RockMechamcs,

Aubert/n,
Hassan/& M/tn(eds) 1996Balkerna,
Rotterdam.
ISBN90 5410858X

Modelingof yieldedzoneenlargement
arounda wellbore
Christopher
D. Hawkes
Department
of Geology,
University
ofNewBrunswick,
Fredericton,
N.B.,Canada
Patrick J.McLellan

Advanced
Geotechnology
Inc.,Calgary,
Alb.,Canada

ABSTRACT:The effectsof porepressure

penetration
andtime-dependent
rock strengthon the growthof the
yielded(plastic)zonearounda wellboreareanalyzed
usingan elastic-brittle-plastic
model.Solutions
for two
possible
casesare developed:
(1) no increase
in permeability,
and(2) a significant
increasein permeability
upon
yielding.The extentof the yieldedzoneis sensitive
to a numberof mechanical
parameters,
of whichthe
residual
strength
of therockismostcritical.In bothcases,
therateof yieldedzonegrowthdepends
strongly
on
formationpermeability
(bothpriorto andateryielding)andmudtiltrateviscosity.In case(2), the stiffness
of
therockandtheextentof theyieldedzonearealsocritical.
l INTRODUCTION

The definingfeature of the elastic-brittle-plastic

model is the assumptionthat, once a rock's peak
Wellboreinstabilityin shalesis one of the more compressive
strengthhasbeenexceededas stresses
important problems experiencedduring drilling. aroundthe wellboreincreaseduringexcavation,the
Althoughthe potentialdestabilizing
effectsof clay rock yieldsbut does not fall into the wellbore.
hydrationand swellinghave long beenknown and
Instead,an annulusof weakenedrock (referredto as
accepted, it is now recognized that wellbore theyieldedor plasticzone)develops
aroundthewell,
instability
in shalesections
is alsostronglydependent peak stressis redistributed
away from the wellbore
on mechanicalparameters,i.e. the stateof effective surface,and eventuallya stable configurationis
stressaroundthe wellboreand the strengthof the
achieved(Figure1). Sincethe yieldedzone will be
shale. The following discussiondescribesthe
susceptible
to spallingdueto pressuresurgesduring
mechanical factors affecting wellbore stability. trips and mechanical
erosionby the drillstring,the
Hydrationeffectsare only considered
indirectly,as
largerthis zone is the greaterthe likelihoodthat
instability-related
problemswill occur.
theymayaffectthestrength
of therock.
In orderto developa closed-formsolutionto this
problem, it necessaryto make a number of
2 ELASTIC-BRITTLE-PLASTIC
WELLBORE
assumptions
concerning
the mechanical
behaviour
of
STABILITY
MODEL
the rock. Firstly,it is assumed
that deformation
is
linearelasticuntil peak stressis reached,then strain
A numberof non-linearwellbore stabilitymodels weakeningoccurs instantaneouslyand stress is
have previouslybeen developed.These include reducedto a residuallevel (Figure2). It is also
damage mechanics models (e.g. Cheng and
assumed
that peakand residualstrengthof the rock
Dusseault1993,ShaoandKhazrai1994),bifurcation canbe represented
by linearMohr-Coulombcriteria,
models (e.g. Papamichoset al. 1994), nonplane strain conditionsprevail, the material is
continuummodels (e.g. Thallak et al. 1991,
homogeneous
and isotropic,and boundarystresses
Rawlings et al. 1993), linear elastic borehole areuniformsothatthe problemis axisymmetric.
breakoutmodels(e.g. Zheng et al. 1989), strainhardeningelastoplasticmodels(e.g. Bradfordand
Cook 1994) and strain-weakening,
elastic-brittle- 2.1 General solution
plasticmodels(e.g. Ladanyi 1974, Kennedyand
Lindberg 1978, Wang and Dusseault1991). The
Proceedingas in Wang and Dusseault(1991), but
paperpresentedhere is a new development
of the
assuminga general form for the pore pressure
lattertypeof model.

1051

gradient,
i.e. p(r,t),it is possible
to derivethe

10'2reD).Consequently,
porepressure
penetration

following
expression
fortheyielded
zoneradius:

may continue
for severaldays,weeksor months

(])
1-NrPw
+----
1 J,'J
-a'(1-NOR"'-'lrr-"'P(r't)dr=O

It is evidentfrom examinationof equation(1) that

changes
in pore pressurearoundthe wellborewill
result in changesin yielded radius (R). For
overbalanced
drillingconditions,and assuming
no
forcesactto preventflow of drillingmudtiltrateinto
the drilled formation (e.g. filter cake, capillary
thresholdpressure),the resultanthydraulicgradient
will cause'diffusion'of higherfluid pressures
into
the formation.This processis often referredto as
pore pressurepenetration.[Note: Diffusionof pore
pressures
may alsoarisedue to chemicalpotential
gradients.
Thisissue,particularly
with regardto the
abilityof shaleto actasa semi-permeable
membrane,
is not yet fully understood.
For example,seeMody
and Hale (1993) and Ballard et al. (1994) for
conflictingarguments.Diffusiondue to chemical
potentialgradients
is notconsidered
in thismodel.]
3 PORE PRESSURE

beforesteadystateconditions
are achieved.In such
cases,the extentof theyieldedzonewill increase
for
correspondingly
long periodsof time. Use of the
aforementioned
steadystatesolutionto evaluateR
might be overly conservative
if the well is to be
casedlongbeforeR hasreachedits finalvalue(R).
Hence,it is necessary
to solvefor porepressureas a
functionof time. For a poroelasticmedium,the
coupledpore pressurediffusionequationcan be
statedas(RiceandCleary1976):

V2p=]4 6p6it/
690%
k,Me cqt k, cqt'

(2)

whe
1

+ 7o -(1+

="/L

PENETRATION

For permeable
rocks(k > 0.1 mD), the porepressure
gradientwill approach
its steadystateconfiguration
in relativelyshort times (lessthan one hour). For
that volumetricexpansion(or contraction)of the
steadystate pore pressuregradients,equation(1)
porousmatrixwill causea decrease(or increase)in
can be evaluatedanalytically(Wang and Dusseault
pore pressure.It can be shown(Rice and Cleary
1991,McLellanandWang 1994).
1976)that thisterm vanishes
asthe outerboundary
Shales
tendto havelowpermeabilities
(k 10'sto
of the poroelasticregion(ro) tendsto infinityoThus,

The
coupling
term
( )

arises
due
tothefact

O'1'0'3

RADIAL
DISTANCE
yielded
rock

I .... ideal
material
[

I....
typica
mate
I

"---elastic
rock
Figure2: Rheologicalmodelof an idealized,strainweakening
material.

Figure 1: Developmentof a yieldedzone and

redistribution of stress around a wellbore.

1052

6
o.1

24

1000

2000

3000

2.6

2.2
1.8

1.4

<
n

1
lO

100

1000

10000

n,'

100000

TIME (hours)

Figure3: Sensitivity
of yieldedradiusto residual

Figure4: Sensitivity
of yieldedradiusto residual
angleof friction.

cohesion.

equation(2) is reducedto the familiar diffusion

equation:

V2p= 67p
LM.

TIME (hours)

(3)

3.1 Uniformpermeabilitysolution

1. Rheologicalpropertiesof the rock (the more

brittle and dilatant the rock, the greater the
permeability
increase).
2. Permeability
of the rock beforeyielding(the
creationand openingof microcrackswill increase
permeability
morein rocksthat originallyhavelow
porosities
andpermeabilities).
3. Confiningstress(higher confiningstresswill
render deformation

For a rockwhosepermeability
(k), porosity(n) and
matrixcompressibility
(rio) are largelyunalteredby
theyieldingprocess,andassuming
thatdeformation
- porepressure
couplingeffectsare negligible
in the
yielded zone, it is possibleto evaluatethe pore
pressureat any location and time by solving
equation(3). Solutionsto this equationare well

more ductile and reduce crack

apertures).
In many cases,permeabilityincreasewill be so

drasticthattheporepressure
in theyieldedzonewill
equilibrate with the bottomhole pressure very
rapidly.In this case,with p(r,t) =pw for r, <r <R,
equation(1) reducesto a form which canbe solved
explicitly:

Po N
{(on-a
pw)(1-N,)+
S,+
27
[--(,-1)
Sr- tvpw
+
Nv+l

(4)

p(1-ap) Sr
documented
(e.g. Carslawand Jaeger1959, Crank
1975). Usingthesesolutions,
the pressure
termsin
equation(1) can be evaluatedanalytically
and the
integralcanbe evaluated
by quadratu/'e.

3.2 Enhanced
permeabilitysolution
It is likely that yieldingwill resultin an increasein
permeability
for most low permeability
rocks.The
degreeto which it is increasedwill dependon a
numberof factors,including:

1053

There will, however, be cases where initial

permeability
is so low that evenif it is increased
by
one or two orders of magnitudeupon yielding,
transientpore pressurepenetrationwill persistfor
considerable
lengthsof time.For example,Jouniaux
et al. (1994) measured
an increase
in permeability
by
a factor of approximatelythirty for a 0.1
indurated claystonestressedbeyond its peak
strength.
It would also be expectedthat there shouldbe
somewhat
of anincrease
in porosity(dueto dilation)
upon yielding, as well as an increase in the

2.2

38.3 (0.5)

=37.8(0)

c= 0.7

ii
:

cp= 1

1.6 ......................................
J...................
r........... [
13 1.8

W 1,6

-"""Pw= 42.8 MPa(AP= 5)

,_1

.J

u.I

_ 1.4

1.2 0.8 ...j............................................................................

0.7

_N 1.2
,_1

.J

500

1000

50

100

150

200

25

1500

TiME (hours)

TIME (hours)

Figure 6: Sensitivity of yielded radius to

poroplastic
parameter.

Figure 5: Sensitivity of yielded radius to

bottomhole
pressure.

such conditions,it is only necessaryto solve

poroplasticparametera, (the analogueof Biot's
poroelastic
parameter,a = 1 -flg/flo)to somevalue equation(5a), with boundarycondition(5c) andthe
followingmodified
modifiedboundary
condition:
suchthat < %, < 1. Consequently,
in order to
evaluateporepressure
at a giventimeit is necessary
to solvethe followingsetof equations:

c?rr=R
=0,
9pp

(5g)

/ c*pv
a/c*s
v for
rw
-<r_<
R, (5a) i.e. it is not necessaryto computeporepressuresin
v2P-,ax
the elastic zone. This significantlyreducesthe
V2p,
_k,M,
ft 69p,
for
R_<
r_<
oo,
c?t

numberof elementsrequiredto spatiallydiscretize

problem.The detailsof the numericalsolution

(Sb) the
are describedin Hawkes (1996). Solution is

accomplished
by Galerkin'smethod,where pore
pressures
areapproximated
by quadraticpolynomials

with boundaryconditions

over elements that are stretched to accommodate for

pArw,O=p.,

(Sc)

p,(R,t)= pe(R,t),

(Sd)

=
p(,O = po,

5rr=R
'

(Se)

(s0

wherethe poroplasticdiffisionparameter
is defined
withanalogyto poroelastic
theory,i.e.

Equations
(5) and(1) arecoupledin sucha way as
to makeanalyticalsolutionimpossible.
In orderto
make numerical evaluation of these equations
computationally
expedient,
it is beneficial
to exploit
the factthat for k,>> ke,fluidflux acrossthe outer
boundaryof the yieldedzoneis very small.Under
1054

growth of the yielded zone. An implicit time

marchingscheme
is employed,
wherethe valueof R
whichsatisfies
boundaryconditions
(5c) and(5g) as
well as equation(1) at eachsubsequent
time stepis
obtained
by iteration.
In orderto simplifycomputation
of the volumetric
strainrate in equation(5a), it is assumedthat any
dilatantvolume increaseassociatedwith yielding
occurs instantaneously(Figure2). Post-yielding,
plasticvolumetricstrainis assumedto be zero. As
effectivestresses
in the yieldedzonedecreasedueto
increasingpore pressures,the rate of volumetric
expansion
canthenbe computedusingHooke'slaw.
The effectof volumetricexpansionis to decreasethe
rate of pore pressurepenetration.Thus, any error
dueto neglecting
plasticvolumeincreases
will cause
thismodelto overestimate
the rate of yieldedzone
growthto someextent.Thisis preferableto an error
thatwouldleadto an underestimate
of R at a given
time.

2
i 2.6

Rf

1.8

7.8 MPa

2.4

1.6

Cl 2.2

q 1.4 -o[= 0.6

m

%%%
1.2 .....................................
-i
........................................................
.m
tu 1.8
N

<

a:::
O

200

400

600

800

<

1000

m cr

1.6

TIME(hours)

Cp .......
-..

50

100

150

200

250

o
z

Figure7: Sensitivity
of yieldedradiusto poroelastic
parameter.

TIME (days)

Figure9: Delayedgrowthof yieldedzone due to

strengthreduction.

2 15

1.15

110

'
requiredfor R to approachRf is greater,i.e. the
further the impermeableboundaryis from the
wellbore,the slowerthe pressurebuildupin the
yieldedzone.
R is lesssensitive
to thepeakstrength
parameters.
Decreasing
cpfrom 10 to 2 MPa increases
Rf by a
factorof 1.14, and decreasing
p from 50 to 35
increases
Rfby a factorof 1.23.

....

1.7
1.6

Tablel' Sensitivity
analysis
parameters.
0

500

1000
1500
TIME (hours)

2000

Parameter

Figure 8: Sensitivityof yieldedzone to Young's

modulus.

Value
42

35
4 MPa
2 MPa
0.108 m

4 Sensitivity
Analyses

The sensitivity
of yieldedzonegrowthto thevarious
model parameters was investigatedusing the
numerical solution described above. The values of

the parameters
are aslistedin Table1, exceptwhere
indicatedotherwiseon the figures.

39.8 MPa
37.8 MPa
95 MPa
l
l
10nD

7%

10'3Pa.s
4.5.10']Pa']

4. l Strengthparameters

R proves most sensitiveto the residualstrength

parameters.A decreaseof Cr from 2 to 0.1 MPa
causes
R/to increaseby a factorof 2.87 (Figure3).
R is particularlysensitiveto Cr variationsas Cr
approacheszero. This is not surprising,since
equation(4) showsthat Rf tendsto infinityas Cr
tendsto zeroanda,tendsto 1. Reduction
of 4rfrom
42 tO24 increases
R/by a factorof 1.77(Figure4).
Thesefiguresalso demonstrate
that in caseswhere
the extentof the yieldedzone is larger,the time

1055

5 GPa
0.34

4.2 Bottomhole
pressure
Figure5 shows that the initial value of the

yieldedradius
(R)is verysensitive
to thisparameter,
especiallyso at low overbalances.Decreasing
overbalance
from5 to 0 MPa increases
Rt by a factor

1,9

uJ

1.8

1.7

1.6

0.00001

0.001

0.1

10

n-

lOOO

200

400

600

800

1000

TIME (minutes)

TIME (hours)

Figure10: Comparison
of numericalandanalytical
solutions,
uniformpermeability.
of 1.44. It is also evidentfrom Figure5 that the
stabilizing
influenceof a largeoverbalance
is minimal
onceporepressures
in the yieldedzoneapproach
pw.
This suggeststhat, if pore pressurepenetration
parameters
are suchthatRf will be achieved
quickly
relative to the time that the wellbore will remain

uncased,the benefitsof drillingoverbalanced

will be
minimal.

4.3 Poroelasticandporoplasticparameters

Rf increases
by a factorof 1.39 as the poroplastic
parameter(a,) increasesfrom 0.7 to 1 (Figure6).
Furthermore,
it is notedthatthe sensitivity
of R
to
a, is most pronouncedin the range 0.9 - 1.
Increasing
the poroelastic
parameter
(a) from0.6 to
1 increases
Rf by a factor of 1.38 (Figure7).
Sensitivity to these parametersis especially
unfortunate
because
theirvaluesareusuallyinferred
or guessed
ratherthanmeasured.

Figure 11: Evaluatingthe error of assumingan

impermeable
yieldedzoneboundary.
water-based
mudsis a field of currentinterest(e.g.
vanOort 1994).
The value of Young's modulus (E) has a
significant
effect on t DecreasingE from 15 to
2.5 GPaincreases
tfby a factorof 6 (Figure8). This
is becausethe stiffer the rock is, the smallerthe
changein porevolume(and,hence,porepressure)
in
response
to a changein appliedstress.
Thetimeto reachsteadystateis not very sensitive
to variations
in yieldedzoneporosity(np),porefluid
compressibility
(/L) andPoisson's
ratio(v) overthe
rangesexpected
for theseparameters.
5 TIME-DEPENDENT

STRENGTH

It is likely that the strengthof shale formations

exposedin a wellbore will decreasewith time.
Dependingon nativepore water and mud tiltrate
chemistry
aswell as shalemineralogy,
it is expected
that strengthreductiondue to physico-chemical
alterationwill occur.Horsrudet al. (1994) present
datathat showa 28% reductionin peakstrengthfor
a triaxiallyloadedsilty claystonewhich had been
4.4 Otherparameters
exposedto freshwater for five days.Amanullahet
al. (1994) noted a uniaxialcompressive
strength
A numberof parameters
haveno effectonRi or R; decreaseof 3.6 to 68% for mudrocksupon
but do havea significant
effecton the timerequired saturationwith water-basedmuds of varying
to reachsteady
stateconditions
(t).
chemistry.
This time is inversely proportionalto the
Until moreinformationregardingtime-dependent
permeability
of the yieldedzone(ko).It is probable strengthis available,choiceof the mathematical
form
that,especially
at low effectiveconfining
stresses,
of thestrength
decayfunctionis somewhat
arbitrary.
will vary as a functionof stress.However, since For illustrative
purposes,
a lineardecayof peakand
measureddata for kp are seldomavailable,it is
residualcohesion
frominitialto long-termvalueshas
deemedan acceptableapproximation
to specifya
been assumedfor the currentmodels.For high
constantpermeability
whichwill usuallybe inferred permeabilityrocks, it sufficesto substitutethe
fromdatafor intactrockor simplyguessed.
computedstrengthparameters
at a giventime into
The time to reach steady state is directly the steadystatepore pressuregradientsolutionof
proportional
to mudflitrateviscosity.
Thisiswhythe McLellan and Wang (1994). For the coupled
development
of highviscosity,
low molecular
weight numerical
solution,therateof changeof Crwith time
1056

40

kv/k,> 10 (Figure11). For kv/k,= 5, the discrepancy

t = 1019 hours

is onlymarginalat largetimes.
The effects of deformationcoupling on pore

39.5

pressure
penetration
canbe observed
in Figure12.
Note thatthe porepressurenearR becomesnearly
1 MPa lessthanpo in the relativelyearlystagesof R

39

38.5
38

37.5

37

i'-"
. 'N

"

0.038:

growth.

"=88-9 .......

:'

47................

7 CONCLUSIONS

..........
.0..:65
.'..._...._.._
5:2
.i
15.?
...............

Solutions
havebeenpresented
whichcanpredict
the rateof growthof the yieldedzonearounda
wellborein an elastic-brittle-plastic
material.
For rock whose permeabilityis unalteredby

36.5

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

NORMALIZED YIELDED RADIUS (R/rw)

Figure12: Effect of deformation-coupled

pore

yielding,
ananalytical
solution
whichneglects
the
coupling
of porepressure
penetration
androck

pressure
penetration.

deformation
hasprovenacceptable.
A numericalsolutionhasbeen developedwhich
estimates
the growth of the yieldedzone for
rockswhosepermeabilities
are increased
by at
leasta factorof five to ten uponyielding.
Theextentof theyieldedzoneisverysensitive
to
the residualstrengthof the rock, and less
sensitive
to the bottomholepressure,poroelastic

is criticalbecauseweakeningof the yieldedrock

reduces the effective stress, and the associated
volumeincreaselowerspore pressure.This retards
the rate of pore pressure penetrationfor
overbalancedconditions,and can have a delaying
effectin caseswhereoverbalance
is zero (Figure9).

andporoplastic
parameters,
andpeakstrength
of
the rock.

6 NUMERICAL

EXAMPLES

The rate of yielded zone growth is strongly

dependenton permeabilityand mud flitrate
As detailedin Sections3.1 and 3.2, a numberof
viscosity,
aswell asYoung'smodulusandinitial
assumptions
weremadein orderto computationally
sizeof theyieldedzonefor caseswherek,>> ke.
lackthepredictivecapabilities
of
simplifythe solutions.
In order to evaluatethe Thesesolutions
impact of these assumptions,
the numerical
more rigorousnumericalsolutions,but their
procedure
described
was extended
to evaluate
the
computational
speedmakesthem valuablefor

fullproblem
asstatedin equations
(Sa)through
(Sf).

sensitivity
analyses
andMonteCarlosimulations
I.e. a largespatialdomainaroundthe wellborewas
in caseswhere materialparametersare poorly
defined.
discretized,
and separatepore pressure
penetration
parameters
werespecified
for theyieldedandelastic Applicationof thesemodelsto suitablefield
zones.Executionof this programwith its coupling
cases
will bepursued
in futurework.
featuresdisabledandpermeability
assumed
equalin
the yieldedand elasticzonesgivesresultswhich

comparefavourablywith the analyticalsolution ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

described
in Section3.1 (Figure10). Thereasonthe
numerical
solution
appears
truncated
is because
it is
The authors would like to thank Shell Canada Ltd.

evaluatedwith the outerdrainageboundary(ro) set

at 100.r,,whereas
theanalytical
solution
placesthis
boundaryat infinity.Secondly,executionof the
numerical
solutionwithcouplingenabled
showsthat,
while the analyticalsolutionoverestimates
R by
roughly10%of r, at smallto intermediate
times,it
agrees
verywellat largetimes.Mostimportantly,
it
estimates
the time requiredto approachRT with
virtuallyno error.
Use of the extended numerical procedure to

compareresultswhere kv/keis finite with the

describedsolution(kv/ke=oo)shows that the
approximate
solutionaccuracyis very good for

andthe NSERC for fundingthis work. We would

also like to thank Yarlong Wang for helpful
discussions
and John Spray for reviewing the
manuscript.

NOMENCLATURE

peakandresidual
cohesion.
Young'smodulus.
(elasticandyieldedrock).
,, q,,,p) permeability
Me,Mp Elasticandyieldedrockporepressure
penetration
parameters.

1057

Cp, Cr
E

n, np

elasticandyieldedrockporosity.
peakandresidualstrength
parameters,

N,,= [l+sin()]/[1-sin(x)].
(in elasticandyielded
p, (p,,pp) porepressure,
rock).
w, o
bottomhole
andnativeporepressure.
r

152.

Kennedy,
T.C. andLindberg,
H.E. 1978.Modeltests
for plasticresponse
of linedtunnels.
ASCEJ. Eng.

radial coordinate.

R, (R,,R) yieldedradius,(initialandfinal).
r,, ro
wellboreandouterdrainage
radii.
rockstrength
Sp,S, peakandresidualapparent
parameters,
S= -2cos(,).cJ[1-sin()].
t, (ts) time,(timeto reach
Biot'sporoelastic
parameter.
poroplastic
parameter.
porousmatrix,mineralgrainandpore
watercompressibility.
volumetric and axial strain.

O'H

Jouniaux,S.L., Lallement,S. & Pozzi, J.-P. 1994.

Changesin the permeability,
streamingpotential
and resistivityof a claystonefrom the Nankai
prismunderstress.Geophys.Res Lett. 21: 149-

Mech. Div. 104: 399-420.

Ladanyi,B. 1974. Use of the long-termstrength

concept
in thedetermination
of groundpressure
on

tunnellinings.
Proc.3raInt. Congress
on Rock
Mechanics: 1150-1156.

McLellan,P.J. & Wang, Y. 1994. Predictingthe

effectsof pore pressurepenetrationon the extent

of wellboreinstability:
Applicationof a versatile
poro-elastoplasticmodel. Proc. SPE/ISRM
Eurock'94: 205-214. Rotterdam: Balkema.

peakandresidualfrictionangle.
poroelastic
constant,
= (1-2v)a/J2(1-v)].
mudtiltrateviscosity.

Mody, F.K. & Hale, A.H. 1993. Borehole-stability

modelto couplethe mechanics
and chemistry
of
drilling-fluid/shale
interactions.JTP 45: 1093-

Poisson's ratio.
in situ stressesnormal to wellbore axis.

Papamichos,
E., Vardoulakis,
I. andSulem,J. 1994.

1101.

maximum
andminimum
principal
stress.

Generalized

continuum

models

for

borehole

stabilityanalysis.
Proc. SPE/ISRMEurock'94:3744. Rotterdam: Balkema.
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Effectsof rock-fluidinteractions
onthe petrofabric
and stress-strain behaviour of mudrocks. Proc.
Rice, J.R. and Cleary,M.P. 1976. Somebasicstress
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Balkema.

Eurock '94:

85-92.

Rotterdam:

Ballard, T.J., Beare, S.P. & Lawless, T.A. 1994.

Fundamentals

of

shale

stabilization:

Water

transportthroughshales.SPEFE 9: 129-134.
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elastic

porousmediawith compressible
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