.
Ten or more rounded indications in any 6 sq. in. of surface where the major dimension of this
area does not exceed 6" and where the area that is chosen is in the most unfavorable location
relative to the indications being evaluated.
Liquid Penetrant Examination Acceptance Standards
Any cracks or linear indications.
Rounded indications with dimensions that exceed 3/16".
Four or more rounded indications that are in a line and that are separated by 1/16" or less
from edge to edge.
Ten or more rounded indications in any 6 sq. in. of surface where the major dimension of this
area does not exceed 6" and where the area that is chosen is in the most unfavorable location
relative to the indications being evaluated.
Radiography Examination Acceptance Standards
Welds that are shown by radiography to have any of the following types of discontinuities are
unacceptable:
Any type of crack or zone of incomplete fusion or penetration.
Any other elongated indication that has a length greater than:
1/4" for t up to 3/4" inclusive
1/3 t for t from 3/4" to 2-1/4" inclusive
3/4" for t over 2-1/4" where t is the thickness of the thinner portion of the weld
NOTE:
t is the thickness of the weld being examined. If a weld joins two members with
different thicknesses at the weld, t is the thinner of these two thicknesses.
Any group of indications in line that have an aggregate length that is greater than t in a length
of 12t, except where the distance between the successive indications exceeds 6L, where L is
the longest indication in the group.
32
Welding
Work Aid 1B.
Refer to Table 2 to determine the type of discontinuities and their indications.

Table 2. Types of Weld Discontinuities and Their Indications
TYPE OF WELD
DISCONTINUITY
Dimensional
INDICATIONS
Interruptions in continuity of the weld size, shape, and finished
dimensions. Incorrect weld size and profile, and weld distortion are
worst.
Can lead to in-service failure by fatigue or overload
Structural
Develop within the weld during welding. A single or combination of these

discontinuities can lead to an in-service pipeline leak or rupture
Cracks in welds
Longitudinal or transverse. Surface cracks or subsurface. Occur in a

weld due to stresses developed during the welding process
Slag inclusions
Located within a weld. Occur when impurities or flux contaminate a

weld. The result of improper interpass cleaning.
Lack of fusion
Generally located at the weld metal and base metal interface. Molten weld
metal does not fuse completely with an adjacent weld bead or with the
base material. Generally the result of inadequate heat or excessive travel
speed.
Incomplete root
penetration
Weld metal does not completely penetrate into the root area and consume
both of the base materials. Generally the result of inadequate heat or
excessive travel speed.
Weld undercut
Is a groove that is melted into the toe or root of a weld and is left unfilled
by the weld metal. Results in a depression on the surface of the base
metal where the weld metal contacts the base metal. Generally the result
of excessive heat and travel speed.
Cold lap
Occurs when the weld metal freezes too quickly and does not fuse with
the surface of the base metal. Typically found on the cover pass at the toe
of the weld. Generally the result of inadequate heat and excessive travel
speed
33
Welding
Root concavity
Occurs in weld joints welded from one side only. Results from excessive
heat, too wide of a root opening, or insufficient deposited weld metal
Arc strikes
Caused by dragging the electrode over the surface of the base metal in an
effort to initiate an arc for welding.
Weld porosity
Caused by inadequate flux or shielding gas coverage, oxygen

contaminates the molten weld metal prior to solidification. Typically
located within the weld. Moisture or other contaminants on the base
metal can result in gas bubbles trapped in the weld metal.
Property Related
Main ones are related to welding consumables and base metal properties.
Failures are due to weld metal cracking, high hardness, and using metals
susceptible to corrosion.
34
Welding
Work Aid 1C.
Refer to Table 3 to determine the type of discontinuities and their indications.

Table 3. Causes of Weld Discontinuities and Their Indications
CAUSED OF DISCONTINUITIES
INDICATIONS
Fabrication Induced
Caused by poor workmanship and the use of

incorrect welding parameters and procedures.
Poor workmanship
Poor joint fit-up, inadequate joint support,

misalignment, arc strikes, and lack of joint
cleaning.
Use of Incorrect Welding Parameters or

Procedures
Incorrect changes or non-compliance

parameters can result in defective welds that
may fail in-service prematurely.
Construction Induced
High chemistry base metal such as pipe

fittings
Inadequate or no preheat
Incorrect filler metal, electrode coating, or

welding flux
The most pronounced types:

Root bead crack
Lack of fusion
Incomplete penetration
Displacement of the internally deposited

root bead
35
Welding
Automatic welding
Manual Welding
Frequently found in pipeline girth welds welded

by automatic welding systems:
Quick retrieval of the internal line up clamp
and welding head while the hot and fill
passes are being deposited by the outside
welding head.
Lifting the free end of the pipe for lining and

fitting-up the next joint while the previous
joint is being welded.
Misalignment of the welding wire with the

joint
Poor joint design
Poor end preparation
Most critical type is cracking of the root bead.

Often caused by one of the following:
Inadequate joint support
High restraint causing stress
Removing the joint support (slings held by

either fork lifts or side booms) immediately
after completion of the root pass.
36
Welding
WORK AID 2.
HOW TO DETERMINE MODES OF IN-SERVICE FAILURE OF

DEFECTIVE WELD JOINTS
Use Table 4 to assist in completing Exercise 2. This table lists the modes of in-service failures
and their indications
Table 4. Modes of In-service Failure and their Common Occurrences/Indications
Mode of Failure
Overload failure
Common Occurrence/Indications
Occurs in joints containing cracks, incomplete penetration, and
poor fit-up, if exposed to high pressure.
(Refer to Case History #1 and 2).
Fatigue failure
Occurs in joints containing stress risers and that are exposed to

cyclic loading and reverse bending. Often lead to growth of
fatigue cracks that result in a leak or a rupture of the weld joint.
(Refer to Case History #3 and 4).
Delayed Hydrogen cracking One of the primary modes of pipeline weld joint failures. The
following three conditions must be present:
Susceptible hard microstructure; occurs in high CE
carbon steel materials
Corrosion failure
Hydrogen
Stress
Not very common; crevice pitting and galvanic corrosion due to

incomplete penetration, porosity, slag inclusion, incorrect
chemical composition of the weld metal, and susceptible weld
metal and HAZ microstructure.
Often happens in corrosive raw or sea water service or
environments. (Refer to Case History #5 and 6.
Incorrect repair
More difficult to perform and control than those performed in

the shop, especially when the repairs are made on pipelines
where joint access is limited and where dissimilar metals are
involved. (Refer to Case History #7.
37
Welding
WORK AID 3.
HOW TO DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Work Aid 3A.
How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Visual Weld

Examinations (VT)
The basic Information for visual examination listed below are to be used as a guide to perform
NDT.
Advantages:
Quickest and most cost effective method.
Simplest to learn
Detects surface discontinuities that are visible to the human eye.
Can perform dimensional inspections with the aid of weld gages.
Improves success of subsequent NDT
Reduces costs of repairs.

Common Applications:
To determine the size and length of fillet welds on structural members.
To inspect the weld joint fit-up including bevel angle, root opening, land, and cleanliness of
piping welds.
To inspect the proper fit-up of socket weld fittings on small diameter pipe.
To inspect in-process welds and completed welds prior to additional NDT.

Limitations:
Cannot detect subsurface discontinuities.
Cannot examine welds that are more than 24" away from the examiners eye without
examination aids.
Cannot examine welds when the examiners eye is at an angle of less than 30o from the
surface that is being examined.
Cannot examine welds in less than 35 foot candles of illumination.
Common Discontinuities:
Cracks
Slag
38
Welding
Porosity
Undercut
Cold Lap
Arc Strikes
Work Aid 3B.
How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Liquid Penetrant

Tests
Capabilities:
Detects surface discontinuities on non-porous materials that may not be detected during a
visual examination.
Advantages:
Good sensitivity
Inexpensive
Simple
Wide range of uses

Common Applications:
Most common use of PT is to check welds such as socket welds and root passes on pressure
vessels, storage tanks, and piping systems.
Best method for use in the identification of surface discontinuities on non-magnetic materials,
such as aluminum and stainless steel.
Can be used on magnetic steels when magnetic particle testing cannot be performed.
Limitations:
Cannot detect subsurface discontinuities.
Cannot be used when the material temperature is above 125o F.
Cannot be used on surfaces that are covered with paint or other coatings.
Cannot be performed in less than approximately 45 minutes.

Common Discontinuities Detected:
Surface cracks, porosity, undercut, and cold laps.
Work Aid 3C.
How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Magnetic Particle

Testing
Capabilities:
Detects surface and near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
39
Welding
Applications:
Used to inspect carbon steel weldments, socket welds on piping, weld bevel preps, structural
fillet welds, valve bodies, shafts of rotating equipment, pump impellers, machined parts,
vessels, and storage tanks
Advantages:
MT is less labor intensive.
After the initial investment, MT is less expensive to perform.
MT can detect some subsurface defects.
MT has less post test clean-up.

Limitations:
Cannot detect discontinuities throughout the entire volume of a weldment
Cannot find deep-seated discontinuities
Cannot be used on nonmagnetic materials
Can magnetize the object being examined

Common Discontinuities Detected:
Surface or near-surface cracks, porosity, undercut, and cold lap
Work Aid 3D.
How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Ultrasonic Testing
Capabilities:
Detects surface and subsurface discontinuities
Measures material thickness
Applications:
Thickness gaging for corrosion detection
Inspecting the integrity of weld bevel prep areas, full penetration butt welds, and plate
material
Advantages:
UT is extremely sensitive.
UT displays the size and location of discontinuities.
UT can be used on almost any type of metallic material.
UT can be used on all but the very complex weldments.
UT only requires access to one side of the test object.
UT can be performed through use of portable equipment.
UT is safe to perform.
40
Welding
Limitations:
Requires highly skilled technicians.
Cannot be used on rough surfaces.
Cannot detect discontinuities that are parallel to the beam.
Cannot be used on some coarse grain materials (castings).
Cannot be used on all weld joint configurations (i.e. socket welds).
Work Aid 3E.
How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Radiographic

Testing
Capabilities:
Detects all surface and subsurface base metal and weld discontinuities in various materials.
Limitations:
Requires highly skilled technicians.
Cannot detect discontinuities that are perpendicular to the rays.
Cannot be used when personnel in the area would be exposed to radiation.
Cannot be used on all weld joint configurations.
Cannot be used when physical clearances do not allow for proper radiographic geometry.
Cannot be used when large amounts of fluid will be in contact with a weldment.
Requires access to both sides.
41

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Identifying Weld Discontinuities

For additional information on this subject, contact

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Indirect Method ............................................................................................19

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Work Aid 3D. How to Determine the Appropriate Application of Ultrasonic

Figure 1.Examples of Dimensional Discontinuities ..................................................... 4

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DETERMINE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Type of Weld Discontinuities

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 1.Examples of Dimensional Discontinuities

Figure 2. Cracks in Welds

Figure 3. Slag Inclusions

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 4. Lack of Fusion

Figure 5. Incomplete Root Penetration

Figure 6. Weld Undercut

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 7. Cold Lap

Figure 8. Root Concavity

Figure 9. Arc Strike

Figure 10. Weld Porosity

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Displacement of the internally deposited root bead

Misalignment of the welding wire with the joint

Poor joint design

Poor end preparation

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Inadequate joint support

High restraint causing stress

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MODES OF IN-SERVICE FAILURE OF DEFECTIVE WELD JOINTS

Delayed Hydrogen cracking

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

IDENTIFY NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT WELD

Straight edges and rulers

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To inspect in-process welds and completed welds prior to additional NDT.

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Application of the penetrant to the surface that is to be inspected

Removal of the excess penetrant

Visual inspection for indications

Figure 11. Principles of PT

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Wide range of uses

Not conducive to high temperature applications. Special penetrants and developers

Extensive surface preparation required

The lengthy dwell time (sometimes up to 45 minutes) of liquid penetrant examinations

The test object is evaluated for gathered magnetic particles.

Figure 12. Principles of MT

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After the initial investment, MT is less expensive to perform.

MT can detect some subsurface defects.

MT has less post-test cleanup.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards